SR 4.

March 1, 2016

TOPIC: Vitamins and Minerals

LECTURER: Group 6

VITAMINS
Vitamin
General
information
A

Sources

Function

Absorption and Metabolism

Storage

Deficiency

Toxicity

Carotenoids
and Retinoids

Growth and development

Epithelial integrity and immunity
Vision

Absorbed only when there is

normal fat absorption

Fat-storing cells of
the liver adipocytes,
stellate cells, or Ito
cells

-most
preventable
cause of blindness
-mild deficiency:
lost of sensitivity to
light
-increased
susceptibility
to
infectious disease
-Xerophthalmia

unbound vitamin A
causes tissue
damage

Can be both a
hormone and a
vitamin

-Ergocalciferol
(vitamin D2),
found in plants
-cholecalciferol
(vitamin D3),
found in
animal tissues

-Essential in the maintenance of

calcium balance
- Plays a role in the regulation of
gene
expression
and
cell
differentiation

-osteomalacia
-rickets

Hypercalcemia
calcinosis

fat soluble
compounds with
anti-oxidant
activities that
protects body
tissue from
damage caused
by free radicals

Tocopherols,
tocotrienol

antioxidant

-hemolytic anemia in
infants

the least toxic of the

fat-soluble vitamins

Vitamin K1
Phyloquinone
abundant in
vegetable oils
(safflower and
soy), green
leafy

For coagulation

Hemophilia and other

bleeding disorders

Uncommon in
adults

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

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B1

Thiamin

B2

Riboflavin

B3

Is not strictly a
vitamin since this
can be
synthesized by
the body from
Trp
Niacin

B5

Derivatives that
exhibit biological
activity of
nicotinamide
Pantothenic acid

B6

Pyridoxine,
pyridoxamine,
pyridoxal, and
their 5phosphates

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

vegetables,
alfafa, fish oil,
seaweed, egg
yolk and bran
from wheat
flour
Vitamin K2
Menaquinone
synthesized
by bacteria of
genus
Lactobacillus
Vitamin K3
Menadione
Synthetic, for
theraphy
Whole grains,
cereals and
beans

Central role in energy-yielding

metabolism

Absorbed primarily in jejunum

and ileum; in its free form in
intestinal lumen

Bound to proteins
and 80% in
pyrophosphate form

Cereal, nuts,
milk, eggs,
green leafy
vegetables,
meat

Provides the reactive moieties of

the coenzymes FMN and FAD

FMN and FAD released by

gastric acid;

Little to no storage

Dairy, poultry,
fish, lean
meat, eggs
and nuts

NAD and NADPH as hydride ion

acceptor; oxidation of CHO

Absorbed in stomach and

intestine

Meat, broccoli
and avocados

As coA:
Combines with oxaloacetate to
form citric acid
+choline = Ach
Cholesterol precursor

Meats, whole
grains,
vegetables,
nuts, bananas

Beriberi (chronic
peripheral neuritis);
shoshin beriberi
(heart failure &
metabolic
abnormalities
Ariboflavinosis
(cheilosis, angular
stomatitis, glossitis)

Considered low

Tissue concentration
regulated by
extracellular
nicotinamide

Pellagra

Toxic in excess =
niacin flush

Must be converted to free

pantothenic acid:

Not stored and must

be replenished

Unlikely

Cofactor for glycogen

phosphorylase

coA & ACP ->

4phosphopantetheine ->
pantetheine -> (pantetheinase) > free pantothenic acid
(absorbed via Na+-dependent
active transport system)
Absorbed in the jejunum and
ileum via passive diffusion

Rare, if present,
shows as:
Impaired energy
production

10% in Liver
80% in Muscle

Rare

Pain and numbness

of extremities

Coenzyme is amino acid

metabolism
Transamination

Phosphorylated forms must be

dephosphorylate first by alkaline
phosphatase

Considered low

Sensory neuropathy

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-

Active form is
pyridoxal 5phosphate (PLP)

