RESEARCH PAPER ON GENDER INEQUALITY

I.

What is Gender Inequality

Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on

their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles as well as
biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences. Gender
systems are often dichotomous and hierarchical; gender binary systems may reflect the
inequalities that manifest in numerous dimensions of daily life. Gender inequality stems from
distinctions, whether empirically grounded or socially constructed.

Gender inequalities in relation to technology

One survey showed that men rate their technological skills in activities such as basic
computer functions and online participatory communication higher than women.
However, it should be noted that this study was a self-reporting study, where men
evaluate themselves on their own perceived capabilities. It thus is not data based on
actual ability, but merely perceived ability, as participants' ability was not assessed.
Additionally, this study is inevitably subject to the significant bias associated with selfreported data.
Gender inequality in relationships
Gender equality in relationships has been growing over the years but for the majority of
relationships, the power lies with the male. Even how men and women present themselves is
divided along gender lines. A study done by Szymanowicz and Furnham, looked at the cultural
stereotypes of intelligence in men and women, showing the gender inequality in selfpresentation. This study showed that females thought if they revealed their intelligence to a
potential partner, then it would diminish their chance with him. Men however would much more
readily discuss their own intelligence with a potential partner. Also, women are aware of
peoples negative reactions to IQ, so they limit its disclosure to only trusted friends. Females
would disclose IQ more often than men with the expectation that a true friend would respond in
a positive way. Intelligence continues to be viewed as a more masculine trait, than feminine trait.
The article suggested that men might think women with a high IQ would lack traits that were

desirable in a mate such as warmth, nurturance, sensitivity, or kindness. Another discovery was
that females thought that friends should be told about ones IQ more so than males. However,
males expressed doubts about the tests reliability and the importance of IQ in real life more so
than women. The inequality is highlighted when a couple starts to decide who is in charge of
family issues and who is primarily responsible for earning income. For example, in Londa
Schiebingers book, Has Feminism Changed Science? she claims that Married men with
families on average earn more money, live longer, and progress faster in their careers, while
for a working woman, a family is a liability, extra baggage threatening to drag down her
career. Furthermore, statistics had shown that only 17 percent of the women who are full
professors of engineering have children, while 82 percent of the men do. Women in a
relationship are continuously playing the role of assistant which is for the most part invisible.

What Causes Gender Inequality?

To explain gender inequality, sociologists turn to the surrounding systems that
affect all human behavior. Most theories highlight the institutional structures
that assign women and men different positions, different roles, and
consequently different behaviors.
A.

Materialist Theories

The most compelling explanations of gender inequality are materialist theories

that use cross-cultural data on the status of women and men. Materialist
theories explain gender inequality as an outcome of how women and men are
tied to the economic structure of society. Such theories stress control and
distribution of valued resources as crucial facts in producing stratification.
They point out that women's roles of mother and wife, although vital to the
well-being of society, are devalued and also deny women access to highly
valued public resources. They point out that gender stratification is greater
where women's work is directed inward to the family and men's work is
directed outward to trade and the marketplace (Eitzen, 2000:251).
When women do enter the labor markets, they often are concentrated in
lower-paying jobs. Women also enter the labor market later than men and
often have to leave periodically because of child care responsibilities.

Historically, women have had lower levels of education than men, but recently
this trend seems to have begun to reverse.

Loss due to gender inequality[edit]

As there is no country with perfect gender equality; all countries suffer some loss of
human development due to gender inequality. The difference in dimensions used in the
GII and HDI means that the GII is not interpreted as a loss of HDI, but has its own rank
and value separate from the HDI.[4] The GII is interpreted as a percentage and indicates
the percentage of potential human development lost due to gender inequality. The world
average GII score in 2011 was 0.492 which indicates a 49.2% loss in potential human
development due to gender inequality.[8] Due to the limitations of data and data quality
the 2010 Human Development Report calculated GII rankings of 138 countries for the
year 2008. The 2011 Human Development Report was able to calculate the GII rankings
of 146 countries for the reporting year 2011.[10]

