Revisiting VAV Systems - 10-2015 PDF

10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Jeff Stein, PE, Principal
Revisiting Variable Air

Volume Reheat
Systems
Taylor Engineering, LLC

jstein@taylor-engineering.com
http://www.taylor-engineering.com
66%
Site 1 Monitored CFM vs DP from 12/20/01 to 9/16/02

(with perfect system curve and likely actual system curve)
Actual Data
52%
Perfect System Curve (i.e. SP reset)
Pressure Drop Across Fan (" H2O)
3.5
37%
23%
9%
Design Point (145,000 CFM at 4.0")

3
Likely Actual System Curve (No SP Reset)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
Total CFM (SF-1 + SF-2)
PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER
OCTOBER 2015
Logistics
Safety
Restrooms
Recycling
Cell phone etiquette
Lunch
Review forms
Webinar etiquette
PG&E Resources
Rebates
Tool Lending Library
Marlene Vogelsang (mxv6@pge.com)
OCTOBER 2015
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Agenda
Welcome and Overview
System Selection
Zone Controls
VAV Box Control
DCV & Occupancy Sensors
Special case zones: conf rooms, computer rooms, toilet rooms
Min OSA
Air Economizers
Supply Pressure Reset
VAV Reheat vs DOAS
Field Research Energy and Occupant Comfort
OCTOBER 2015
Handouts
You can get a copy of the handouts in PDF format as
follows:
Type the following link into your web browser:
o
http://www.taylorengineering.com/ftp/PECClassHandouts.html
Click on the link for Revisiting VAV to download the

Acrobat file of the presentation.
OCTOBER 2015
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Audience & Objectives

To promote efficient practical designs that advance
standard practice
Focus on California climate
Focus on air side of VAV systems
Based on the NBI PIER Project that produced the EDR
VAV Design Guide (2007): http://tinyurl.com/3dw6vlx
For wet side see CoolTools Chilled Water Plant Design and
Specification Guide (2009): http://tinyurl.com/ye385nv
Provide updates based on recent research by ASHRAE,

CBE, Iowa Energy Center, LBNL, PG&E, Taylor
Engineering and the Title 24 Codes and Standards team.
OCTOBER 2015
HVAC System Selection
OCTOBER 2015
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
HVAC System Options

Single zone versus multiple zone
Mechanical cooling and/or:
Direct evaporative cooling
Direct + indirect evaporative cooling
Heat and vent only
Mechanical cooling
Packaged DX
Chilled Water
Multiple zone air systems

VAV reheat
Dual duct
OCTOBER 2015
77
Title 24 Baseline Mapping
OCTOBER 2015
88
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Evaporative Cooling Climate Analysis
OCTOBER 2015
99
OCTOBER 2015
1010
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
OCTOBER 2015
1111
HVAC System Selection Matrix

Each attribute gets a weight.
Each system gets a rank for each attribute.
Attributes
First Costs
o
HVAC First Cost
Impact on Other Trades: General Contractor
Impact on Other Trades: Electrical Contractor
Floor Space Requirements

Ceiling Space Requirements
Energy Efficiency - Normal Operation (requires parametric simulation analysis)
Energy Efficiency - Off-hour Operation
Smoke Control (7 story buildings)
Acoustical Impact
Indoor Air Quality
Comfort
Maintenance Costs and Reliability
PG&E
Flexibility
PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER
OCTOBER 2015
12
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Performanc
e Attribute
Weig
ht
VAV Reheat System
Ran
k
Dual Fan Dual Duct System
Ran
k
HVAC20 System
Selection
Low shell & core
costs. Highest zoneMatrix
8
Low zone costs usually offset higher shell &
HVAC First
Costs
costs.
Impact GC.
10
Impact Elec.
core cost resulting in slightly lower overall

costs compared to VAV reheat
10
Larger penthouse space required for heating

fans.
Smallest equipment rooms or wells

and shafts. Furred columns required
for hot water piping.
Fewer units to wire mechanically.
Floor Space
Requirements
Smallest shafts required.
10
Slightly higher cost compared to reheat due to

added heating fan, often offset by eliminating
boiler.
Somewhat larger shafts required for
additional heating duct.
Ceiling Space
Requirements
Usually extra heating duct can fit into same

space as cooling duct (with cross-overs
between beams) but will not work well with
flat slab structure.
Efficiency
Normal Oper.
10
Reheat system causes higher heating

costs.
Maintenance
Costs and
Reliability
10
Only rooftop equipment requires

frequent maintenance; VAV boxes
occasional maintenance. Risk of
water damage due to piping above
ceiling.
Reduced reheat and heat recovery from

recessed lights reduces overall energy costs
compared to reheat system
No water above ceiling reduces risk of water
damage. Dual duct boxes require slightly less
maintenance than reheat boxes.
Flexibility
Any number of zones may be used, but

at high cost per zone.
Total
PG&E
PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER
100
Any number of zones may be used and zone

costs are less than for reheat
OCTOBER
2015
810
13
10
815
HVAC System Selection Matrix

It can combine quantitative (e.g. first cost) and qualitative
(e.g. impact on other trades) assessments
Each performance attribute needs a weight
Constrain the weights to sum to 100
Ranks are on the basis 10 for the best with other ranks
assessed relative to the best
Total scores are the sum of the ranks times the weights
for each alternate system. The highest score wins.
This inherently documents and communicates the design
intent.
It has more rigor than simply choosing a system based
on experience.
OCTOBER 2015
14
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Variable Air Volume with Reheat
OCTOBER 2015
15
Zone Controls
Zonal System Type
Single duct reheat
Cooling only
Fan powered box
Parallel
Series
Zone Controls
CO2 Demand Control Ventilation
Occupant Sensing
Window Switches
Control Sequences
Single vs Dual Maximum
Controllable minimum airflow setpoint
Time Averaged Ventilation (TAV)
OCTOBER 2015
16
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Demand Control Ventilation
OCTOBER 2015
17
Title 24 DCV Requirements

Required for each densely occupied space (<40 ft2/person) if:
AHU has an outdoor air economizer
Single zone system or multiple zone with DDC to the zone
Exemptions: classrooms, healthcare, < 10 people, etc.
Minimum rate = Table 120.1A cfm/ft2 * area
CO2 Setpoint = ambient + 600 ppm
Ambient can be either
400 ppm assumed
Ambient CO2 sensor
Sensor
Located in the space between 3 ft and 6 ft above the floor
75 ppm accuracy at 1000 ppm
Factory or field calibrated
Require recalibration no more frequently than every 5 years
Continuous display and recorded on DDC systems
OCTOBER 2015
18
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
DCV Multiple Zone Control Sequence

P-only
0% at 800 ppm CO2
100% at 1,000 ppm
Output mapped:
0-50%: reset zone minimum first from Table 120.1A (0.15
cfm/ft2) to max under control
50%-100%: reset AHU OSA minimum position from Table

120.1A up to 15 cfm per person based on most demanding
zone
OCTOBER 2015
19
CO2 Control at Zone (Multizone)
Maximum
Cooling Vcoolmax
Airflow
Zone level reset
Minimum
Air Flow
Setpoint
Minimum
Ventilation
Airflow
Largest zone demand

used at AHU for reset
of minimum OSA
Min OSA
Design
OSA
Vmin
0%
50%
PID Loop Output
OCTOBER 2015
100%
20
10
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
CO2 Sensors
Solid State
Infrared
Gas Molecules
Custom Designed
Infrared Filters
Reference Target GasDual Beam
Diffusion Membranes
Interactive
Sensor Element
Oxidation
Incandescent
Infrared Source
Reduction
Resistance Change Light Emission (Voltage Output)
Quenching
(Color Change)
OCTOBER 2015
Micro-Machined
Thermopile Detector
1.25"
Patented Waveguide
Microprocessor
21
Carbon Dioxide Transmitters

NDIR Photometric Principle
Problem: Ageing of light

source causes drift
OCTOBER 2015
22
11
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
CO2 Transmitters
Referencing/Calibrating Technology
Automatic Background Calibration: Periodically selfcalibrate using lowest reading over a period of time
assumed to be ~400 ppm
Dual wavelength: Measure light transmission at second

wavelength where CO2 and other common components of
air do not absorb light
Dual beam: Second light source used to assess ageing of

primary light source
OCTOBER 2015
23
CO2 Transmitters
Single Beam Dual Wavelength, 2 Detectors
OCTOBER 2015
24
12
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
CO2 Transmitters
Single Beam Dual Wavelength w/FPI

Courtesy Vaisala
CO2
IR detector
Light source Sample cell

with reflector
FPI chip
Air gap
Upper mirror
Lower mirror
Silicon substrate
Applying different voltages tunes

filter to different wavelengths
OCTOBER 2015
25
CO2 Transmitters
Dual Beam Single Wavelength

Second light source pulsed infrequently to slow its ageing
OCTOBER 2015
26
13
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
CO2 Recommendations
For 24/7 occupancies use only:
Single Beam with Dual Wavelength
For non-24/7 occupancies:
Single Beam, Single Wavelength with ABC
OCTOBER 2015
27
Return Sensors Dont Work for Multi-Zone Units!
OCTOBER 2015
28
14
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Occupancy Sensors
OCTOBER 2015
29
Occupancy Sensors and Code

Can reset minimum ventilation from occupant-based
level to area-based level if zone is unoccupied
Title 24 2013 will reduce this to 25% of area-based
minimum when unoccupied.
Can set back/up setpoints (required in Title 24 2013)

Can also use occupant sensors to eliminate zone signal
where multiple sensors are used on a zone
OCTOBER 2015
30
15
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
New Title 24-2013 Occupant Sensor Requirements

