UNIT-IV

MODULE-I

SQUARENESS MEASUREMENT
Increasing demand for product reliability and efficiency has placed a
corresponding emphasis on the geometric integrity of components and their
assembly. in engineering applications one often come across the problems of
measurement of geometrical parameters such as alignment, straightness,
flatness, square ness etc.

1.1 SQUARENESS MEASUREMENT:

Angular measurement requires no absolute standards for measurement as a circle can be divided in to any
number of equal parts. And also there is a demand for the ability of an instrument to obtain the quality angular
measurement or checking. In number of cases checking of right angles is of prime importance while measuring and /
or checking geometrical parameters of the work. For example, the sliding member of height gauge (carrying the
scriber) must be square to the locating surfaces in order to avoid errors in measurement. Squareness measurement
determines the out-of-squareness of two normally orthogonal axes, by comparing their straightness values.
Squareness errors could be the result of poor installation, wear in machine guide ways, an accident that may have
caused damage, poor machine foundations or misaligned home position sensor on gantry machines. Squareness
errors can have a significant errors can have a significant effect on the positioning accuracy and contouring ability of
a machine.

Fig 1.1
1.2 STRAIGHTNESS MEASUREMENT:
A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the variation of the distance of the its points from two
planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the general direction of the line remains within the specified
tolerance limits; the reference planes being so chosen that their intersection is parallel to the straight line joining two
points suitably located on the line to be tested and the two points being close to the ends of the lengths to be
measured.
1.2.1 Test for straightness by using spirit level and auto-collimator:
Tests for straightness can be carried out by using spirit level or Auto-collimator. The straightness of any
surface could be determined by either of these instruments by measuring the relative angular positions of number of
adjacent sections of the surface to be tested. So first a straight line is drawn on the surface whose straightness is to
be tested. Then it it divided into a number of sections, the length of each section being equal to the length of spirit
level base or the plane reflectors base in case of auto-collimator. Generally the bases of the spirit level block or
reflector are fitted with two feet so that only feet have line contact with the surface and whole of the surface of base
does not touch the surface to be tested. This ensures that angular deviation obtained is between the specified two
points. In this case length of each section must be equal to distance between the center line of two feet. The spirit
level can be used only for the measurement of straightness of horizontal surfaces while auto-collimator method can
be used on surfaces in any plane. In case of spirit level, the block is moved along the line on the surface to be tested

Fig.1.2 Straightness testing

in steps equal to the pitch distance between the centre lines of the feet and the angular variations of the direction of
block are measured by the sensitive level on it. Angular variation can be correlated in terms of the difference of
height between two points by knowing the least count of level and length of base.
1.3 FLATNESS MEASUREMENT:
Like straightness testing, the simplest form of flatness testing is possible by comparing the surface with an
accurate surface. One of these surfaces is marked with Prussian blue and the other surface rubbed over it. The
distribution of colour over the other surface gives a rough idea of high and low points on the surface. This method is
usually suitable for small plates and not for large surfaces.
1.3.1 Procedure for determining flatness:
The procedure for determining flatness as follows:
1. Carryout the straightness test already described on all the lines AB,BC,Ac etc. and tabulate the readings upto the
cumulative error column.
2. Let a plane passing through the points A,B and D be assumed to be an arbitrary plane, relative to which the
heights of all other points may be determined. For it, the ends of lines AB,AD and BD are corrected to zero and thus
the height of points A,B and D are zero.
3. The height of point I is determined relative to the arbitrary plane ABD=000. As I is the mid-point of line Ac also
to coincide with the mid-point I on BD. In this way, all points on AC are corrected by amounts proportionate to the
movement of mid-point . A hint could be taken here that C is twice as far from A as the mid-point, the correction for
C will be double that of I.
4. Point C is now fixed relative to the arbitrary plane and points B and D are set at zero, all intermediate points on
BC and DC can be corrected accordingly.
5. The positions of H and G,e and F are known, so it is now possible to fit in lines HG and EF. This also provides a
check on previous evaluation since the mid-point of these lines should coincide with the known position of midpoint I.

