Ch 7 Magnetic Field and Magnetic Forces

PC1432
Peter Ho
Department of Physics, NUS

Overview of middle section of PC1432

(a) Magnetostatics
A magnet can interact with other magnets through the magnetic field. An important
property of this magnetic field is given by Gauss's law for magnetic flux.
This magnetic field can interact with moving charges (i.e. electric currents) through the Lorentz
force equation.
An electric current produces a magnetic field through the BiotSavart law.
(b) Electrodynamics
A time-varying electric field induces a magnetic field through the Ampere's law.
A time-varying magnetic field induces an electric field through the Faraday's law.
We will study each of these in turn between Chapters 7 and 12.
(a) Magnetic field and force:
Lorentz force
exerts force on ...
moving charge or electric current
magnetic field
has a ...
BiotSavart law
(b) A time-varying ... field makes a ... field:
Faradays law
electric field
magnetic field
Amperes law

7.1 Magnetism

Permanent magnets

come in all shapes and sizes

Natural: Lodestone (Fe oxides) Magnets
source: http://www.unitednuclear.com/magnets.htm
source: wikipedia

Fridge magnets

source:
http://www.xionghaimagnets.com/

A freely suspended bar magnet aligns to the N-S

direction. The end that points to the Earth's magnetic
north pole is called the north pole; the other end that
points to the Earth's magnetic south pole is called the
south pole. Opposite poles attract; like poles repel.
However unlike electric charges, the north and
south poles of the magnet cannot be separated. So
far, isolated north and south magnetic monopoles
have not been found.
Qn: What happens if you keeping smashing up a magnet: can you get to the monopole?

N
S

7.2 Magnetic field

A magnet creates a magnetic field in space, which we denote by the symbol B . This field exerts
a magnetic force F on other magnets.

One way to represent a vector field is

by using a set of vectors in space:

button magnet

The magnetic field is a vector field (recall: the electric field is also a vector field). The field is
described at every point in space by a magnitude and a direction.

The direction of this B field is the direction that the north pole of a "test compass" points at that
location. This is the same as the direction of the magnetic force on a hypothetical north monopole.
Its magnitude is also called the magnetic flux density or the magnetic induction. Its unit is
tesla, abbreviated T (SI unit), or gauss G (cgs unit, 1G = 1x104 T).

What force does the magnetic field exert on a moving charge?

Experimentally, it was found that the magnetic force is given by

F = q v xB

scalar product vector product

Hence magnetic force on a charge element dq is given by dF = dq v xB
infinitesimal charge

(a) The direction and magnitude of this force

cross product
in general:

Right-hand rule gives the direction of the cross product:

let your
first (fore) finger point in the direction of the first vector v , let your
second (middle) finger point in the direction of the second vectorB ,
then extend
thumb naturally to get the direction of the cross your
product, v xB

If q is positive, F is in the same direction as v xB , otherwise F
is in the opposite direction.

The cross-productv xB can also
be written explicitly as | v | | B | sin
, where is the angle between B and v .
The cross product also defines the right-hand cartesian axes: ixj = k

v xB

i is the unit vector in the x-direction, j is the unit vector in the y-direction, and k is the unit vector in the z-

direction

Another way of thinking about this: | v | | B | sin can be written as | v | (| B | sin ) ,
which is the product of "velocity"

and the "magnetic field component perpendicular to it"; it

can also be written as | B | (| v | sin ) ,
which is the product of "magnetic field" and the "velocity component perpendicular to it".

Therefore, if the charge is not moving, or if it is moving along the direction of B, the charge
does not experience a magnetic force.
Whose frame of reference?
This may seem very simple, until one realises that according to Newton, motion is relative, and so
whether the charge is stationary or moving (and at what speed) depends on one's frame of
reference. Therefore according to the equation, the existence and magnitude of the magnetic
force depends on the chosen frame of reference.
E.g., if you are moving together with the charge, the charge is at rest in your frame, and so there
should be no magnetic force on the charge. Is there a contradiction?
Whose frame of reference is correct - what is the force acting on the charge? This paradox was
solved in the early 1900s by Einstein's theory of special relativity: the notion that space and time
are not absolute, and so no contradiction exists. For our purpose, it is good enough to know that
the equation is always correct in whichever frame of reference in which the force and velocity is
measured.
6

(b) How large is 1 T?