Multipurpose room < 1000 ft2, classrooms > 750 ft2 and
conference, convention, auditorium rooms > 750 ft2
Wshall be equipped with occupant sensor(s) to
accomplish the following during unoccupied periods:
Automatically setup the operating cooling temperature set
point by 2F or more and setback the operating heating
temperature set point by 2F or more; and
Within 30 minutes after being vacant W then no outside air
is required and supply air shall be zero.
Wthen the system or zone controls shall cycle or operate to
maintain the average outdoor air rate over an averaging
period of 120 minutes equal to 0.04 cfm/ft2.
EXCEPTION: If DCV is used

OCTOBER 2015
31
Window Switches
OCTOBER 2015
32
16
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Window/Door Switches in next Title 24 version

Title 24 2016 prescriptively requires HVAC interlock if
windows are operable that disable mechanical heating
and cooling when any such opening is open. Mechanical
cooling may remain enabled when an opening is open if
outside air temperature is below space temperature.
Exceptions:
Exits with automatic closers
Any space without a thermostat
Existing buildings
T24 modeling rules do not have operable windows in
basecase. Proposed gets a bonus if it has operable
windows with switches and a penalty if no switches.
OCTOBER 2015
33
OCTOBER 2015
34
17
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Window Switches Advice / Indicator Displays

Advice Indicator Light:
Green = zone is in cooling and the outside air temperature
is less than the space temperature, opening the window
now will save cooling energy
Red = bad to open the window, opening the window now

will turn off the heating/cooling
Mode Indicator Light

Green = heating/cooling not disabled
Red = heating/cooling is disabled because a window is
open
OCTOBER 2015
35
Conference Rooms
OCTOBER 2015
36
18
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Challenges
High ventilation requirement

(e.g. 70% of design flow)
Variable and intermittent
occupancy
Minimum ventilation required
at all normally occupied
times
OCTOBER 2015
37
Conference Room Strategies

1. Standard VAV Box
2. Standard VAV Box with Occupancy Sensor
3. Standard VAV Box with DCV
4. Series Style VAV Box
5. Standard VAV Box with Occupancy Sensor and DCV
NOTE: Occupancy sensors or DCV are required in T-242013 for most conference rooms
OCTOBER 2015
38
19
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Strategy 1: Standard VAV Box

Wastes fan energy, cooling energy and reheat due to
high minimum ventilation requirements
Not recommended if minimum ventilation exceeds 30%
of box flow.
With operable windows this could work if zone meets the
natural ventilation exception and box minimum is 0 cfm.
OCTOBER 2015
39
Strategy 2: Add an Occupancy Sensor

In Title 24 2013 (120.1(c)5) you can cycle the VAV box to
achieve an average airflow of 25% of the Table 120.1A
values (0.15 cfm/ft2) when unoccupied.
You need to setup/setback by +/-2F when unoccupied
(120.2(e)3)
You can use the same occupancy sensor(s) for the
ventilation, lights and setup/setback
Better than Strategy 1 but not perfect
OCTOBER 2015
40
20
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Strategy 3: Add DCV

Can reduce ventilation to Table 120.1A values (0.15
cfm/ft2)
Does not make sense for naturally ventilated spaces
May be better than Strategy 2 (Occupancy Sensors)
since it also works to reduce energy when the space is
lightly loaded
However CO2 sensors do drift and should use Automatic
Background Calibration (ABC). See research from LBNL
and Iowa State Energy Center:
http://tinyurl.com/3lw6b42.
OCTOBER 2015
41
Strategy 4: Use a Series Fan-Powered Box with 0

Minimum
The box fan meets the ventilation requirements with
return air.
No central air or reheat necessary during unoccupied
times
Simple controls
Potentially best energy savings
OCTOBER 2015
42
21
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Minimum Volume with Series Fan-Powered Boxes

Total Supply Air
Flow Rate
Supply
Volume
IDEAL FOR
INTERIOR
CONFERENCE
ROOMS!
Cooling Supply
Air Flow Rate
Shut-off Valve No Minimum Required!

Space Temperature
OCTOBER 2015
43
Toilet Rooms
OCTOBER 2015
44
22
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Toilet Rooms
OCTOBER 2015
45
OCTOBER 2015
46
Toilet Rooms
23
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Toilet Rooms
OCTOBER 2015
47
VAV Reheat Boxes
OCTOBER 2015
48
24
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Boxes Main Points

Size VAV reheat boxes for 0.5 total pressure drop
All boxes should be at 0.5 as critical path varies over the year
Use Dual Maximum control sequence
Min = max(box min, ventilation min)
Fan boxes generally only make sense for very high ventilation
or very high heating loads
References:
Steve Taylor, Jeff Stein, Sizing VAV Boxes, ASHRAE Journal,
March 2004 (http://tinyurl.com/af35vfu_
Jeff Stein, Specifying VAV Boxes, HPAC Magazine, November

2005 (http://tinyurl.com/art8t6x)
OCTOBER 2015
49
VAV Box Sizing

Oversized box
Less pressure drop
Less noise
Cost more
Higher box min more reheat (only on perimeter zones)
o
Consider oversizing interior zone boxes
Undersized box
More pressure drop
More noise
Lower box min less reheat
OCTOBER 2015
50
25
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Box Sizing: Simulation Results

Compared TP from 0.3 to 0.8
office building
Sensitivity Analysis
Climate
Loads (internal, envelope)
operating schedules
Load calc (aggressive, conservative)
Utility rates
8 bit versus 10 bit A/D converter
SAT (50F-60F), SAT reset, SP reset
RESULT: Size VAV Boxes for ~0.5 TP
OCTOBER 2015
51
VAV Box Sizing: Calculating TP

Manufacturers list SP not TP
TP = SP + VP
v 2 v 2
= SP + in out
4005 4005
Need to know Outlet Area
OCTOBER 2015
52
26
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Box Sizing: Sample Calc.
Nominal
size
Inlet
Outlet Outlet
SP
VP
TP
Max Radiated
dia.
width height
(in.
(in.
(in.
CFM
NC*
(in.)
(in.)
(in.)
w.g.)*
w.g.)
w.g.)
4
4
12
8
0.08
0.42
0.50
230
21
5
5
12
8
0.15
0.35
0.50
333
20
6
6
12
8
0.24
0.25
0.49
425
21
7
7
12
10
0.25
0.25
0.50
580
20
8
8
12
10
0.33
0.17
0.50
675
22
9
9
14
13
0.27
0.23
0.50
930
17
10
10
14
13
0.32
0.18
0.50
1100
19
12
12
16
15
0.32
0.17
0.49
1560
19
14
14
20
18
0.31
0.19
0.50
2130
18
16
16
24
18
0.32
0.18
0.50
2730
22
*From selection software using ARI 885-95 and assuming inlet SP = 1.5 and outlet
SP = 0.25
OCTOBER 2015
53
VAV Box Sizing: Noise
Manufacturers required to use ARI 885-98

attenuation factors
ARI 885-98 assumptions

Type 2 mineral fiber ceiling
3 deep plenum
Plenum >= 30 wide or lined with insulation
OCTOBER 2015
54
27
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Box Sizing: Noise

Noise decreases at part load
Noise decreases with static pressure reset
Noise can be mitigated with insulation, gypsum board,
and clever box location
OCTOBER 2015
55
OCTOBER 2015
56
VAV Box Inlet Duct
28
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Box Discharge Ducts (based on 8 inlet box)
OCTOBER 2015
57
VAV Box Control: Single Maximum

Maximum
Airflow Setpoint
Reheat Valve Position
Airflow Setpoint
Minimum
Airflow Setpoint
(shaded area = reheat)
Heating Loop
Dead
Band
OCTOBER 2015
Cooling Loop
58
29
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Box Control: Dual Maximum

Maximum
Supply Air
Temperature
Max Cooling
Airflow Setpoint
Supply Air Temperature Setpoint
(requires discharge temp. sensor)
Maximum
Heating
Airflow
Setpoint
Airflow Setpoint
Minimum
Airflow
Setpoint
Heating Loop
Cooling Loop
Dead
Band
OCTOBER 2015
59
Dual Max/Constant Volume Heat Prohibited

Maximum
Airflow
Setpoint
Reheat Valve Position
Once in heating mode, the cooling load

must exceed 50% of design cooling load to
unstick the zone from heating mode
50%
Airflow
Setpoint
20%
Heating Loop
Dead
Band
OCTOBER 2015
Cooling Loop
60
30
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Dual Max / Simultaneous - Prohibited in T24-2013

Max Cooling
100%
[Summarize what we believe typical practice

is.
Airflow Setpoint
Ask for feedback on whether this is correct.]
Reheat Valve
50% or vent.
Airflow Setpoint
20%, or vent.
Heating Loop
Dead
Band
OCTOBER 2015
Cooling Loop
61
VAV Box Min Flow

For Single Max Must be high enough to meet peak
heating load without short-circuiting (at supply
temperature < 90F)
Often requires 50% or higher minimum flows
For Dual Max (or interior zones) Meet the ventilation
and be above box controllable minimum flow
Often 10% or less of design flow
To meet Std. 62.1 efficiently the zone minimum should be
above the zone minimum outside air
OCTOBER 2015
62
31
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Dual Max: Arguments and Rebuttals

Against Dual Max
For Dual Max
Stuffiness
ASHRAE 55: no min air speed

necessary for comfort. Complaints
are usually related to temperature.
Poor air change effectiveness
Dual maximum is better: air change

effectiveness is only an issue when
SAT > 85F (ASHRAE 62, Persily, etc)
Short-circuiting
Dual maximum is better: controlling

SAT minimizes short circuiting
Dumping
Good ADPI and comfort at 18% flow

(Fisk, Bauman, etc.)
Does not work for all box types (i.e.,

pneumatic, electronic or
preprogrammed digital).
Specify fully programmable DDC

controllers
OCTOBER 2015
63
Box Controllability: How Low Can You Go?