Gender Inequality
The term gender inequality refers to the perceived or actual unequal treatment of
individuals based on their gender. Gender inequality arises out of cultural differences
ingender roles, which are socially constructed systems. While there are inherent biological
sex-based differences between men and women, gender inequality is a form
of social discrimination.
A significant amount of gender inequality occurs in the workplace, especially in the United
States, where women continue to make less than men for the same work. This form of
gender inequality causes income disparity, and frequently results in women, especially
single mothers attempting to raise families, being pushed into lower socioeconomic classes.
It was Freud who first theorized that individuals take on gender roles through identification
with either the mother or the father. Later theorists maintained that gender is a developed
characteristic from early childhood, as parents will interact with children differently, based
on the childs sex.
However, so-called traditional relationships and families maintain gender inequality
through a male-dominated power structure. Such basic household tasks such as childrearing and even cleaning are thought to lie solely under the purveyance of women, which is

a form of gender inequality, as either a man or a woman can equally accomplish these
tasks. Gender inequality leads towards attitudes of gender stereotyping.

Gender Equality
The term Gender Equality narrates the equal valuing of the different roles assumed by men and
women. The theme strives to overcome stereotype barriers and prejudices so both men and
women are capable of equally reaping benefits and contributing towards social, political, cultural
and economic developments within society. When men and women enjoy equality, the direct
outcome is an instant and stable growth in economy. The educated and healthy women in a
society are more supportive and accommodating towards their families and nations. (Lorber,
2005)
Although men and women are dissimilar physically, but it is the economic, political, social and
legal interpretation of such differences that ultimately lead to create inequality among them. In
social inequality, men and women typically have different responsibilities and roles in their daily
lives as well as work. It is anticipated that men seem to do much riskier and heavier work that is
generally located away from their home. Work done by men seems to have much higher status
as compared with women who have the major responsibility for child-care, elderly-care, preparing
and managing food for their families.

Gender equality signifies a society in which men and women enjoy the similar
opportunities, outcomes, obligations and rights in every sphere of life. Equality
between women and men exist only when both sexes are capable of sharing
mutually in the distribution of influence and power; have equal opportunities for
monetary freedom through formation of businesses or work; enjoy equal and easy
access to education and the prospects to develop own personal goals.
Inequality for Women
Women and men are not created equal. They each have their God given strengths, focused on
their responsibilities for procreation and family viability. Those differences are not easily
dismissed however those differences do not condone gender discrimination in society, and
certainly not in the workplace. (Malkin, 2005)

Women mostly have unequal access to health services and education, face glass ceiling at work
place. Social customs that force or encourage girls into early child bearing and teenage
marriages have dangerous and direct consequences for their health. There are much high levels
of brutality and violence against women almost in all nations around the world. This could be
among their families where it is treated a normal custom. Violence, in the span of armed conflict,
is used to humiliate the rivals and also to undermine resistance and morale.
Economic inequality is directly related to the monetary and financial conditions of women. More
than seventy percent of poor in the world are women, while the number of females living in
poverty has significantly and disproportionately increased as compared with men. Women also
have unequal access to major economic resources like credit, capital, land and labor. Restricted
opportunities for career advancement and employment are available for women. These
limitations restrict the capabilities of women to improve their monetary and economic scenario.
(Zinn, 2005)

Women are not represented appropriately at all levels of governments decision making in
community, but specifically at national and regional levels. The legal system in most of the
countries discriminates particularly against women in the fields of inheritance, family law, land
ownership, property, criminal law and citizenship. The prosecution of cases, in most of the
countries, involving violence against women is difficult and complex.
The discrimination specifically against girls and women- including economic discrimination,
gender-based violence, harmful conventional practices and reproductive health inequitiesremains the most persistent and pervasive form of inequality. Moreover, girls and women bear
extra hardship during, as well as, after conflict and different humanitarian emergencies.

Gender Equality- An Established Human Right

Women make up roughly half the human population but are relatively marginalized compared
with their male counterparts.
(http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/where/worldwide/gender/index_en.htm)