Trans-sulfuration (Met
Cys)
Selenoamino acid
metabolism
Trp niacin

Neurotransmitter synthesis
5TH
Dopamine
Epi/Norepinephrine
GABA

B7

Biotin
Composed of:
*Ureido
(tetrahydroimidiz
alone) ring
*Tetrahydrothiop
hene ring
*Valeric acid
Made from
alanine and
pimeloyl-CoA

B9

Mostly found in
food as biocytin
&Active form is
carboxybiotin
Folic acid
Active form is
Tetrahydrofolate
(THF)

B12

Cobalamin
The active forms
are
methylcobalamin
,
deoxyadenosylco
balamin

MINERALS
Na
- A soft, light,
extremely
malleable
silver-white
alkali metal

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

Egg yolk, beef

liver, yeast

Hgb synthesis
Coenzyme for ALA
synthase
Carboxylation reactions

Absorbed in the intestine and

excess is excreted in the urine

None

Rare
At risk:
*Infants with
inherited deficiency
disorders
*Those fed
intravenously
*Those who eat large
amounts of raw egg
whites (avidin)
*Symptoms may
include dermatitis,
glossitis, loss of
appetite and nausea

None

Rapidly absorbed from the

proximal part of the GIT

None

Megaloblastic
Anemia
Neural tube defects

None

None

Pernicious Anemia
Dementia
Spinal Degeneration

None

- ECF
- Bones
- ICF

HYPONATREMIA
- <135mEq/L
- Excess fluid in the
body relative to a

HYPERNATREMIA
- >145 mEq/L;
state of
hyperosmolality.

Regulation of cell cycle

Synthesized
by intestinal
flora

Strengthening hair and nails;

found in cosmetic products
Important for normal embryonic
growth

Leafy
vegetables,
legumes, egg
yolk, sunflower
seeds, liver

Transfer one-carbon units

Only found in
foods of
animal origin
(meat, dairy,
seafood)

Coenzyme for reactions:

Homocysteine methionine

- Controls the concentration of

intracellular and extracellular
H2O
- Maintaining fluid balance of
the body

seafood,
milk,
eggs,
common
table salt,

Synthesis of methionine,
purines, and thymidine
monophosphate (TMP)

Once absorbed is acted upon by

hepatic dihydrofolate reductase
to convert it to THF
Absorbed bound to intrinsic
factor

Methylmalonyl CoA succinyl

CoA

DIGESTIVE TRACT
- active Na+ transport - ATP
hydrolysis of ATP (N+/K+
ATPase)

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- It reacts
violently with
water
- Most abundant
cation
- Major ECF
cation

- A soft, silverwhite, highly or

explosively
reactive
metallic
element
- Decomposes
in water with
the evolution
of hydrogen
and catches
fire
spontaneously
- Major ICF
cation

Ca

- a fairly soft
metal with a
shiny silver
surface but
quickly
becomes dull
as calcium
reacts with
oxygen to form
a coating of
white or gray
calcium oxide

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

- Nerve impulse conduction

- Absorption of some nutrients
- Regulates blood pressure

- Na-K pump maintains

electrochemical gradient for
Na+ entry from the lumen
- Passive transport of Na+ through the lateral spaces and
tight junctions; largely
paracellular (active transport is
transcellular)
KIDNEY
- Proximal tubule: 80% of the
sodium in the glomerular filtrate
is reabsorbed
- via SGLT 2 in PCT, SGLT1
in PST, Na-H antiporter and
Na-K pump

- bananas,
- citrus juices
(orange
juice),
- avocado,
- cantaloupe,
- tomato,
- potato,
- lima beans,
- salmon,
- chicken,
- other meats

- water balance
- nerve impulse transmission
and muscle contraction
- The ratio of intracellular to
extracellular potassium (KI:Ke)
- major determinant of the
resting membrane potential
and plays a crucial role in the
normal functioning of all cells.
- acts as a blood buffer and
helps lower high blood
pressure