Stability is important but not accuracy
Manufacturers recommended minimums are related to
accuracy, not stability
Calculate the controllable minimum from:
Amplification of the flow probe
Actual controller
OCTOBER 2015
64
32
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Box Flow Sensing
Amplifying Probe
OCTOBER 2015
65
Flow Probes
Krueger
Enviro-tec
OCTOBER 2015
66
33
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
How a VAV Box Works

Zone Controller
Amplified
velocity
pressure
signal
Air
Flow
Flow
Probe
vm = 4005
VPm
F
Vm = vm A
Transducer
Analog
electronic
(4-20mA)
A/D
Conv.
Digital
Input
Contr AO Actuator
oller
10 bit
A/D
0.004
VPm = Minimum Velocity Pressure Signal (in. w.g.)

F = Amplification Factor
vm = Minimum Velocity (FPM)
Vm = Minimum Airflow (CFM)
A = area (ft2)
OCTOBER 2015
67
Why Not Just Look in the VAV Box Catalog?

Titus
About 30% of design CFM for typical box selections

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER OCTOBER 2015
68
34
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Why Not Just Look in the VAV Box Catalog?

0.004 is possible
Envirotech
OCTOBER 2015
69
Flow Probe Amplification

10000
7000
3665
2806
2062
1432
1160
916
22 inch
1000
I
n
l
e
t
C
F
M
100
S
i
z
e
702
16 inch
14 inch
515
12 inch
358
10 inch
9 inch
8 inch
229
7 inch
6 inch
5 inch
4 inch
10
0.01
0.1
C
F
M
@
O
n
e
I
n
c
h
S
i
g
n
a
l
4005 A
F =
F = amplification factor
K = actual flow in CFM at flow probe
output of 1.0 w.c.
A = is the nominal inlet area in ft2
Flow Probe Velocity Pressure Signal (Inches W.G.)
OCTOBER 2015
70
35
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Taylor Engineering/Dickerhoff Research: Titus Probe

Measured Points
Measured Calibration
Titus Nominal Calibration
2000
Titu s K fa c to r= 9 0 4
M e a s . D a ta : K = 8 6 9
V e lo c ity [fp m ]
1000
500
200
100
50
.001
.005 .01
.05
Flow Grid Pressure [iwc]
.1
.5
All measured Data Points

Recall that Amplification (F)
corresponds to
4005 A
F =
= 2 .6
K
K-Factor (CFM at 1.0 signal)

OCTOBER 2015
71
Taylor Engineering/Dickerhoff: Nailor Results
Measured Points
Nailor Nominal Calibration
Measured Calibration
N a ilo r N o m in a l K = 1 0 0 7
M e a s u re d K = 9 9 5
2000
V e lo c ity [fp m ]
1000
500
200
F = 2.3
100
50
.001
.005 .01
.05
Flow Grid Pressure [iwc]
.1
.5
All measured Data Points

OCTOBER 2015
72
36
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
TE/Dickerhoff Box Only Conclusions

Amplification is stable and constant down to very low
flows
Not affected by damper position
OCTOBER 2015
73
Why is Accuracy at Low Flow So Difficult?
Velocity Pressure (inches w.c.)
V e lo city P re s su re (in c h e s w .c.)

0 .8 5
0 .8 0
0 .7 5
0 .7 0
0 .6 5
0 .6 0
0 .5 5
0 .5 0
0 .4 5
0 .4 0
0 .3 5
0 .3 0
0 .2 5
0 .2 0
0 .1 5
0 .1 0
0 .0 5
0 .0 0
A m p lifie d V e lo c ity P res su re
Actual flow +/0.003 at 500

CFM setpoint
Actual flow +/0.003 at 50
CFM setpoint
5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 25 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 45 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 6 50 7 0 0 75 0 8 0 0 8 5 0
A irflo w (C F M )
OCTOBER 2015
74
37
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
TE/Dickerhoff Controller Results Summary

Controller
Calibration Errors
Zero Drift
Deadband
Software Issues
Siemens
(pressure-based)
Inaccurate below 0.001;

highly accurate above 0.001
Significant tempcorrelated drift

(can be eliminated
with optional
bypass kit)
None-results in
many
damper
movements
None
Johnson (pressurebased)
Inaccurate below 0.001;

highly accurate above 0.001
Minimal drift
varies
depending
on signal
noise (~15
CFM)
Incorrectly re-zeroed
the damper resulting
in offset error (can be
eliminated with
optional bypass kit)
Alerton (hot-wire)
Highly accurate at calibration

points (no flow and design
flow), underestimates actual
flow at other values
No noticeable drift
3% of range
(~15 CFM)
None
ALC (hot-wire)
Highly accurate at four

calibration points with small
deviations between these
points
No noticeable drift
1 second of
damper
movement
(~5 CFM)
None
OCTOBER 2015
75
Sample Calculation of Box Minimum Flow Setpoint
Nominal Inlet
Diameter, in.
Area,
ft2
CFM @
1
sensor
readin
g
Amplification
factor
Min VP sensor reading

= 0.004 w.g.
Min VP sensor reading

= 0.01 w.g.
Minimum
Velocity,
FPM
Minimum
Flow,
CFM
Minimum
Velocity,
FPM
Minimum
Flow,
CFM
vm
Vm
vm
Vm
0.087
229
2.33
166
14
263
23
0.136
358
2.33
166
23
263
36
0.196
515
2.33
166
33
263
52
0.267
702
2.33
166
44
263
70
0.349
916
2.33
166
58
263
92
0.442
1,160
2.33
166
73
263
116
10
0.545
1,432
2.33
166
91
263
143
12
0.785
2,062
2.33
166
130
263
206
14
1.069
2,806
2.33
166
177
263
281
16
1.396
3,665
2.33
166
232
263
367
22
2.64
7000
2.28
168
443
265
700
OCTOBER 2015
76
38
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
ASHRAE RP-1353: Flow Probe Results
OCTOBER 2015
77
ASHRAE RP-1353: Conclusions

Accuracy within 10% of reading can generally be
achieved at 140 fpm (0.003 VP signal) if:
Hard duct at inlet
No elbows at inlet if using Ebtron sensor
inlet pressure is below 1.4 accuracy degrades when
damper is nearly closed
OCTOBER 2015
78
39
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Dual Duct: Snap Acting Controls with a Single Sensor on

the Outlet
OCTOBER 2015
79
Dual Duct Box Sizing: Beware of Odd Sizes!
OCTOBER 2015
80
40
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Cooling Only Boxes: Zero Minimum

Applications:
No ventilation requirements e.g. telecom closet
In combination with heating boxes in large zones e.g.
open office with cooling-only, zero-stop boxes in the interior
and reheat boxes at the perimeter.
Oversize no reheat penalty
OCTOBER 2015
81
OCTOBER 2015
82
81
Box Type Example
41
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Auxiliary Loads
IDF Closets
Electrical Rooms
Security Rooms
OCTOBER 2015
83
Auxiliary Load Strategies

1.
Chilled Water Fan Coils
2.
Water-Cooled AC Units
3.
Air-Cooled Split Systems
4.
Serve from Central AHUs
OCTOBER 2015
84
42
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Strategy 1: Chilled Water Fan Coils

Must design CHW plant to unload efficiently
Could integrate heat recovery or water-side economizer
Generally expensive
Very inflexible to changes
Must be VAV Title 24 2013 [(140.4(c)4, 140.4(m) and
Table 140.4-D)]
OCTOBER 2015
85
Strategy 2: Dedicated Water Cooled AC Units

Should have head pressure control for AC units
Design tower for flow turndown
Can have economizer pre-cooling coil or heat recovery
Very flexible design
Potential for heat recovery if spaces have WLHPs
Specify with 2-position isolation valves interlocked to the
compressors. This is a Title 24 requirement.
It is recommended to separate WCAC/HP units with a
plate and frame HX to prevent fouling of condensers.
Expensive but costs can be deferred to tenants in
speculative buildings
OCTOBER 2015
86
43
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Strategy 3: Air-Cooled Split Systems

Usually least efficient
Can be low cost for small distributed systems
Loads must be close to outdoor units for split systems
Reliability and maintenance concerns
Could also use VRF which provides some heat recovery
OCTOBER 2015
87
Strategy 4:VAV Boxes From Central System

Can be very efficient due to economizer and with good
fan turndown
Must have zone isolation controls as required by code
Fans must be able to turn down to ~10%
Chilled water plant must be designed for turndown as
well
Pretty flexible design
Inexpensive, high reliability, low maintenance
Required in Title 24 2013 for computer rooms (any room
with more than 20 W/ft2 of plug loads)
OCTOBER 2015
88
44
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Title 24 Economizer Exception (sort of) for Small

Computer Rooms
OCTOBER 2015
89
Fan Powered VAV Boxes and Applications
Series Fan
Parallel Fan
OCTOBER 2015
90
45
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Parallel-Style Fan-Powered VAV Box
OCTOBER 2015
91
Parallel-Style Fan-Powered VAV Box

Schematic
OCTOBER 2015
92
46
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Sequence of control
Cooling Maximum
Optional if
Min<minOA flow
Parallel fan
Minimum Airflow setpoint
Heating PID Signal
Cooling PID Signal
OCTOBER 2015
93
Series-Style Fan-Powered VAV Box
Series Fan
OCTOBER 2015
94
47
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Series-Style Fan-Powered VAV Box

Schematic
OCTOBER 2015
9595
Sequence of control
Series fan
Cooling Maximum
Heating PID Signal
Cooling PID Signal
OCTOBER 2015
96
48
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Fan Powered Box Issues and Applications

Fan powered boxes are noisy, expensive, inefficient and
high maintenance
Consider series boxes for high minimums
Interior conference rooms
spaces open to above
Consider parallel boxes for
Max heating flow > 50% of design flow
o
e.g. north facing, perimeter zones
If using electric heat

Consider zero minimums on primary air for fan boxes if
interior zone cooling loads can be counted on to provide
enough primary flow to achieve min OA for the building
OCTOBER 2015
97
Typical Title 24 DDC Zone
OCTOBER 2015
98
49
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Should T24 Adopt ASHRAE 189.1 Reheat Exception?