The gender equality has been accepted and acknowledged as human rights principles since the
adoption of charter of United Nations in 1945. Most of the international agreements such as the
Millennium Development Goals (2000) and the World Conference on Human Rights (1993) have
highlighted and stressed the grave need for nations to take appropriate actions against such
discriminatory practices.
Accomplishing the goal of gender equality requires both men and women to work jointly in
sorting and hunting for the solutions, in the particular ways that encourage and support mutual
trust and respect. The programs to ensure gender equality should address all types of violence
against women, including trafficking in girls and women, promoting positive role of women in
peace building and conflict scenarios. It should also be ensured that the issues of gender equality
are effectively incorporated into infrastructure and governance activities.
Gender equality is the foremost and primary human right. Women are equally entitled to live in
freedom as well as dignity form fear and from want. Empowering women is an effective tool for
reducing poverty and advancing development. Empowered women are in a better position for
contributing towards productivity and health of entire families as well as communities. They can
also support in improving prospects specifically for the future generation. (Kramer, 2004)
Despite many agreements at international level affirming the human rights of women and
ensuring the cause of gender equality, women are yet to be more likely, as compared with men,
to be malnourished, poor and illiterate. They generally have a low level of access then men to
property ownership, medical care, employment, credit and training. Their possibilities for being
politically active are less than men. Moreover they are far more exposed to the domestic
violence.
Empowering Women for Maintaining Gender Equality
The ability of women for controlling their fertility is entirely fundamental to the empowerment
and equality of women. When a woman is healthy she is more productive. When womens
productive rights- including the basic right to plan birth timing along with spacing and to make
critical decisions related to the coercion and reproduction- are protected and promoted, she has
autonomy to participate equally in the society. A vital aspect of supporting the idea of gender
equality is based on empowering women, with a prime focus on redressing and identifying power
imbalances as well as giving more autonomy to organize their lives. Women empowerment is in

fact critical not only to sustainable development but to the understanding of human rights for
everyone.
Society and Gender Equality
A prosperous and flourishing society means that women and men have equal opportunities for
realizing their human rights. Men and women contribute mutually towards fulfilling the
requirements of societal and cultural development. The societal and cultural development is
directly linked with the political, national and economic development. The men and women must
benefit equally in a society from the outcomes of that development. (Kramer, 2004)
However inequality severely restricts socio-economic development, specifically in the developing
countries, where most of the women are the major food producers, primary teachers, gathers fuel
and water, laborers and providers of health care in the informal economy. Sustainable
development in a society is reliant on the equal contributions made by men and women. As such
ensuring equal participation by women in the progress of their societies requires two major
elements; equal ability to contribute as well as equal opportunity to perform such activities. The
status of women in the major areas of society including education, health, decision making and
access to resources must be improved. Premeditated efforts should be made to ensure that
particularly women have a justifiable and equitable role towards shaping the societal growth.
Reducing gender inequalities implies benefits not only for women but also for men, children and
the elderly, and for the poor as well as the rich.
(http://www.thecommonwealth.org/files/174543/file/IPCPovertyInFocus13.pdf).
Despite many improvements in the status of women there are still many inequalities:
Two thirds of people in the world who cannot read are female.
Nearly seventy percent of the world's poorest people are female.
Women represent a growing proportion of people living with HIV/AIDS.
In only 16 countries in the world is women's representation in national parliaments above 25
percent.

 Women's contributions to the global economy are growing rapidly but their labor remains
undervalued and undercounted in national accounts.
An estimated one-quarter to one half of all women have suffered physical abuse.
(http://www.globaleducation.edna.edu.au/globaled/go/pid/517)

Feminist Theories of Gender

Inequality
The term gender inequality refers to the disparities that exist among
individuals based solely on their gender rather than objective
differences in skills, abilities, or other characteristics. Gender
inequalities may be obvious (e.g., not receiving the same pay for the
same job) or subtle (e.g., not being given the same subjective
opportunities for advancement).
Despite the strides taken to eradicate gender inequality over the
years, the fact is that it still remains. There are many feminist
perspectives of gender inequality, including that of liberal feminism,
socialist feminism, radical feminism, and multiracial feminism. Each
of these perspectives views the issue from a slightly different angle
and offers different insights into the problem in addition to different
solutions. However, gender equality is more than a quest for equal
pay for equal work. The social roles of females and males are often
far from "different but equal." Much more research is needed in
order to be able to understand the extent to which gender equality is
a good thing for society and how this can best be implemented.