1
In SI units, q is in coulombs (C), v is in metres per second (m s ), B is in teslas (T), and F
is in newtons (N). Therefore 1 N = 1 C m s1 T.
Rearrange the units, 1 T = 1 N (C s1 m)1 = 1 N (A m)1.
Also, in terms of the magnetic flux (Wb is webers, the SI unit for magnetic flux, more on
this later) density, 1 T = 1 Wb m2
Therefore you can think of 1 T as the magnetic field magnitude that produces a force of 1 N on an
electric charge of 1 C moving perpendicular to it at a speed of 1 m s1.
Earth's magnetic field (at the surface)
Ferrite magnet
Alnico magnet
Neodymium magnet (the most powerful magnet)
Superconducting electromagnet (the most powerful one)
Neutron stars magnetic field (on its surface)

104 T
0.15 T
0.15T
1.4 T
45 T
109 T

The Lorentz force

If both electric E and magnetic B fields are present, the total force on the moving electric charge is
simply the vector sum of both the electric force and the magnetic force, which together is called the
Lorentz force,

F = q (E + v xB )

electric force magnetic force

Example. Magnetic force on a moving proton

A beam of protons (q = 1.602 x 1019 C) moves at 3.0x105 m s1 through an uniform magnetic
field (2.0 T) directed along the +z-direction.
The velocity of the protons at a particular instant is in the xy-plane at an angle of +30 from the
+x-direction (anticlockwise, as viewed from the +z-direction):
(i) Compute the force on each proton.
(ii) Compute the acceleration.
(iii) Describe the subsequent motion of these protons.
Step 1. Identify the physics involved.
Step 2. Set up the cartesian axes.
Step 3. Sketch a diagram, and mark the fields and forces.
Step 4. Perform the computation/ integration.

(Intentionally left blank for the solution.)

10

7.3 Magnetic field lines and magnetic flux

Besides the vector representation, the magnetic field can also be
represented by field lines in space, just as the case of the electric
field.

The local direction of the B field is given by the direction of the field
line.

The local magnitude of the B field is given by the density of these

field lines (i.e., how closely spaced they are).

bar magnet

What can you tell from the appearance of the magnetic field lines?
Uniform magnetic field: indicated by a set of uniformly
spaced magnetic field lines all pointing in the same direction.
Non-uniform magnetic field: the region with a higher density of
lines has a higher magnetic field than one with lower density of lines.
If magnetic monopoles exist, the field lines will start from the N
monopole and end at the S monopole.
Since magnetic monopoles have not been found, the magnetic field lines must form continuous
unbroken loops. The location on the magnet where the field lines emerge into the outside world is
the magnetic N pole, and the location where the field lines return into the magnet is the magnetic
S pole.
11

(a) Magnetic flux through a surface

The magnetic flux element is defined as

d B = B dA

area element

The direction of the dA vector is perpendicular to the surface element.

Its magnitude is the area of that surface element. There are two possible

reference directions, or what I call two senses, to choose from: up or

dA
down; left or right; front or back. You can choose whichever sense you
like, but your results must be treated self-consistently.]

The dot product is a signed scalar quantity, which means its sense,
+ or , is related to your chosen reference direction.
Recall that
this is analogous to the definition of the electric flux,

d E = E dA

The dot product here can be written

explicitly as | B | | dA | cos
where is the angle between the B and the dA vectors.

One way of thinking about this: the amount of flux through an

area element is the product of that area and the magnetic field
component perpendicular to it.
The SI unit of B is therefore T m2, which is named the name
weber (Wb).

B dA

d B = B dA
is negative.

d B = B dA
is positive.