ASHRAE Standard 189.1 Reheat Exception:
Zones for which the volume of air that is reheated,
recooled, or mixed is no greater than the larger of the
following:
o
(1) the design outdoor airflow rate for the zone, or
(2) 15% of the zone design peak supply rate.
This effectively prohibits VAV reheat boxes and requires

parallel fan boxes or something similar.
OCTOBER 2015
99
Parallel Fan-Powered Boxes
Energy Saved with FPB
- Less hot water required

less boiler and less
pump energy
- Less primary air
less
central supply fan energy
- HW coils not in primary

air stream
lower
central supply fan energy
OCTOBER 2015
100
50
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Cost Data (per zone)

Includes contractor markup
Source: Communications with HVAC and controls
contractors
VAV reheat
Fan powered VAV
$210
$798
Installation
$1,765
$2,132
Controls
$1,086
$1,217
Electrical
$634
$3,061
$4,781
$70
Box
Total first cost

Filter replacement/yr
OCTOBER 2015
101
Energy Model Assumptions
Zone properties:
Box minimum = MAX (0.15

cfm/sqft, 15 cfm/person, 20%)
Fan kW taken from Titus and

Price data
10,000 sqft, single story

4 15 deep perimeter zones, 1 interior
zone
WWR: 38%
LPD: 0.9 W/sqft
Equipment load: 2.0 W/sqft
Occupants: 100 sqft/person
7am 7pm, M-F
Load schedules vary randomly (average
53% of peak)
VAV packaged unit with air-cooled DX. Hot
water for reheat at zone.
Supply fan static: 3.5 Reheat case, 3.25
FPB case
Max reheat delta T: 35F
Climate Zone 3 (Oakland)
OCTOBER 2015
102
51
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Energy Model Results

Boxes at minimum majority of time (no energy savings
for fan-powered boxes)
Few hours above 50% (which does not meet T24 or 90.1)
OCTOBER 2015
103
Energy Model Results

Annual Energy Use
OCTOBER 2015
104
52
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Energy Model Results (Assumes 500 ft2/zone, excludes

filter maintenance)
Savings
($/sqft)
Years to
payback
$0.06
56.1
Lighting: 0.3 W/sqft

Plug loads: 0.7 W/sqft
Occupancy: 286 sqft/person
$0.12
28.7
$0.10
34.3
$0.05
67.0
Baseline value
Variation
Baseline
Low lighting, low plug

loads, and low
occupancy levels
Lighting: 0.9 W/sqft

Plug loads: 2.0 W/sqft
Occupancy: 100 sqft/person
Oversized system
Average 0.94 cfm/sqft supply air Average 1.4 cfm/sqft supply air
Supply air temperature

control
Hours of operation
55F constant supply air

temperature in cooling
7am - 8pm, Monday through
Friday
24 hours/day, 7 days/week
$0.05
69.9
High zone minimum
20% box minimum
30% box minimum
$0.06
56.6
Low zone minimum
20% box minimum
10% box minimum
$0.07
50.3
Zero minimum
20% box minimum
0% box minimum for fan

powered box
$0.19
19.2
Fan motor
Standard motor
ECM on fan powered box fans
$0.07
50.7
Reheat box control
Dual maximum sequence
Single maximum sequence with

30% minimums
$0.09
40.1
Dual maximum sequence
Single maximum sequence with

50% minimums
$0.41
8.8
Reheat box control
Supply air temperature resets

from 55F to 59F
OCTOBER 2015
105
Conclusion
Parallel fan powered boxes are not cost-effective and are
not required in Title 24 2013
OCTOBER 2015
106
53
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Future Zone Controls: Time Average Ventilation (TAV)

Ignore the controllable minimum when calculating the desired
airflow setpoint
e.g. in deadband desired setpoint = ventilation minimum
When desired airflow setpoint is below the controllable
minimum then cycle the actual flow setpoint between 0 CFM
and the controllable minimum such that the time averaged
flow = desired setpoint.
Example:
Controllable minimum = 100 cfm
Ventilation minimum = 25 cfm
Setpoint in deadband = 100 cfm for 3 minutes, then 0 cfm for 9
minutes, then 100 cfm for 3 minutes, etc.
OCTOBER 2015
107
Future Zone Controls: Time Average Ventilation (TAV)

Applicable to dual maximum and single maximum sequences
Pilot projects at UC Berkeley and San Mateo County
One discovery: Zone cycle start/stops need to be
staggered/randomized to mitigate large swings in AHU CFM.
If successful we will propose removing the 20% from Title 24
deadband maximum.
OCTOBER 2015
108
54
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Dedicated Interior AHU Study from Title 24 2013
Require interior and perimeter zones to be served by

separate air handlers
This would reduce reheat by allowing the perimeter unit
to have colder (summer) and hotter (winter) SAT than the
interior unit.
OCTOBER 2015
109
Typical Practice for Multiple Zone AHUs

Small buildings: one main air handler
Larger buildings:
One AHU/quadrant
One AHU/floor
Separate perimeter/interior AHUs (not common)
OCTOBER 2015
110
55
10/5/2015 10:10 AM

10,000 sqft, single story
4 15 deep perimeter zones, 1 interior zone
WWR: 38%
LPD: 0.9 W/sqft
Equipment load: 2.0 W/sqft
Occupants: 100 sqft/person
7am 7pm, M-F
Load schedules vary randomly (average 53% of
peak)
VAV packaged unit with air-cooled DX. Hot
water for reheat at zone.
Max reheat delta T: 35F
Climate Zone 3 (Oakland)
OCTOBER 2015
111
Baseline
Single AHU
Zone cooling setpoint
74F
61F Interior zones,
57F Perimeter
Size zones according to supply
zones
air temperature
Supply air temperature
Supply air temperature reset
Proposed
Interior Zones AHU
Perimeter Zones
AHU
74F
74F
62F
57F
57F
62F
57F
Based on zone
loads, temperature
Based on zone
Based on zone
first, from 57F to loads, temperature loads, temperature
65F
first, up to 65F
first, up to 70F
OCTOBER 2015
112
56
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
0.0800
0.900
0.0700
0.800
0.0600
0.700
0.600
0.0500
kWh/sqft
therm/sqft
Annual Energy Use
0.0400
0.0300
0.500
Baseline
0.400
Baseline
Proposed
0.300
Proposed
0.0200
0.200
0.0100
0.100
0.0000
0.000
Space heating
energy
Fan energy
Cooling
energy
Pump energy
Annual Electricity Savings: $0.0054/sqft

Annual Gas Savings: $0.0057/sqft
OCTOBER 2015
113
Conclusions
Energy savings is small compared to expected cost of
measure.
Discontinue analysis for this measure.
OCTOBER 2015
114
57
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Ducted vs Unducted Return Air
OCTOBER 2015
115
Unducted (Plenum) Return

Advantages of Unducted:
Reduced HVAC cost (~15% of total HVAC cost)
Reduced cost to other trades (e.g. lower floor/floor height)
~25% fan energy savings
No balancing
Less crosstalk
Disadvantages of Unducted:
Potential for mildew in humid climates if building pressure
is allowed to go negative.
Not a real issue with Unducted:

Partially ducted
Unbalanced return / dead spots
OCTOBER 2015
116
58
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Supply Air Temperature Control
OCTOBER 2015
117
OCTOBER 2015
118
SAT Setpoint Reset

Cooler temperature
Decreases fan energy
Warmer temperature
Extends economizer
operation (more hours
with cooling system off)
Reduces reheat at zone
level
What is the best control?
59
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
SAT Setpoint Reset

Simulated Control Options
1.
Constant 55F
2.
Reset by zone demand within range (55F to 65F)
3.
Switch to 55F when chiller runs
4.
Switch to 55F when OAT > 70F
OCTOBER 2015
119
SAT Setpoint Reset

Simulation Results
Sacramento
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.35
Dollars per sq. ft.
Dollars per sq. ft.
San Francisco
0.30
0.25
0.30
0.25
Gas
0.20
Elec.
0.15
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Gas
Elec.
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00
Constant
55
Reset by Switch to Switch to

zone
T-min
T-min
demand
when
when OAT
chiller runs
> 70
Constant
55
OCTOBER 2015
Reset by
zone
demand
Switch to Switch to
T-min
T-min
when
when OAT
chiller runs
> 70
120
60
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Recommended SAT Reset Logic
Reheat
Economizer
None
None
Medium
to High
(e.g. VAVRH)
Constant SAT at design (~55F)
Yes
Constant SAT at design. Allow to float

up by locking out cooling until zone
request indicates need for CHW
Yes
Reset by zone cooling demand during

cool weather (<55F to 60F OSA), then
ramp down to design SAT in warm
weather (>60F to 70F OSA)
Low
(e.g. DFDD,
fan-powered
VAV)
SAT Logic
OCTOBER 2015
121
Recommended Sequence of Operations VAV-Reheat
OCTOBER 2015
122
61
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
(continued)
Where:
Tmin
A constant (e.g. 53 F )
Tmax
Ranges from 55F to 65F based on

zone demand (cooling loop values)
(Exact sequence discussed below)
OCTOBER 2015
123
VAV Reheat System