In twenty-first century Western society, it is often difficult to think of

women as an oppressed minority group. After all, according to the
US Census Bureau current population survey of 2010, females
make up 50.8 percent of the total population of the United States: a
slim majority, indeed, but a majority nonetheless (Howden & Meyer,
2011). In addition, one can see women in virtually every job and
career throughout the levels of social stratification: women are no
longer relegated to the positions of wives, mothers, or secretaries,
but can and do become doctors, lawyers, and nuclear physicists, as
well as truck drivers, welders, and factory workers. Yet despite such
advances, women are significantly underrepresented in many
segments of twenty-first century society. For example, of the 535
members of the 113th Congress, only 98 of these were women in
April 2013 (Center for American Women in Politics, 2013). Although
women have achieved positions in other important national
leadership roles (e.g., Sandra Day O'Connor, Ruth Bader Ginsburg,
Sonia Soto-mayor, and Elena Kagan becoming members of the US
Supreme Court; Madeleine Albright, Hillary Clinton, and
Condoleezza Rice becoming Secretary of State), they still are
significantly underrepresented when compared to their majority
status in the population. Sociologically, a minority or a subordinate
group is defined by five basic properties:

Unequal treatment;
Common physical and cultural characteristics that distinguish
them from the dominant group;
Involuntary membership in the subordinate group;

Development of a sense of solidarity;

Intermarriage within the subgroup.

Women as a general classification fulfill virtually all of these
characteristics. Women today still receive unequal treatment when
compared to men.

First, in 2012, the median income for year-round male workers

was $50,955 as opposed to $39,977 for female workers (US
Census Bureau, 2012).

Second, women share obvious physical characteristics that

distinguished them from men as well as cultural characteristics that
also differentiate them from men (e.g., gender roles and
stereotypes).

Third, being a woman is a result of a fact of birth rather than of

voluntary membership in a class.

Fourth, although the fight for women's rights may have been
going on since time immemorial, contemporary feminism in many
ways has helped women to develop a greater feeling of solidarity.

Finally, although some women may intermarry within their

class, most marriages that take place are heterosexual unions and
many women believe that the institution of heterosexual marriage is
irrevocably linked with their subordinate position in society.

Gender Inequality

The term gender inequality refers to the disparities between women

and men based solely on their gender rather than objective
differences in skills, abilities, or other characteristics. These
inequalities may be obvious (e.g., not receiving the same pay for the
same job) or subtle (e.g., not being given the same subjective
opportunities for advancement).
There are many answers to the question of why gender inequality
exists. For example, the structural functionalist view of gender is that
it has a fixed role in society, with men filling instrumental roles and
women filling expressive roles. Conflict theorists, on the other hand,
view women as being disadvantaged by power inequities that
emanate from the social structure. Feminist theorists, however, take
exception to both these views of gender inequalities. For example,
one of the objections to the functionalist view is that it assumes that
such sexist arrangements are functional for society. Feminist
theorists differ with conflict theorists because the latter assume that
all inequalities stem from the same source.
It would seem that the feminist perspective would have much to say
about both gender in general and gender inequality in particular. In
general, feminism is an ideology that is opposed to gender
stratification and male dominance. Feminist beliefs and concomitant
actions are intended to help bring justice, fairness, and equity to all
people regardless of gender and aid in the development of a society
in which women and men are equal in all areas of life. In general,
feminists attempt to understand the nature of women in society in

order to bring about social change that will liberate women from
being oppressed and bring them parity with men.
Feminist Frameworks
Liberal Feminism

Feminism, however, is far from being a unified perspective, and

different feminists view gender inequalities as stemming from
different sources depending on their assumptions. Within feminism,
there are at least four distinct, major frameworks. Each of these
views the issue of gender inequality from a different perspective.
Liberal feminists, for example, posit that gender inequality has its
origins in historical traditions that have set up barriers to the
advancement of women. In addition, liberal feminism emphasizes
issues such as individual rights and equal opportunity as a basis for
social justice and reform. In addition, this framework assumes that
the socialization of women into gender roles contributes to the
inequality experienced by women in society. To bring about social
change and neutralize gender inequities, feminists advocate
removing barriers to the advancement of women within society and
developing policies to promote equal rights for women. The liberal
feminist framework has been the basis of many legal changes that
have been used to bring about greater equality for women within the
United States.
Socialist Feminism