INTESTINAL MUCOSA
- well absorbed from the small
intestine (90% absorption)
- jejunum and ileum: occurs
along the electrochemical
gradient; passive
- diffuses through the lateral
spaces and tight junctions.
- Colon: usually secreted
- absorption will take when
the luminal concentration is
above 25 mEq/L.
- Potassium deficiency poses
higher

- abundant in
milk and
dairy
products,
- leafy
greens,
- broccoli,
- salmon,
- sardines,
- legumes

- Essential for neuromuscular

function
- Secretion of enzymes and
hormones and blood clotting
- Transmission of nerve
impulses
- Cell structure
- Development of bones and
teeth

- Absorbed by active transport

(transcellularly) and by
passive diffusion
(paracellularly) across the
intestinal mucosa
- Active transport of calcium is
dependent on the action of
calcitriol and the intestinal
vitamin D receptor (VDR)
mostly in duodenum at low
and moderate intake levels.
- Passive diffusion or
paracellular uptake is
dependent on luminal serosal
electrochemical gradients at
higher calcium intakes (i.e.,
when luminal concentrations
are high) throughout the

abundant in
most food
except fruits

normal amount of
sodium or loss

- >155 mEq/L - lifethreatening.

- Result of either a
loss of free water
or a gain of
sodium or a
combination of
both.
- Symptoms
include anorexia,
restlessness,
nausea, and
vomiting

- ICF

HYPOKALEMIA
- <3.5 mEq/L
(asymptomatic)
- weakness and
fatigue, muscle
cramps and pain,
diabetes control or
polyuria,
palpitations, and
psychological

HYPERKALEMIA
- >5.5 mmol/L
(asymptomatic)
- Nonspecific
symptoms
- Mostly related to
muscular or
cardiac function.
- Include weakness
and fatigue,
muscle paralysis,
dyspnea,
palpitations, chest
pain, nausea or
vomiting,
paresthesias.

- Bone
- Teeth
- ICF

HYPOCALCEMIA
defined by plasma
calcium level less
than 2.2 mmol/L
increased
neuromuscular
excitability
muscle spasms,
tetany, and cardiac
dysfunction
Osteoporosis
Osteomalacia
Ricketts
Retarded growth &
poor bone & teeth
formation

HYPERCALCEMIA
defined as plasma
calcium level
greater than 2.6
mmol/L
diffuse
precipitation of
calcium
phosphate in
tissues, leading to
widespread organ
dysfunction and
damage

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Cl

- A highly
irritating,
greenishyellow
gaseous
halogen,
capable of
combining with
nearly all other
elements
It is produced
principally by
electrolysis of
sodium
chloride
(common salt)

- table salt
- seaweed,
- rye,
- tomatoes,
- celery
- olives
- yeast
extracts
- processed
lunchmeats
- cheeses

- Maintenance of cellular
integrity:
- influence on osmotic
pressure
- influence on acid-base and
water balance
- reciprocal power of / in
concentration in response in
concentrations of other
anions.
- Combines with H2 in the
stomach to make HCl acid for
- breakdown of proteins
- absorption of other metallic
minerals
- activation of intrinsic factor
which in turn
- absorbs vitamin B12
- Governs pH balance and
transport of CO2
- constant exchange of Cl and
HCO3 between RBCs and
the plasma.
- Aid in the transport of
electrical impulses throughout
the body together with Na and
K

- important
component in
whole blood;
they constitute
phospholipids
of red blood
cells and
plasma
lipoproteins.

- Meats,
- fish,
- chicken,
- milk,
- cheese,
- eggs,
- seeds and
nuts,
- fruits

- Participates in mitochondrial
activity, RNA, DNA, and various
nucleotides.
- An element in secondary
messengers such as camp and
phosphoinositide.
- Promotes oxygen release and
provides energy bond in ATP
and creatine kinase.