SAT Reset Logic
During occupied mode, the setpoint is reset from T-min (53F) when the
outdoor air temperature is 70F and above, proportionally up to T-max when
the outdoor air temperature is 60F and below. T-max shall be reset using
trim and respond logic within the range 55F to 65F. When fan is off, freeze
T-max at the maximum value (65F). While fan is proven on, every 2
minutes, increase the setpoint by 0.2F if there are two (adjustable) or fewer
zone cooling requests. If there are more than two (adjustable) cooling
requests, decrease the setpoint by 0.3F. A cooling request is generated
when the cooling loop of any zone served by the system is >99%.
Adjustable to limit
dominance of
rogue zones
Lower if reheat reduced

using dual maximum
logic and central plant
OCTOBER 2015
124
62
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Performance Oversized Zones
62
60
58
56
54
52
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
Outdoor Air Temperature (oF)
OCTOBER 2015
125
Performance Rogue Zones

64
Supply Air Temperature Setpoint (oF)
Supply Air Temperature Setpoint (oF)
64
62
60
58
56
54
52
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
Outdoor Air Temperature (oF)
OCTOBER 2015
126
63
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
The Future of SAT Reset: Model Predictive Control

At each time step, compare the estimated HVAC energy cost at the
current SAT with the estimated energy cost at alternative SATs (e.g.
one degree warmer and one degree cooler) and adjust the set-point
in the direction of the lower cost.
Zone requests for colder SAT takes priority over the energy cost
signals.
Requires detailed models for fans, chiller plant, boiler plant, DX
compressors, etc.
Inputs each time step could include:
Measured load and reheat at each zone (based on DAT and CFM)
OADB/OAWB
Fan speed, P
Chiller plant load
Boiler plant load
Utility rates
OCTOBER 2015
127
Outside Air Control
OCTOBER 2015
128
64
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Outside Air
Control of Minimum outdoor air for VAV Systems
Design of Airside Economizer Systems
Economizer Temperature Control
Economizer High-Limit Switches
OCTOBER 2015
129
Lab and Field Tests

Fisk et al (LBNL 2004, 2005)
Measured performance of 5 measurement technologies in
lab and a few in the field
Unfortunately only tested a few products many more

available but untested
ASHRAE RP-980
Theoretical review and lab tests of several common airflow
measurement concepts
May be the only two unbiased tests (not performed by

manufacturers)
OCTOBER 2015
130
65
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Fixed Minimum OA Damper Position

Not Recommended &
Prohibited in T24 2013
Does NOT WORK for VAV since mixed air plenum

pressure varies!! Outdoor air flow will vary
proportional to supply air flow.
Outdoor Air
Minimum
Signal Pot.
Return Air
Signal from SAT
Controller
OCTOBER 2015
131
RP980 Lab Results

Fixed Minimum OA Damper
110%
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
S u p p l y A ir % of D e si g n
OCTOBER 2015
132
66
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Dual Minimum Mitigation

Minimum damper position is set proportionally based on
fan speed between setpoints determined when the fan is
at full speed and minimum speed
Low cost
Affected by wind, stack effective, filter loading
Prohibited in T24 2013
OCTOBER 2015
133
Energy Balance
Not Recommended
Does NOT WORK when OAT ~ RAT (which it is when high limit is reached)
Outdoor Air
MAT
OAT
RAT
Return Air
DDC
%OA = (MAT - RAT) / (OAT - RAT)
CFM-OA = %OA * CFM-SA
OCTOBER 2015
134
67
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Return Fan Tracking

OA CFM = Supply CFM Return CFM
May not work if pressurization CFM is different from OA CFM (e.g. operable windows)
Outdoor Air
VSD
Exhaust Air
Return Air
DDC
Signal from SAT
Controller
VSD
OCTOBER 2015
135
Air Flow Measurement of 100% OA

Not Recommended
Outdoor Air
AFMS
Will only work if AFMS is very accurate at low flow (i.e. at min OSA)!
Return Air
DDC
Signal From SAT Controller
OCTOBER 2015
136
68
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Injection Fan w/AFMS

This works if controlled
using a damper and fan
airflow measurement as
shown.
AFMS
Outdoor Air
It will not work with a

variable speed fan alone as
the DP will vary across the
fan.
Injection Fan w/ Discharge

Damper
Return Air
Signal from SAT Controller
OCTOBER 2015
137
Dedicated Minimum Outdoor Air Section with AFMS

Recommended
Works! But space needed for AMS
Outdoor Air
DDC
Return Air
OCTOBER 2015
138
69
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Fixed Minimum OA Damper w/ Plenum Pressure Control

This works, and is generally the lowest cost solution. However, the
control sequence can be complex and/or fan energy increased
slightly. Not accurate when the min. OSA airflow setpoint is reset
(e.g. for DCV).
Recommended!
Outdoor Air
DDC
Return Air
OCTOBER 2015
139
Fixed Minimum OA Damper w/ Plenum Pressure

Control
Open minimum outdoor air damper when the supply air
fan is proven on and the system is not in warm-up, cooldown, setup, or setback mode. Damper shall be closed
otherwise.
The minimum differential pressure setpoint across the
mixed air plenum (MinDP) is determined by the air
balancer as that required to maintain design minimum
outdoor air flow rate across the minimum outdoor air
damper with the supply air fan at design airflow.
When the economizer is locked out due to warm weather,
the RA damper signal is modulated to maintain
differential pressure across the outdoor air damper at
setpoint, MinDPsp, determined above.
OCTOBER 2015
140
70
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Summary of OSA Control Methods

METHOD
Fixed Minimum
Dual Minimum
Energy Balance
Return Fan Tracking
100% AFMS
Injection Fan
Dedicated Min AFMS
P Across OA Damper
ACCURACY
Very poor
Fair
Very Poor
Fair to Good
Poor to Good
Good to Excellent
Good to Excellent
Good
OCTOBER 2015
141
Comparison of the Options that Work

Option
Minimum position
reset by fan speed
Advantages
Disadvantages
Least expensive
Available on some packaged
VAV systems as standard
No additional AHU length
required
Inaccurate
No compensation for wind and other effects
Field calibration required
Does not work well with CO2 DCV
Prohibited in Title 24 2013
Total outdoor airflow rate

always known
Can be used for CO2 DCV
Does not require return air
damper pressure control
Questionable accuracy of anemometer

Expensive
Requires extra AHU length
100% Outdoor Air

AFMS with thermal
anemometer
Injection Fan and

dedicated minimum
AFMS
Does not require return air

damper control
Most expensive
Dedicated minimum
AFMS
Can be used for CO2 DCV

Requires return air damper control
Plenum pressure
control
Very inexpensive
No additional AHU length
required
Field calibration required

Does not work well with CO2 DCV
Requires return air damper control for best
efficiency
OCTOBER 2015
142
71
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Title 24 2013 and OSA

Minimum OSA tested at design and minimum
flows
30% design or
All boxes at minimum position
Measured OSA airflow must be within 10% of

design at both conditions
Failing the test jeopardizes the certificate of
occupancy
OCTOBER 2015
143
Design of Economizer
Systems
144
72
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Air Economizers
100%
% Open
Economizer
OA damper
Min OA
Return air
damper
CHW valve
0%
No
Cooling
OCTOBER 2015
Control Loop Control
Maximum
Cooling
145
Economizer Design Issues

Damper types and sizing
(see Guideline 16)
Damper configuration
Building pressure control
Sequencing of fans and dampers
High limit switches
OCTOBER 2015
146
73
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Building Pressure Control

1.
Barometric
2.
Relief Fans
3.
Return Fans
OCTOBER 2015
147
Barometric Relief (with 100% OA Flow Measure)

Lowest energy
Requires low return pressures
Relief can be put anywhere
Relief openings can be prohibitively large
OCTOBER 2015
Design for < 0.08 P

in Relief Path
148
74
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Relief Fan with Direct Pressure Control

Stage relief damper before staging on relief fans
P-2 setpoint = 0.05
Rolling average building pressure signal
Do not locate sensor in the lobby!
OCTOBER 2015
149
Return Fan with Direct Pressure Control

Control return fan to maintain return plenum pressure (P-3) at setpoint
P-3 Max Setpoint = P needed to maintain P-2 at 0.05 at 100% OA
Bldg pressure loop first opens relief damper then resets the P-3 setpt from 0 to
Max
Same pressure issues as relief fan
Bldg pressure loop must be slower than return fan loop to prevent instability
OCTOBER 2015
150
75
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Return Fan with Tracking Control

Return fan speed maintains return flow = supply flow minus fixed
offset for pressurization
Not vulnerable to building pressure sensor or bldg pressure loop vs
return fan loop instability
OCTOBER 2015
151
Economizer Damper Control

(Most Common)
100%
% Open
Economizer
OA damper
Min OA
Return air
damper
CHW valve
0%
No
Cooling
Control Loop Control
OCTOBER 2015
Maximum
Cooling
152
76
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Economizer Damper Control

(More Efficient)
Return
Air Damper
Outdoor Air Damper
ciO
m
n
o
zA
rE
e
p
a
d
O
n
e
p
%
Damper/Valve Position, % Open
100%
iM
O
n
A
rd
e
p
R
m
a
itu
n
C
H
W
v
%
0
C
o
o
trn
C
N
lig
lo
trn
C
p
L
lve
a
CHW Valve
Minimum Position
(MinOA)
0%
Supply Air Temperature Control

Loop Output Signal
OCTOBER 2015
153
OBD vs. PBD when Mixing
O
n
e
p
ciO
m
n
o
zA
rE
e
p
a
d
OCTOBER 2015
iM
O
n
A
rd
e
p
R
m
a
itu
n
C
H
W
v
%
0
C
o
C
N
o
trlig
n
lL
C
p
o
tr
n
lve
a
154
77
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Air Economizer Control

MINIMUM OA
DAMPER
ECONOMIZER OA
DAMPER
SUPPLY FAN
OUTDOOR
AIR
SUPPLY AIR
TEMP SENSOR
CHW VALVE
RA
DAMPER
HIGH LIMIT
SWITCH
SUPPLY AIR TEMP