A second major feminist perspective is socialist feminism. As with

socialist perspectives on other aspects of culture and society, the
socialist feminist perspective posits that women's oppression is a

result of capitalism. According to this perspective, women are a

cheap labor supply that is...
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Gender inequality is amongst us all in any given society. Although gender is not
as simple as may seem. Gender comes into play along with a number of different
aspects such as sex, gender and gender roles. Each of these aspects play a significant
part when speaking of the different social problems encountered by men and women.
Sex makes up the biological differences; of male or female. Gender is the socially
learned behaviors that are attached to the sexes (Henslin, p. 322), which create
Gender Roles.
Gender roles constitute the attitudes and behaviors that are expected of males
and females in a given culture of society. It is these gender roles that give the impact
of gender inequality amongst the male and the female sex.
Gender roles are not given at birth, as ones biological sex, they are to be learned
and taught amongst those surrounding one at an early age, and the society and culture
one lives in. Gender roles are mainly learned and taught by those who have raised
them, namely their family. Ones family has the biggest impact on how to perceive their
gender. This is because a family institution passes on values and beliefs that are taught
and learned to accept at an early age. Although it is not those who raise one whom are
to blame for gender inequality. Gender inequality begins during the history of how
evolution caused us to be segregated of the two groups of male and female. As an
outcome of these gender roles came the affect of gender inequalities, in Family
households and in the Workplace. As my research hopes to show, that I believe gender
inequalities are learned through ones family and are reflected in the workplace.

History of how evolution taught us to have Gender roles

The history of how we came to be starts in the early ages of the Homo erectus. It
is the age of evolution that we see significant changes in the male and female body. At
this age we see that the bodies of males and females differed slightly, due to bone
structures. Trends in the division of labor were established early in evolution and
became amplified with the emergence of the big brained Homo erectus. A bigger brain
necessitated a size increase in the birth canal and female pelvis. These and other
physical changes exaggerated sex differences in the division of labor relative to the
hunting vs. gathering stages (Joseph, p. 35). This era of the evolution of humans,
shows how the female is the nurturing, due to her birth canal and reproductive organs,
and the male is the hunter due to his difference of body from the female. So with the
assumption in mind that the female has the ability to reproduce, we assume that she is
the gatherer because of her lack of physical strength, and that the male is the hunter
due to his inability to reproduce, gives him more advantage of physical strength. In
these Hunter-Gatherer societies, pregnant women stayed permanently in certain areas
taking care of children, and collecting and preparing food. Men were in charge of
hunting and defense. Given the scarcities of resources in these societies it might have
been possible that the effects of biological difference were most extreme, determining
the sort of activities of men and women. A study conducted by R. Joseph Ph. D, found
that female primates produce more social and emotional vocalizations and engaged in
more tool use and gathering activities, whereas males tend to hunt and kill (Joseph, Ph.
D, p. 35). With this division of labor amongst those of the relative primate family,
which has the closest representation to humans, reflects how both male and female
grow to have their own set of roles, dating back to the time of Homo erectus hunter
gatherers.
Working with the aspect of growing roles, the mere fact that male and females
distinctively have their own set of roles, will reflect on their reproduction of children.
Gender role theories noted by leading sociologist and psychologist suggest, That an
individuals attention and behavior are guided by an internal motivation to confirm to
gender-biased sociocultural standards and stereotypes ( Halonen and Stantrock, p.
184). This occurs in children as young as one year of age, in which boys wear blue and
are offered masculine toys, and girls are dressed in pink, and are adorned with
feminine toys. Which is believed that aggressive behavior is socially accepted with
males, and a more passive approach is use with females. These roles of masculinity
and femininity are a factor of sex-role learning that begins during early childhood
(Davidson and Neale, p. 237). A survey conducted by the graduate students of the