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

length of the intestine

(duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum)
INTESTINAL MUCOSA
- The mechanism of transport of
chloride in the jejunum & ileum
is the same as that of sodium.
KIDNEY
- Proximal tubule
- Early paracellular
- Late - transcellular :
Exchange of luminal Cl for
cellular anions (e.g., formate,
oxalate, HCO3, and OH),
mediated by CFEX
(SLC26A6).
- Basolateral exit step - Cl
channel CFTR (in part) and
cotransporter (KCC)
- TAL
- All Cl reabsorption is
transcellular.
- Apical NKCC
- Basolateral- Cl channels of
the ClC family
- Distal Convoluted Tubule
- Somewhat similar to that in
the TAL, except the apical
step occurs through the
NCC.
- Initial Cortical tubule and CCT
- Principal cell generates a
transepithelial voltage (~40
mV, lumen negative) that is
favorable for paracellular
diffusion of Cl.
- -type intercalated cells
use transcellular process that
involves Cl-HCO3 exchange
across the apical membranes
and Cl channels in the
basolateral membrane
- Dietary phosphate is absorbed
via passive diffusion in a
paracellular pathway; it is
driven by luminal phosphate
concentration.
Gastrointestinal tract:
- absorbs 75% to 80% of
ingested phosphate and
excretes in the feces 20-25%.

- ECF
- ICF

HYPOCHLOREMIA

HYPERCHLOREMIA

- defined by serum
chloride level less
than 102 mmol/L
- Rare (chloride is
part of table salt
present in most
foods)
- loss of appetite,
muscle weakness,
lethargy,
dehydration,
alkalosis

abnormal
elevation in the
level of chloride
ions in the
bloodstream
(normal range in
serum = 102
109 mEq/L)
Normally not a
concern as
excess chloride is
excreted by the
body
>15 g/day: may
lead to acid-base
imbalance, fluid
retention, high BP

- Bones
- Soft Tissue
- ECF

Hypophosphatemia

Hyperphosphatemia

- less than 2.5 mg/dL,

(symptomatic: less
than 1 mg/dL)
- Muscle weakness
and malaise
- Associated immune
deficiency
(deficienct

- >5.0mg/dL
(asymptomatic)
- The most common
risk: ectopic or
metastatic
calcification if the
product of the

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Mg

- Intracellularly,
phosphate ion:
- Bound
- inorganic
phosphate
esters,
phospholipids
in cell
membranes, or
phosphorylate
d intermediate
molecules
which are
involved in
different
biochemical
processes
such as
energy
generation,
storage, and
transfer.

- vegetables

- Functions in urinary buffer and

protein phosphorylation

- Major site is in jejunum followed

by duodenum and ileum
- Administration of 1,25(OH)2D3
significantly stimulates
phosphate absorption in
patients with vitamin D
deficiency or chronic renal
failure with low level of
1,25(OH)2D3. (normally, jejuna
absorption not Vit D dependent)
Kidneys
- primary excreted by kidneys
- freely filtered at glomerulus thus
glomerular ultrafiltrate has the
same phosphate concentration
in the plasma

- Light, silverywhite,
moderately
hard metallic
element
- Fourth most
common
cation in the
body

- Vegetables
- fruits,
- nuts,
- peas and
beans,
- soy products,
- whole grains
- milk

- Cofactor of hundreds of
enzymes involved in
- energy metabolism
- protein, RNA and DNA
synthesis
- maintenance of the electrical
potential
- Synthesis of biomolecules
- Maintain bone structure
- Detoxification
- Interacts with calcium
- regulation of blood vessels
- contraction of muscles (e.g.,
heart muscle)
- calcium balance
- Act on hormones which control
the absorption and calcium
metabolism
- Interacts with the calcium
transport mechanisms at the
cellular level
- Maintenance of membrane
electrical potential
- Transport of Na, K and Ca
across the plasma membrane
- Transmission of nerve impulses
- Better entry of insulin into the
cell