CONTROLLER
RETURN
AIR
100% OPEN
CHW VALVE
0% OPEN
SUPPLY AIR TEMP CONTROL LOOP
OCTOBER 2015
155
170
45
Optimum Lockout
Wet Cooling Coil
160
150
40
140
130
120
35
Outdoor Air
30
Weather Hours
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
90
80
25
Return Air
15
NO
Supply Air
5
0
50
40
Outdoor Air
30
10
70
60
20
-10 -5
100
Humidity Ratio, grains/lb of dry air
110
20
YES
10
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Chart by: HANDS DOWN SOFTWARE, www.handsdownsoftware.com
Dry-BulbO
Temperature,
CTOBER F2015
156
78
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
170
45
160
Optimum Lockout
Dry Cooling Coil
150
40
140
130
120
35
100
30
Weather Hours
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
90
80
25
Return Air
60
20
50
Supply Air
15
Outdoor Air
10
40
30
20
NO
YES
-10 -5
70
10
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-BulbO
Temperature,
CTOBER F2015
157
170
45
Optimum Lockout
Wet or Dry
Cooling Coil
160
150
40
140
130
120
35
100
30
Weather Hours
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
90
80
25
Return Air
70
60
20
50
15
10
Supply Air
110
40
30
YES
NO
20
10
-10 -5
110
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-BulbO
Temperature,
CTOBER F2015
158
79
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
High Limit Devices

Fixed Drybulb Temperature
Compares outdoor air drybulb to a fixed setpoint
Differential Drybulb Temperature
Compares outdoor air drybulb to return air drybulb
Fixed Enthalpy
Compares outdoor air enthalpy to a fixed setpoint
Differential Enthalpy
Compares outdoor air enthalpy to return air enthalpy
Electronic Enthalpy
Compares outdoor air temperature and humidity to a
setpoint that is a curve on the psychrometric chart
Where
Fixed Drybulb
Switches Fail
(72F Setpoint)
OCTOBER 2015
170
45
160
150
40
140
130
120
35
110
100
30
90
25
80
Return Air
70
60
20
50
15
Supply Air
10
5
40
30
20
10
-10 -5
Too hot
NO
YES
Too moist
Weather Hours
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
159
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-BulbO
Temperature,
CTOBER F2015
160
80
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Where
Fixed Drybulb
Switches Fail
(65F Setpoint)
170
45
160
150
40
140
130
120
35
110
100
30
Weather Hours
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
90
80
25
Return Air
70
60
20
50
Supply Air
15
40
30
10
20
10
-10 -5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-BulbO
Temperature,
CTOBER F2015
161
170
45
Where
Differential Drybulb
Switches Fail
160
150
40
140
130
120
35
NO
100
30
Weather Hours
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
110
90
25
20
Return Air
80
70
60
50
15
10
5
YES
40
30
20
10
-10 -5
NO
YES
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-BulbO
Temperature,
CTOBER F2015
162
81
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
170
45
160
Where
Switches Fail
150
40
140
130
120
35
NO
100
30
Weather Hours
117 to 105
104 to 92
91 to 79
78 to 66
65 to 53
52 to 40
39 to 27
26 to 14
13 to 1
110
90
25
Return Air
80
70
60
20
50
15
40
30
10
20
10
-10 -5
YES
San Francisco Weather
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-Bulb Temperature,
F 2015
OCTOBER
163
Where
Switches Fail
OCTOBER 2015
164
82
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
170
45
Where
Fixed Enthalpy
Switches Fail
160
150
40
140
130
120
35
110
NO
30
Weather Hours
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
0 to 1
100
90
80
25
Return Air
YES
70
60
20
50
Supply Air
15
40
30
Too dry
10
20
10
-10 -5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Dry-BulbO
Temperature,
CTOBER F2015
165
15oC
25oC
o
35 C
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
35 C
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
100
25 C
o
35 C
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
0
10
Deviation from Actual Relative Humidity (%)
15oC
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
12
15oC
25oC
o
35 C
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
0
100
10
20
15oC
25 C
o
35 C
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
30 40 P
50 ACIFIC
60 70 80ENERGY
90 100
10 20 30 40OCTOBER
50 60 70 802015
90 100
PG&E
C0 ENTER
Actual Relative Humidity (%)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Model E
20
Model C
12
Model D
25oC
12
15oC
Model B
12
Model A
12
Measured Accuracy of New Sensors

Iowa Energy Center
Model F
12
15oC
25oC
o
35 C
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
80 90
166
70
100
83
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Accuracy at 77F After 1 Year Aging

Iowa Energy Center
6
3
0
-3
-6
6
3
0
-3
-6
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-9
-12
-12
-12
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
20
Model D
New
4 months
8 months
12 months
6
3
0
-3
-6
60
70
90
100
10
20
30
80
90
50
60
70
80
90
100
80
90
100
Model F
12
9
-24
New
4 months
8 months
12 months
-30
6
3
0
-3
-6
New
4 months
8 months
-9
-12
100
40
-18
-12
50
80
-12
-42
40
70
-36
30
60
-6
-9
20
50
6
Deviation from
Deviation from
Actual Relative Hum idity (%)
10
40
Model E
12
12
30
Deviation from
10
New
4 months
8 months
12 months
-9
Model C
12
New
4 months
8 months
9
Deviation from
Deviation from
Model B
12
New
4 months
8 months
12 months
Deviation from
Model A
12
10
20
PG&E
PACIFIC
Actual Relative
Humidity (%) ENERGY CENTER
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
OCTOBER 2015
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
167
Aging / Drift Testing Results

Model E
standard
mean
deviation
(% RH)
(% RH)
transmitter
symbol
-2.9
-3.0
10
Deviation from
Deviation from
Model C
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
-21
-24
20
30
1.2
1.1
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
-21
-24
transmitter
symbol
standard
mean
deviation
(% RH)
(% RH)
-1.0
2.0
10
20
30
10.2
9.3
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
One year of data collected at 15 minute intervals

Reference: Precision Grade 1% RH in-situ reference sensor
OCTOBER 2015
168
84
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Aging / Drift Testing Results

Model B
Model D
Variation of performance between two sensors of the same Model

Precision Grade 1% RH in-situ reference sensor
OCTOBER 2015
169
Electronic Enthalpy Control
Manufacturer:
The A setting provides the greatest
energy
savings.
ASHRAE 90.1 and Title 24:

The A setting is required in all
climate zones
OCTOBER 2015
170
85
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Performance Solid State Enthalpy Switch

Actual Test Data
Enthalpy Switch #2 Published vs Actual Data
Enthalpy switch action curve
100
90
80
Setting A
Relative Humidity, %RH
70
Setting D
60
50
Setting D
~ 4 BTU/lb
Hysteresis
Setting A
~ 20% RH @
same temp
40
30
30 Btu/Lb
Setting D
20
Setting A
25 Btu/Lb
Economizer Disable
10
Economizer Enable
A
20 Btu/Lb
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Chamber Temperature, Deg F
OCTOBER 2015
171
Economizer High Limit Switch
Sensor Error Bars

Title 24-2013 Requirements
Fixed drybulb is best!
OCTOBER 2015
172
86
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Reference
Economizer High-Limit Controls and Why Enthalpy
Economizers Dont Work
By Steve Taylor and Hwakong Cheng
ASHRAE Journal November 2010
Available at http://tinyurl.com/23xegku.
OCTOBER 2015
173
Supply Static Pressure Control
OCTOBER 2015
174
87
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Fan Energy at Varying SP Setpoints

120%
100%
Percent Fan kW
80%
SP setpoint = TSP
SP setpoint = TSP*.75
SP setpoint = TSP/2
SP setpoint = TSP/3
60%
Surge Region
SP setpoint = 0
40%
20%
0%
0
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Percent Fan CFM
OCTOBER 2015
175
Real Fan Systems

Many Hours At Low Loads
4
Actual Data
Perfect System Curve (i.e. SP reset)
Pressure Drop Across Fan (" H2O)
3.5
Design Point (145,000 CFM at 4.0")

3
Likely Actual System Curve (No SP Reset)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
Total CFM (SF-1 + SF-2)
OCTOBER 2015
176
88
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Static Pressure Reset Controls PIER Research

No Static Pressure Reset
Annual Fan Energy Cost (at $0.12/kwh)
Perfect Static Pressure Reset

$4,000
$3,602
$3,500
$3,555
~20% (type of fan)

$3,057
$3,246
$3,171
$3,000
$2,998
$2,500
$2,000
$1,500
~66% (SP reset by zone demand)

$1,254
$1,266
$1,231
$1,232
$1,250
$1,248
$1,000
$500
$60" Plenum
Fan (3.5"
Design SP)
(62.4%)
60" BI
(71.2%)
66" BI
(75.5%)
49" AF
(75.4%)
44.5" AF
(73.0%)
54" Mixed
Flow
(73.4%)
OCTOBER 2015
177
Static Pressure Setpoint Reset Control Logic Options

Option 1: Reset static pressure setpoint based on PID
Loop on VAV damper position
Option 2: Reset static pressure setpoint using Trim &
Respond based VAV damper position or airflow demand
OCTOBER 2015
178
89
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Best Choice: Trim and Respond

Advantages
Easier to tune
Can respond more quickly than trim
Does not require knowledge of damper position
Easier to ignore the first few requests
Easier to track rogue zones (e.g. runtime counter on
requests, cumulative percent request hrs)
Easier to lock out rogue zones

Easier to assign importance multipliers
Can escalate requests (e.g. 1 request if zone is 1F above
setpoint, 3 requests if 3F above setpoint)
OCTOBER 2015
179
Trim & Respond SP Setpoint Reset Logic