sociology and gender class found that 70% of those surveyed listed their parents as a
primary source for learning about sex and gender. This concludes how there is no doubt
why male and female gender roles are learned at such an early age.
Gender Inequality in the Household
Since gender roles are learned at a young age, women and men find themselves
fitting into where they should be in a family institution. In a family women hold most of
the responsibility in keeping it together and the men are known to be the financial
breadwinners of the family. Women take the role of the mother, the nurturer, the
caretaker, the cook, the cleaner and the lover. This is an overwhelming amount of work
that she must take on, but in the long run the male takes the credit in his nature of
supporting the entire family. Since we have these expectations of women and men, we
underestimate the ability to try new things. For example, if a woman goes out to get a
job, she will be segregated against because of her gender. And it is also assumed that
men will not handle the household responsibilities as a woman. With this gender
inequality in the family life, men and women are treated differently beyond their home.
Women are out of the house doing her part of the shopping and men are out working
getting things done and getting paid for it. It is this aspect of getting paid for work that
is over looked in the female perspective. Women do not get paid to hold the
responsibility of the household; they receive the acknowledgment that she is doing
what is taught of her. This is a gender inequality that affects mainly the women. This
underestimation of women in the workforce, implies to society that she is out of place
and is treated so in such an institution.
Gender Inequality affect in the workplace
By reason of family impact on gender roles, gender inequality plays a big part in
the workplace. These problems are the lead factors that separate the males from the
females. Gender inequality is mainly noticed in the work place. These include sex
segregation, differences in authority, and inequalities in promotions and pay. According
to Reskin and Padavic, there are three dimensions involved in gender inequality: sexual
division of labor, devaluation of jobs labeled as women s jobs , and social construction
of gender on the job. Many factors contribute to the inequality experienced by men and
women, such as sex differences in preferences and productivity, cultural beliefs, men
efforts and employers actions.

Discrimination is tied in with gender inequality and is what causes problems in our
workforce. Career discrimination in women is seen in the discouragement of entering
certain fields of work, such as the sciences, mechanical, engineering, police and
administration fields (Schmolling et al. 33). The term women s work is often thought
less prestigious than jobs held by the opposite sex. This is a form of devaluation of
female s jobs. Women are hired into less desirable jobs and one a job becomes
associated with women, it is devaluated in the organizational context ( Tomaskovicdevey, p. 24). Segregation not only depresses the wages of women; it circumscribes
their goals, aspirations, and options (Stone p. 408). Many women tend to choose jobs
labeled as women jobs such as teachers, nurses, social workers, or librarians, in order
to succeed within their occupation. This puts down females in the workplace, due to the
gender roles learned. Women were grown to be the more feminine, and men as
masculine. Due to this assumption that men and women are of different spectrums, it
is believed that women cannot do what the men do and vice-versa, so acknowledgment
when one does cross over shows in the lack of credit one receives in trying to do the
unexpected. It is found and researched that with the same amount of educational
background, women hold less supervisor positions and receive lower pay for the same
job as men; further more, women are receiving a mere sixty-nine percent of what a
man makes at the same job, up to only 4.6 since 1955 (Lauer, p. 275). Furthermore,
promotions are variable by sex and class: men have more promotions than women and
more of them take place at the top of occupational hierarchies where women are less
well represented (Walby, p. 25). Traditionally, a woman s gender role in society is of a
homemaker; a man's gender role is that of the financial breadwinner. Due to that role
that is embedded into our society pertaining to males and female gender, women are
the largest minority, due to these gender inequalities in the work force.
By having this separation of the sexes through gender inequalities, we learn that
it is a social problem that should be resolved. Gender inequality is a social problem,
and guidelines that can be followed to begin an elimination of this social problem. First
of all there should be more child care center for working mothers, to help enable
mothers to work and have their children taken care of at the same time. Secondly,
establish family leaves laws, so a mother is not threatened with the fact of being
accused of child neglect or endangerment. Thirdly, there must be changes in education
so that women and men are not socialized into subservient or dominant gender roles.
Fourthly, affirmative action programs should be established in the workforce, so that
government funds would be withheld from employers who do not comply with the
guidelines. Fifth, establish comparable work with comparable pay, equal pay for equal

work among men and women. Sixth, sexual harassment laws need to be enforced so
that men are not dominating women because of their power. Finally, equal employment
opportunities should be administered throughout the states to guarantee equal
education and equal economic fairness among the different sexes.
Although these guidelines are farfetched, it gives society a foundation to start on
the equalization of gender inequality. Since women tend to be the largest minority
regarding gender equalities in the workforce as well as in the households, gender
inequality will always be a social problem. It is a social problem that has changed
somewhat in the past years, through women having some gain, there continues to be
great gaps in equality in the workplace and in family institutions. Until these gaps are
bridged, equal pay, promotionability, and recognition for equal work will remain a
roadblock for most career-oriented women in society.

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