- Both dietary sources and

digestive secretions
- In the kidneys, magnesium
reabsorption occurs mainly
across the TAL (unlike the
predominant proximal
reabsorption pattern of the
major components of the
glomerular filtrate).
- Only ~15% of the filtered
magnesium load is
reabsorbed by the proximal
tubule via passive,
paracellular Mg2+
reabsorption and also by
solvent drag.
- The lumen-positive voltage of
the TAL as well as a specific
tight junction protein called
claudin 16 or paracellin-1 is
necessary for paracellular
Mg2+ reabsorption.
- Trancellular route of Mg2+
reabsorption may take place
during Mg2+ depletion.
- Only ~10% of the filtered load
of Mg2+ is reabsorbed along

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

- Bones
- Muscle
- Blood

phosphorus limits
the chemotactic,
phagocytic, and
bactericidal activity
of granulocytes.)
- Neurologic
manifestations
include delirium,
coma, seizures,
encephalopathy,
and paresthesias.
- Rickets and
osteomalacia are
common caused by
deficient phosphate.
- Fanconis
syndrome is one of
the most common
congenital
hypophosphatemia;
it is renal phosphate
wasting due to
excess PTH
Hypomagnesemia
defined by a serum
Mg concentration <
1.4 mEq/L (< 0.70
mmol/L)
Cardiovascular
disease
Diabetes
Osteoporosis.
Migraines.
Asthma..
Kidney stones.

serum calcium and

phosphorus > 70.
- Calcification can
occur in any organ,
usually in the
cornea,
conjunctiva, lungs,
and skin.
- Vascular
calcification can
produce gangrene
as well as deposits
in the cardiac
conducting system

Hypermagnesemia
defined by a
serum Mg
concentration
greater than 2.1
mEq/L (or 1.05
mmol/L).
renal failure

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the DCT and collecting tubules
and ducts.
S

- Solid
- Pale, yellow,
non-metallic,
brittle element;
widely
distributed in
close proximity
to hot springs
and volcanoes
- Found in many
minerals and
ores

- meat,
- poultry,
- fish
- eggs,
- legumes,
- dairy
products,
- fruits,
- vegetables

- Part of keratin, found in hair

and skin
- Important in formation of
collagen, maintenance of acidbase balance, and cellular
respiration

- Absorbed throughout the GI

tract (including stomach, SI,
and colon
- ~80 SO4 eaten is absorbed;
excess urine

- Skin
- Hair
- Nails

Fe

-Found in
hemoproteins
such as
haemoglobin,
myoglobin and
cytochromes

-Animal meat
(called heme
Iron)

-Redox chemistry between Fe2+

and Fe3+

-Ferrireductase: Fe3+ Fe2+

in enterocyte surface

-Ferritin: storage of
iron in body

-Carrier of other biochemically

active substances (e.g., oxygen)

-DMT1: Transport of Fe2+ from

lumen to cytoplasm of
enterocyte

-Hemosiderin:
partly degraded form
of ferritin

-Additional
excretion in
females include
menstruation
period

-Plant sources
(non-heme
Iron)

- Excess sulphur in
body due to
impaired ability to
oxidize and
detoxify sulphur
compounds; i.e.
inability to safely
process sulfadrugs
- Build-up in body
of excess sulphur
compounds can
be uncomfortable
and even life
threatening
-Iron deficiency
anemia: inadequate
intake, inadequate
utilization, or
excessive loss of
Iron

-Ferroportin: transports Fe2+ to

blood in basolateral surface

-Animal meat
can be easily
absorbed by
body

-hepatomegaly, skin
pigmentation (slate
blue color), diabetes
mellitus, heart
disease,
arthropathy, and
hypogonadism

-Hepcidin: Imhibits ferroportin

-Hemojuvelin: modulates
expression of hepcidin
-Ceruloplasmin and
Hephaestin: oxidizes Fe2+
Fe3+ on basolateral surface

-Production of
reactive oxygen
species through
Fenton Reaction:
Fe(II) + H2O2
Fe(III) + OH- + OH
and
Fe(III) + H2O2
Fe(II) + OOH + H+

- Transferrin: transports Fe3+ in

blood

Cu

-Seafoods
(oysters)

-Metal cofactor for a variety of

enzymes

-Mushrooms

-Cellular respiration (cytochrome

c oxidase)

-Seeds

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

-Ceruloplasmin (high affinity):