Static pressure setpoint shall be reset using trim and respond logic
within the range 0.15 inches to 1.5 inches. When fan is off, freeze
setpoint at the minimum value (0.15 inches). While fan is proven on,
every 2 minutes, decrease the setpoint by 0.04 inches if there two
(adjustable) or fewer pressure requests. If there are more than two
(adjustable) pressure requests, increase the setpoint by 0.04.
Where VAV zone damper position is known, a pressure request is
generated when any VAV or underfloor damper served by the system
is wide open. Where VAV zone damper position is unknown, a
pressure request is made when the ratio of the zones actual supply
airflow to supply airflow setpoint is less than 90%.
Adjustable to limit dominance

Set by TAB Contractor of rogue zones
OCTOBER 2015
180
90
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Variations on this Sequence

A damper position (valve position, loop output, etc.) of
80% counts as one request, while a position of 95%
counts as two requests.
The response rate is a function of the number of
requests, e.g. response = 0.04 times the number of
requests.
OCTOBER 2015
181
Tuning Unstable Control

1.4
Static Pressure Setpoint
1.2
y = 0.6709x + 0.2656
2
R = 0.5971
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Actual Static Pressure
OCTOBER 2015
182
91
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Tuning Stable Control
OCTOBER 2015
183
Trim & Respond Example

Static Pressure Reset by Demand
Trim
Respond
OCTOBER 2015
184
92
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Demand Based Reset Rogue Zones

VAV2-9 is likely undersized!
VAV2-20
VAV2-21
VAV2-11
VAV2-22
VAV2-23
VAV2-24
VAV2-25
VAV2-27
VAV2-30
VAV2-31
VAV2-6
VAV2-7
VAV2-28
VAV2-9
Cooling Loop Output (%)
100
80
60
40
20
0
6/27/06 3:00
6/27/06 6:00
6/27/06 9:00 6/27/06 12:00 6/27/06 15:00 6/27/06 18:00 6/27/06 21:00
OCTOBER 2015
185
Fan Summary
SP reset is FANtastic!
50% energy savings
Keeps fan out of surge
Airfoil fans are more efficient, cheaper, and stay out of
surge longer than plenum fans but are noisier and
require more space
Set VFD minimum speed to 10% (6 Hz) or less
OCTOBER 2015
186
93
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Filters
Avoid pre-filters
Adds pressure drop
Does not catch anything that final filter will not catch
Does not extend final filter life final filters should be
replaced regularly due to VOCs emitted from dirt in the filter
Use 15 MERV 13 bag filters

lasts 12 months versus 4 months for a 4 MERV 13
Beware 2 MERV 13 can loose effectiveness
OCTOBER 2015
187
VAV vs. DOAS with Chilled Beams
OCTOBER 2015
188
94
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Overview
ASHRAE GGC Seminar with support from CBE
Three HVAC systems were compared on one building:
VAV reheat
DOAS w/ active chilled beams
A hybrid of the two
Construction costs were estimated by contractors using
SD documents from each team
Annual energy was compared using EnergyPlus
OCTOBER 2015
189
DOAS with Flat Panel Radiant
OCTOBER 2015
190
190
95
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
DOAS with Chilled Beams
Active Chilled Beams

(OA is supplied through beam to
improve capacity through induction)
Passive chilled beam

(Radiation and
convection only)
OCTOBER 2015
191
Potential Advantages of DOAS vs. VAV

Assures design outdoor air rates delivered to space
No multiple spaces issues per Standard 62.1
No concerns about minimum airflow setpoints and controls
No complex outdoor airflow measurement/control devices
See previous slides
No economizer and mixing plenum
No dampers to freeze up, maintain
No coil freeze problems from imperfect mixing in cold climates
No RH/enthalpy sensors to maintain
If zonal system is passive (radiant, chilled beams)
May reduce fan energy
Allows warmer CHW source (possibly even cooling tower if dry
climate)
Should be quieter
Less ceiling space required for duct mains
OCTOBER 2015
192
96
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Potential Disadvantages of DOAS vs. VAV

Reduced annual outdoor air supply compared to systems with economizers
Fisk study shows significant indoor air quality and associated health benefits
from economizers
High maintenance costs of zonal fan-coils or heat pumps
Filters, coils, fans, pans, etc.
Slow response and low capacity if passive radiant system
Higher first costs depending on design details
Need OA duct, CHW, and HW to each zone
4-pipe fan-coils and heat pumps are typically twice as expensive as VAV
zones
Radiant panels or chilled beams 5 times as expensive as VAV zone
Lack of economizer usually causes cooling energy usage to be higher than
a well designed VAV system in mild climates
Fan energy may be higher!
Potential for mold and mildew growth due to condensation on chilled beam
cooling coils
Do not work well with operable windows because of the risk of humid
outside air condensing on the chilled beams.
OCTOBER 2015
193
ASHRAE Seminar Presentations

The following slides are just summary excerpts
The full presentations are posted here:
http://www.ggashrae.org/seminar
ASHRAE Journal Article: http://www.taylorengineering.com/downloads/articles/ASHRAE%20Journa
l%20-%20VAVR%20vs%20ACB+DOAS.pdf
OCTOBER 2015
194
97
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Actual UC Davis GSB Design

Taylor Engineering
The Floor/Floor Height is the same for all 3 systems
VAV System
ACB System
Hybrid System
One shaft:
Two shafts:
Two shafts:
12 Duct
16 Duct
18 Duct
Mechanical Space Requirements

Taylor Engineering
HVAC MECHANICAL ROOM AREA (ft2)
CHILLED
FLOOR
VAV
HYBRID
BEAMS
1ST Pump/HX
2nd Shafts
3rd Shafts
Penthouse
Total
1st Floor Chilled Beam
460
144
144
4220
4968
0
113
113
2270
2496
327
154
154
4660
5295
1st Floor Hybrid
98
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Title 24-2008 Rules & EnergyPro Bugs Favor Chilled Beams!

Taylor Engineering
Active Chilled Beams (using Induction Unit system)
Baseline: constant volume

packaged DX with 100%
outdoor air
VAV system
VAV worse than

ACB vs. Title 24
But absolute energy use

is 40% lower!
Baseline: Variable volume

packaged DX w/outdoor air
economizer
OCTOBER 2015
197
EnergyPro Title 24-2008 Simulation Results for GSB

This is the baseline for all
systems in T24-2013
OCTOBER 2015
198
99
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Energy Plus Energy Model Result

SOM
OCTOBER 2015
199
VAV Reheat has lower total fan energy
OCTOBER 2015
200
200
100
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
VAV Reheat provides more outside air
OCTOBER 2015
201
201
Comparative Cost Study by Southland Industries

Cost comparative Study of Mechanical system.
SYSTEM
DESCRIPTIONS
Overall Cost
cost/SF
PARAMETER
COMPARISON
Material Cost
Labor Cost
Equipment Cost
Sub-contractors
lbs of ductwork
linear feet of
chilled water
linear feet of
Heating hot water
AHU CFM
Overhead VAV system.

$1,371,000
$25.39
Hybrid VAV with Chilled Beam

$1,980,000
$36.67
Chilled Beam
$3,341,000
$61.87
$215,179
$584,058
$319,695
$252,067
38,000 lbs
$279,703
$877,138
$380,297
$442,862
33,224 lbs.
$576,496
$1,509,349
$608,118
$647,037
28,612 lbs.
310 feet
5,963 feet
10,244 feet
2,085 feet
50,000 CFM
2,330 feet
38,000 CFM
9,630 feet
36,000 CFM
Chilled Beam System would take 80 years to pay back if it used zero energy!
OCTOBER 2015
202
101
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Field Research
Significance
Reduce energy use of VAV systems
zone for
1 year
Frequency
Energy code adoption of

low minimum VAV control
Title 24-2008
ASHRAE 90.1-2013
Existing buildings retrofit opportunity

with less than 1 year payback
MIN
MAX
Cooling airflow
Barriers to market acceptance
VAV controller stability

Resolved (PG&E, ASHRAE RP 1353)
Potential occupant comfort issues?

Dumping diffusers
Poor room air mixing
OCTOBER 2015
204
102
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Objective and method

Objectives
Measure energy savings & validate simulations
Identify comfort issues that may occur at low flow
Funding
California Energy Commssion - PIER
ASHRAE
UC Berkeley - Center for the Built Environment
Method
Field Study in 7 buildings
Background survey
Right now survey matched to zone trends
Energy monitoring
Laboratory Study
Air distribution for various diffuser types
OCTOBER 2015
205
Variable air volume (VAV) controls overview

AIRFLOW (CFM)
Typical
VAV box airflow control
2000
30%
Heating
Deadband
Cooling
1000
Low minimum
VAV box airflow control
(dual-maximum)
0
6 AM
12 PM
6 PM
10-20%
Heating Deadband Cooling
Diagrams exclude heating control for clarity
OCTOBER 2015
206
103
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Yahoo! Sunnyvale Campus
B
C
A
D
Energy Meter
A,B,E,G
F
G
OCTOBER 2015
207
Yahoo! Sunnyvale Campus
1073 Zones
3700 Occupants
Plaque face diffusers
OCTOBER 2015
208
104
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
800 Ferry Building
22 Zones
Perforated Diffuser
with blades in face
5-15%
OCTOBER 2015
209
30% +
35-50%
5-15%
OCTOBER 2015
210
105
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Example trend: perimeter zone facing east
AIRFLOW
(CFM)
2000
Cooling maximum
VAV reheat
zone
1000
Cooling minimum
0
6 AM
12 PM
6 PM
OCTOBER 2015
211
Example trend: interior

Cooling maximum
1000
AIRFLOW
(CFM)
VAV cooling
only zone
500
Cooling minimum
0
6 AM
12 PM
OCTOBER 2015
6 PM
212
106
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Energy Results
213
Measured flow fractions: Yahoo campus