Fig 1.3
In this way, the height of all the points on the surface relative to the arbitrary plane ABD are known.
The various points on the surface have been determined with reference to ABD as reference plane as described
previously. Two points on opposite sides having maximum positive and maximum negative values are selected and
joined together by a line XX. Let these Points shown in fig 1.4 be R and S. Draw a line YY parallel to XX to
represent the plane ABD as shown in fig 1.4.Set off to scale the height of all points relative to YY by taking
projections from all the points on the surface.

Fig 1 .4
In fig 1.4 projections from all points have not been shown for the sake of clarity. Next by inspection, draw a
closest pair of parallel lines ZZ and ZZ , which will contain all of the points. It may be noted that one line will have

two points on it, and the other line, one point only. the distance between these two lines is a measure of the error in
flatness. Although it is not exact value but for practical purpose it gives sufficiently accurate results.
1.4 ROUNDNESS MEASUREMENT:
Often the roundness and circularity are used interchangeability. Roundness is defined as a condition of a
surface of revolution (like cylinder, cone or sphere) where all points of the surface intersected by any plane
perpendicular to a common axis in case of a cylinder and cone. Since the axis and centre do not exist physically,
measurements have to be made with reference to surfaces of the figures of revolution only.
1.4.1 Diametral method:
In this method, the measuring plungers are located 1800 apart and the diameter is measured at several
places. This method is suitable only when the specimen is elliptical or has an even number of lobes. Diametral check
does not necessarily disclose effective size or roundness. This method is unreliable in determining roundness.
1.4.2 Circumferential Confining Gauge:

Fig 1.5
Fig 1.5 shows the principle of this method. It is useful for inspection of roundness in production. However,
this method requires a separate highly accurate master for each size part to be measured. The clearance between part
and gauge is critical to reliability. This technique does not allow for the measurement of other related geometric
characteristics, such as concentricity, flatness of shoulders, etc. The values obtained are dependent on the shape of
the specimen.

1.4.3 Rotating on Centers:

Some parts may be inspected for roundness while mounted on centers. In this case, reliability is dependent
on many factors like angles of centers, alignment of centers, roundness and surface condition of the centers and
center holes, and run out of piece. Out-of-straightness of the part will cause a doubling run out effect and appear to
be roundness error.

Fig. 1.6

1.5 SLIP GAUGES:

Slip gauges or gauge blocks are the universally accepted standards of length in industry they are the
working standards of linear dimension. They are used for two main purposes:
a) for direct precise measurement where the accuracy of the work-piece demands it.
b) for use with high-magnification comparators, to establish the size of the gauge blocks in general use.
Gauge blocks are also used for many other purposes such as checking the accuracy of a measuring instrument or
setting up a comparator to a specific dimension, enabling a batch of components to be quickly and accurately
checked or indeed in any situation where there is a need to refer to a standard of known length.
The sets shown are 1 mm based sets and are known as normal and special sets.
Set M45 (Normal test)
Range (mm)
steps (mm)
No. of blocks
1.001-1.009
0.001
9
1.01-1.09
0.01
9
1.1-1.09
0.1
9
1-9
1
9
10-90
10
9
Total
45 pieces
Range (mm)
1.001-1.009
1.01-1.49
0.5-9.5
10-90
1.005

Set M87Normal test)

steps (mm)
0.001
0.01
0.5
10

No. of blocks
9
49
19
9
1

Total

87 pieces

1.5.1 Commercial availability of gauge block:

Since the slip gauges are items of universal interchangeability, they are manufactured in inch and mm
according to IS;BS;DIN; and other National Standards. The designation of a set though differs slightly from
standard to standard but two basic features which are universally used in designating a set are:
a) Indication of units: whether inch or mm (or metric)- letter E is used for inch units and letter M is used for
metric units.
b) no. of pieces in asset following the letter E or M.
For example E81 refers to a set whose blocks are in inch unit and are 81 in number. Similarly m 105
refers to a set whose blocks are in mm units and are 105 in number.
Most usual sets available in inch unit are: E81, E49, E41, E35, E28
A set E28, for example will contain:
9 pieces from
0.01-0.209in
9 pieces from
0.021-0.029in
9 pieces from
0.01-0.09in
1 piece of
0.02005in
The sets in metric units are:
M112, M105, M87, M50, M33 and M27.
A set M112, for example will contain
9 pieces from
9 pieces from
9 pieces from
4 pieces from
1 piece of