Binds 6 atoms of Cu2+; 90% of
total copper
-Albumin (low affinity): carries
the remaining copper; more

-Hemochromatosis:
hereditary
(increased
absorption),
excessive intake

-Mettalo-thioenins:
high content of
Cysteine; SH groups
in cysteine bind
copper and zinc

-Result of
malnutrition,
malabsorption,
chronic diarrhea,
hyper-alimentation,
and low-copper total
milk diets

-Wilsons Disease:
copper is not
excreted in bile;
accumulates in liver,
brain, kidneys and
RBCs

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-Nuts

-Iron homeostasis
(ceruloplasmin)

important in copper transport

than ceruloplasmin

-Menkes Disease:
X-linked, males only

-Beans

-frequent clinical
finding: KeyserFleischer ring

-Melanin formation (tyrosinase)

-Dried fruits
-Avocadoes

-characterized by
kinky or steely hair
and growth
retardation

-Synthesis of connective tissue

(lysyl oxidase)
-Protection against oxidants
(superoxide dismutase)

Zn

-It serves as a
cofactor for more
than 300
enzymes
-Most common
catalytic metal
ion in the
cytoplasm of
cells
-Found in
muscles (60%),
skeleton (30%),
and the
remaining in
other tissues

Se

-The principle
chemical form of
selenium:
selenocysteine
-animal
tissues

selenomethioni
ne
-plant food

-Ubiquitous in
food

-Synthsis and metabolism of

DNA, RNA, and proteins

-Oysters are
rich in zinc

-Participates in glycolysis and

cholesterol metabolism

-Shellfish

-Maintains membrane structures

-Meats

-Important for synthesis and

action of insulin

-Plants have
less
concentrations

-Intraluminal digestion frees zinc

so that complexes with histidine,
cysteine, and nucleotides that
improve absorption are formed

-Muscles and bones

contains most of the
bodys zinc stores
-Zinc in metallothioneins can also
be mobilized in
deficiency states

-Growth retardation,
slows skeletal
maturation, causes
testicular atrophy,
and reduced taste
perception
-Old age, pregnancy,
and lactation are
associated with poor
zinc nutrition

-Phytate reduces absorption

- Acro-dermatitis
enteropathica:
autosomal recessive
disorder with
impaired intestinal
absorption and
transport of zinc

-High dietary calcium and low

protein also reduce zinc
absorption

-Phytate from
whole grains
and some
vegetables
interferes with
zinc
absorption
(decreases)
-organ meats
such as
muscle

-Increased absorption: presence

of animal proteins and amino
acids in a meal, intake of
calcium, and unsaturated fatty
acids

-Metallothionein: regulates zinc

transfer into the portal blood

Antioxidant:
combined w/ vitamin E

-Albumin and
2macroglobulin: Zinc is
bound to these in the blood
-Duodenum is primary
absorptive site
-reduced to selenide before
being transported in the blood,
bound to - and -globulins to
various organs and target
tissues.
-incorporated into specific
selenoproteins, as
selenocysteine, and
nonspecifically, as
selenomethionine.
-Absorption is enhanced by :
protein, Vit. A, and Vit. E

-skeletal
muscle(major)
-RBC
- liver

-Keshan disease:
myocardial necrosis,
leading to weakening
of the heart.

-heart

-Kashin-Beck
disease: atrophy,
degeneration, and
necrosis of cartilage
tissue in the joints.