12

Once you know the magnetic flux through each area element, you can get the total magnetic flux
through the surface simply by summing over all its area elements. In calculus, this corresponds to
an integration
Thus the total magnetic flux through any specified surface is then given by the surface integral

B = d B = B dA
surface

surface

For a closed surface, by convention, the sense of dA is chosen to be the

direction away from the interior bounded by the surface. Thus a positive
value for the flux means there is a net flux coming out of the surface.

dA

dA

dA direction of surface normal

(b) Gauss's law for the magnetic flux

for a closed surface

Since we assume that magnetic monopoles do not exist, there cannot be a start or an end to
every field line, and so these field lines must form closed loops. Hence the closed surface
integral of the magnetic flux must equal zero.

d B = B dA = 0

surface

surface

closed surface integrals

13

Example. Magnetic flux calculations

A flat surface with area 3.0 cm2 is placed in a uniform magnetic field such that the angle between
the plane of the surface and the magnetic field is 30. The magnetic flux through this surface is
0.90 mWb (milliwebers, not meterwebers!).
(a) Compute the magnitude of the magnetic field. [Note: The angle between the plane and its
normal is of course 90, and so the angle between the normal and the magnetic field here is 60.]
(b) If the surface is now rotated such that the surface plane is parallel to the magnetic field lines,
what is the magnetic flux through the surface?

14

7.4 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

Magnetic force on a charge element dq is given by dF = dq v xB

By definition, an electric current is the flow of electric charges. The rate at which these charges
cross an area is given by I = dq v
speed of charges
d
Direction of the conventional
charge per unit length of wire

Multiply bothsides by d, and let us make this length element

into a vector d by assigning to it the direction of the current I,

we get dq v = I d
This assignment ensures
that if dq is positive, the direction of the
current is the same as v , but if dq is negative, the direction of the

current is opposite to v .

current and actual charge flow:

Thus the magnetic force on a current element is given by

dF = I d xB

length of the current element with direction

given by that of the conventional current

This shows that the direction of the magnetic force is determined by the direction of the conventional
current (i.e., the flow of hypothetical positive charges), irregardless of whether the actual current15
is
due to the flow of positive or of negative charges (or even of both).

Once you know the magnetic force on a length element, you can find the total magnetic force on the
conductor by the line integration

F = I d xB
line

This force acts on the moving charges, and tends to push

them to one side of the conductor. Since these charges
cannot escape from the conductor, the conductor must
push back the charges with same force, which means the
charges push against the conductor with this force
(Newton's actionreaction pair).

For a straight section of a conductor carrying current I in a uniform magnetic field, the
integration simplifies to:

F = I d xB = I xB
line

16

Example. Magnetic force on a conductor in a uniform magnetic field

(a) What is the magnetic force on this U-conductor (the U-part has radius R)?
I

Step 1. Identify the physics involved.

Step 2. Set up the cartesian axes.
Step 3. Sketch a diagram, and mark the fields and forces.
Step 4. Look for simplifying symmetry.
Step 5. Perform the computation/ integration.

17

(b) What is the magnetic force on this current loop (the loop has radius R) where the spacing
between the leads is negligible?

18

7.5 Force and torque on a magnetic dipole

A current loop is a magnetic
dipole. Each current element on the loop experiences a magnetic
force given by dF = I d xB . The forces on opposite segments of the loop are in opposite
directions. They further have the same magnitude if the magnetic field is uniform. Hence in a
uniform magnetic field, the net magnetic force on a current loop is zero.
However, since the two opposing forces do not act along the same line, their torques do not
cancel. Hence there is a net magnetic torque that tries to rotate the current loop.

This net magnetic torque is given by

= xB

where the magnetic dipole moment is given by

=IA

Here I is the conventional current, A is the area vector enclosed by the current loop, and its
sense is given by the right-hand screw rule: let the four fingers of the right
hand follow the
conventional current in the loop, then the thumb gives the direction of A and of .
19

 Orbiting and spinning electrons in atoms also have magnetic dipole moments. These
magnetic dipole moment lets the "current loop" interact with the magnetic field, and is the
origin of the magnetic properties of materials.
The magnetic potential energy of the magnetic dipole is then given by

U B = B

Recall: Electric potential energy UE = p E

UB

electric dipole moment electric field

90 180 270

Rule of thumb: magnetic dipole tries to

align with the external magnetic field
20

Summary
What you need to be able to do:
(a) Compute/ derive the Lorentz force on a moving electrical charge or electrical current.
(b) Compute the magnetic flux from given magnetic field.

21