1.001-1.009 mm
1.01-1.49 mm
0.5-24.5 mm
25.0-100.0 mm
1.0005 mm

Fig 1.7 Slip gauge block

Most gauge blocks are produced from high-grade steel, hardened and stabilized by a heat treatment process
to give a high degree of dimensional stability. Gauge blocks are also manufactured from tungsten carbide, which is
an extremely hard and wear resistant material, although these gauge blocks are initially more expensive than the
steel gauge blocks. Sometimes the gauge blocks are chrome plated. Chrome plating obviously obviates the danger of
corrosion, of course. Chrome being a so-called slippery metal, also seems to withstand better the frictional wear of
wringing. Where chrome plated blocks finally wear minus they can be built up by replacing and then be sized and
lapped. But it is nearly impossible to get chrome plated blocks to stay wring together. For this reason they are
disliked by experienced workers and the accuracy of stacks of chrome plated blocks is also suspected. Add to all
this, the tendency of chrome plates to flake off, especially at the edges.
Each gauge block has its two opposite measuring faces ground and lapped flat and parallel to within very
fine tolerances, fig 1.7 ,slip gauges gives recommendations covering the manufacture of gauge blocks up to 90
mm in length in five grades of accuracy.
The higher grades of accuracy, namely calibration grade and grade00 are used in conjunction with highmagnification comparators above; the lower grades of accuracy, namely grade-0, grade-I and grade-II are
intended to be used above, i.e. for direct measurement where the accuracy of the work-piece demands it.
Grade-0 gauge blocks are used in the work-shop for inspection and high accuracy work.
Grade-I gauge blocks are used for the measurement of components, tools, and gauges.
Grade-II gauge blocks are used in the workshop for rough checks, and fro the preliminary setting-up of
components where production tolerances are relatively wide.
WRINGING OF GAUGE BLOCKS
The phenomenon of wringing of flat surfaces, especially with reference to slip gauges, is of fundamental
importance in precision measurement. A combination of sliding and twisting motions has been found to affect
adherence greatly and a similar combined movement is also used to separate them, as a considerable load would
have to be applied to separate them, as a considerable load would have to be applied to separate them by a direct
pull. The fact that the amount by which the thickness of a combination of two gauges, due to the separation of the
gauges, is increased is negligible, being of the order of
6.35*(1/1,000,000) mm
which is an important feature in the accurate build-up of a combination of gauges to some specific sizes. The
standard method of wring the gauges together is first to bring the faces of the gauges into contact at right angles to
one another and then turn them through 90 degrees as shown in fig 1.8.
This method causes less rubbing of the surfaces and for the wringing should not be done by sliding two
gauges parallel to each other. Thin slip gauges should not be wrung together without using a rigid gauge block as a
basis for one of them since there is a danger of deforming thin gauge blocks as a basis for one of them since there is
danger of deforming thin gauge blocks permanently. Wringing of gauge blocks should always be carried out over a
soft surface, to avoid damage to the blocks if they fall, and gauge blocks should not be left assembled for longer than
is necessary. When taking them apart, the gauges are slid apart, fig 1.8 as the wringing joint between them should
never been broken.

Fig.1.8

Questions:
1. Explain various instruments used for linear measurements and list them according to their accuracy.
2. Define straightness and how it can be measured.
3. Explain the method used for checking flatness.
4. What are the methods used check roundness and explain with sketches.
5. What is squareness measurement and explain.
6. Describe slip gauges with neat sketches. What is wringing of slip gauges?
Text books:
1. I.C. Gupta, A text book of Engineering Metrology, Dhanpathi Rai & Sons, Delhi
2. R.K Jain, A text book of Engineering Metrology, Khanna publishers
3. A Text Book of Metrology, M. Mahajan, Dhanpat Rai and Co.
Reference books:
1. Hume, kj, Engineering Metrology, Macdonald and co.,
2. ASTME Hand book of Industrial Metrology