- nails

hypothyroidism

-tooth enamel

-goiter

-spleen

-extreme fatigue

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

-green or golden
pigmentation
around cornea of
eyes due to
deposition of Cu2+
in Descemets
membrane
-Zinc is relatively
non-toxic
-High doses and
repetitive doses
may lead to
disorders, especially
gastrointestinal tract
symptoms,
decrease in heme
synthesis due to an
induced copper
deficiency, and
hyperglycemia
-Exposure to ZnO
fumes and dust may
cause zinc fume
fever

Chronic:
First sign
=garlicky odor in
the breath, and a
metallic taste in the
mouth.
- nausea or diarrhea
-tiredness
-joint pain
- loss of mentation,
paresthesia,
hyperreflexia
- nail changes
resulting in
brittleness,
deformation and
loss of nails

Page 8 of 11

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-Absorption is decreased by
sulfur, arsenic, mercury, and
Vit. C

Co

-component of
vitamin B12

-meat
-liver
-kidneys
-milk
-oysters
- mussels
-fish
-shellfish

- to prevent demyelination

- completely absorbed in small

doses
-poorly absorbed in larger doses

-mental retardation

-liver
-kidney

-neurological
disorder
-nerve damages
-memory loss
-mood changes
-psychosis
-death(rare)

-amino acids reduce its

absorption
- iron deficiency increase
absorption

-smaller
amounts
mushroom
(shitake)

-decreased
availability of B12
=pernicious anemia

- excreted primarily in the urine,

but smaller quantities in feces

An essential
constituent of
two enzymes

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

Acute :
-gastrointestinal and
neurological
symptoms acute
-respiratory distress
syndrome
-myocardial
infarction
- hair loss
-muscle tenderness
-tremors
-lightheadedness facial flushing
- kidney failure,
-cardiac failure,
-death(rare)
(usually bcos of
entry of inorganic
form)
-Beer drinker's
cardiomyopathy
(enlarged heart)
-congestive heart
-can affect the
thyroid
-overproduction of
red blood cells

-In fruits &

vegetables,
usually there
is no cobalt
with the
exception of
legumes,
spinach,
cabbage,
lettuce,
turnips, and
cabbage.
Mo

-discoloration and
loss of teeth, and
skin rashes.

- thickened blood
-increase activity
in the bone
marrow

-a role in waste processing in

the kidneys

-In the presence of inorganic

sulfate, tends to reduce copper
absorption and retention.

-liver
-kidney

Rare, except when

there is a genetic
problem

-Gout-like
symptoms

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[TRANS NO., TOPIC:]

Cr

found in humans
namely:

- development of the nervous

system

xanthine
oxidase
-which is
involved in uric
acid formation for
excretion

-activation of enzymes that

are involved in breaking down
food to produce energy

aldehyde
oxidase
-which
catalyzes the
chemical
oxidation of
aldehydes
-Found primarily
in two forms:
trivalent
(chromium 3+)
-which is
biologically
active and found
in food
hexavalent
(chromium 6+)
-a toxic form
that results from
industrial
pollution.

-Meat

-regulates blood sugar

-whole-grain
product

-helps insulin transport

glucose into cells, where it
can be used for energy.

- some fruits
& vegetables
- foods high
in simple
sugars like
sucrose and
fructose are
low in
chromium

-Chromium can also help raise

HDL ("good") cholesterol
levels, and may play a role in
preventing heart disease

- copper and molybdenum form

an insoluble complex called
lingrenite, which cannot be
absorbed easily.

-bone

-Absorption of chromium from

the intestinal tract is low about
0.4% to 2.5% of the amount
consumed and the remainder is
excreted in the feces.

-liver

-Enhancing the mineral's

absorption are vitamin C, and
vitamin B niacin

-bone

-Dietary chromium has a low

absorption rate, which becomes
even lower with age, so the
elderly are especially at risk.

-skin

-spleen
-soft tissue

*Those whose diets

rely mainly on
processed or refined
*High sulfur intake
can also reduce
molybdenum levels.
*increased
respiratory or heart
rate
*night blindness
*mouth and gum
disorders
*sulfite sensitivity
* sexual impotence in
older males
-devt of diabetes
and metabolic
syndrome

-anemia(long term
ingestion)

-problems in blood
sugar metabolism

- intense
gastrointestinal
irritation or
ulceration and
corrosion

-anxiety or fatigue

-epigastric pain
-nausea
-vomiting
-diarrhea
-vertigo
-fever
-muscle cramps,
-renal failure
-liver damage

TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

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TRANSCRIBED BY: Group 6

Page 11 of 11