(all 1000 zones for the entire study period)
0.15
Cool Season All Occupied Hours

Low Minimum
30% Minimum
Density
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.05
Density
0.10
Low Minimum
30% Minimum
0.10
0.15
Warm Season All Occupied Hours
20
40
60
80
100
Flow Fraction [%]
20
40
60
80
100
Flow Fraction [%]
OCTOBER 2015
214
107
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
(high ~30%)
(low ~10-15%)
8%
20%
17%
9%
22% <---Savings
(high ~30%)
(low ~10-15%)
16%
19%
9%
4%
6% <---Savings
OCTOBER 2015
215
Loads are surprisingly low

0.2 0.5
CFM/FT2 at 20F T
140 Zones, 2 buildings, 1 warm month (Sept)

OCTOBER 2015
216
108
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
What happens when load is less than design minimum?
Cooling
Setpoint
Heating
Setpoint
110% Design Load

(VAV box size)
100% MAX load
COOLING
LOAD
30% MIN capacity
over
cooling
(VAV box minimum flow)
10% Typical load

reheat
OCTOBER 2015
217
Average of 3F more reheat during high min flows

High operation: Tdischarge = 63.5F, SD=14F Low operation: Tdischarge = 60.7F, SD=8.7F
Yahoo! Building Warm season - Discharge air temperature
HIGH minimum flow rate
LOW minimum flow rate
120
100
80
55
68
52
43
43
11
43
27
58
27
34
20
57
67
26
24
17
45
16
32
61
61
72
68
64
69
62
60
61
59
61
62
69
59
59
61
60
65
61
59
61
58
8.3 9.9
16
8.6 8.5
22
18
15
15
10
4.6
7.6 8.8
10
13
7.5
6.2
7.2 3.8
12
10
7.6
10
4.1
10/02
10/05
10/06
10/07
10/09
10/10
10/10 low
10/11
10/13
10/14
10/16
10/17
10/18
10/19
10/21
10/23
10/25
10/26
sd 2.2 2.1
OCTOBER 2015
10/27
10
70
10/20
34
60
10/12
26
60
10/04
20
58
10/03
Mean 58
09/30
20
09/28
40
09/29
60
09/27
discharge air temperature [F]
140
218
109
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
What about your building: Savings?
0.55
$ .
= $0.066/ft2
Total gas + elec savings

$0.10
0.025
OCTOBER 2015
$ .
= $0.025/ft2
219
What about your building: Costs?

New construction
Minimal - Requires VAV discharge air temp sensor that is
often desired for other reasons.
Existing buildings
Engineering calculations of zone minimums
o
Requires collection of zone data:

ft2
Occupant density
VAV box size & controllable minimum
Operator time to enter new setpoints

Estimate < $0.10/ft2 cost for ~ 1 year payback
OCTOBER 2015
220
110
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Conclusions
Conclusions
Energy savings is significant and similar to simulation
predictions
Validates Title 24 & 90.1 energy code requirement
Significant retrofit opportunity for existing building with DDC
controls. Less than 1 year payback.
OCTOBER 2015
221
Thermal Comfort
Results
222
111
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Occupant comfort study

Questions
When the minimum flow rate is reduced from high to low:
Did occupants become less comfortable?
Was their sense of air movement stronger due to dumping?
Approach
Surveyed 6 Yahoo! buildings and a county legal office (800 Ferry building)
3 surveys: Yahoo warm and cool seasons, 800 Ferry building warm
season
3 4 weeks of surveying each season
Switched between high and low minimum operation in the middle of
each survey period (unknown to occupants)
Surveys administered 3 times/day
About 10,000 responses received
OCTOBER 2015
223
Thermal comfort questions
OCTOBER 2015
224
112
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Air movement questions
OCTOBER 2015
225
Perceived air quality question
OCTOBER 2015
226
113
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Temperature satisfaction survey results (an example:

Yahoo! warm season)
OCTOBER 2015
227
"How satisfied are you with the temperature in your workspace?

HIGH min flow rate
% dissatisfied of people
30.0%
LOW min flow rate
249
25.0%
681
20.0%
15.0%
463
1408
10.0%
1793
766
5.0%
0.0%
800 Ferry
Warm
800Building
Ferry Building
season Yahoo! Cool season
Yahoo! Warm season
114
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Thermal sensations (Yahoo! warm season, 1865 votes)

HIGH min flow rate
LOW min flow rate
37.4%
60%
55.9%
50%
41.6%
40%
24.2%
30%
21.5%
20%
16.7% 16.8%
16.1%
10.4%
10%
5.5%
4.8%
3.3%
4.3%
2.9%
0.1% 0.2%
0%
Cold (-3)
Cool (-2)
Slightly cool (- Neutral (0) Slightly warm

1)
(1)
Warm (2)
Hot (3)
OCTOBER 2015
229
Air temperature under high and low minimum flows

(800 Ferry building)
High flow: average Tair = 71.2F
85
Low flow: average Tair = 73.3F
HIGH minimum flow rate

LOW minimum flow rate
75
70
N
14
Mean 72
sd
1.4
27
72
2
23
71
1.8
35
71
1.5
45
72
1.6
36
71
1.5
35
71
1.4
41
71
1.8
47
70
1.6
34
71
1.5
65
71
2
23
72
0.89
30
73
1.6
51
74
1.5
45
74
1.1
64
73
1.9
25
74
1.1
37
74
1.4
67
75
1.3
27
75
1.2
48
73
2.1
09/26
09/27
09/28
09/29
09/30
10/03
10/04
10/05
10/06
10/07
10/10
10/11
10/12
10/13
10/14
10/17
10/18
10/19
10/20
60
09/23
65
09/22
zone temperature [F]
80
Dates
OCTOBER 2015
230
115
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Occupant comments about summer over-cooling (800 Ferry

building, high minimum operation)
Sept. 24 4 PM
Just cold! I have to out on a heater.
Sept. 24 2 PM
I often come into my office and immediately put on a sweater because it is too cold for me. I dont have the sweater
right now which is why I feel cold.
Sept. 24 2 PM
I find that as the day progresses, my floor (the third of three floors) gets colder due to the air conditioner.
Sept. 24 2 PM
Sept. 27 11 AM
I noticed right after lunch, I was extremely cold, but maybe because I had just eaten.
Its cold! Ill turn on my heater...
Sept. 27 3 PM
In the morning the office temp is good, but by 2:30 it starts to cool down when the sun moves away from the window.
Sept. 28 7:30 AM
I dont feel the direct air flow but it is for sure cold in here always.
Now that this survey requires me to focus attention on my work environment several times a day, it is clear to me that
my environment starts out in the morning just right. It gets progressively colder and less comfortable during the course
of the day.
Sept. 28 10 AM
Sept. 28 10:10 AM
Very cold Im moving around the office more and I feel more air movement then I felt just sitting down.
Sept. 28 11:40 AM
Sept. 28 3 PM
Sept. 29 11:30 AM
Sept. 29 12:45 PM
Oct. 3 10 AM
Oct. 3 12:15 PM
Oct. 3 1:30 PM
Oct. 4 8:40 AM
Oct. 4 10 AM
Oct. 4 11:50 AM
Oct. 4 11:54 AM
Oct. 4, 12:10 PM
Oct. 4 3:30 PM
Very cold!
LITTLE MORE AIR CONDITIONED.
Its just cold all the time!
You should send this survey on Monday when its going to be freezing in this building.
Please help my office because it is always cold....
Cold in here.
Cold, Cold, Cold!!!!!
its cold in here. They need to turn on the heat.
cold in here. Turn on some heat.
cold.
cold. Need heat.
warmer on cold days, cooler on hot days.
my arms are cold too, but there wasnt a check for that.
OCTOBER 2015
231

building, low minimum operation)
Oct. 6 10:30 AM
I have my protable heater on and its still cold in here....
Oct. 6 4 PM
cold
Oct. 6 4 PM
Very cold today!
Oct. 10 1:10 PM
Its freezing!!!
Oct. 12 11:40 AM
It got cool in here!
Oct. 14 2:45 PM
The a/c is blasting in my office right now. I am cold and it is noisy.
Oct. 17 3:12 PM
I have my space heater on and its still cold in my office.
Oct. 17 3:30 PM
My office just went from uncomfortably warm to uncomfortably cool when the air conditioning turned on
in the span of 20 mins.
Oct 18 8:32 AM
I had to turn my heater on!!!!!
Oct 18 9:04 AM
Its cold in here!
Still cold complaints but less than half as many complaints as high min
OCTOBER 2015
232
116
10/5/2015 10:10 AM

building, low minimum operation)
Oct .7 3 :00PM
There is less background noise in my office this afternoon. It is great! (noise complaints were often
referred to as HVAC noise)
Oct. 10 11:32 AM
feels good today. They County must have turned on the heat.
Oct. 10 3:30 PM
I definitely notice a difference in the noise level in my office. I hardly hear it all. Thank you if you have had
anything changed!!
Oct. 11 2:30 PM
Office is just right today!
Oct. 12 10:20AM
the temperature and noise control is perfect.
Oct. 12 5:20 PM
I love the air temp. It is warm and not cold (AC on in the winter) like it normally is..
Oct. 13 11:00 AM
Warm in here today. its nice outside so it is nice inside.
Oct. 13 2:26 PM
nice day. wish they were all like this.
Oct. 14 2:44 PM
The temp is perfect!
Oct .19 4:40 PM
Just right!
Oct. 19 4:50 PM
Great!
Oct. 20 12:33 PM
nice day today, which makes it warm in the building.
Oct. 20 2:30 PM
Kinda cool outside now, but the office feels really good. Thank you!
Oct. 20 2:30 PM
Thanks for your involvement. I have definitely noticed an improvement in my office environment.
OCTOBER 2015
233
Sense of air movement

Have you noticed any air movement in your workspace?
No air movement
A moderate amount
A little
Strong air movement
Moderate and strong votes (% of total votes)

VAV flow rate
Yahoo! warm season

Yahoo! cool season
800 Ferry building
< 30%
11
7
9
30% - 40%
11
4
16
OCTOBER 2015
>90%
20
13
234
117
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Sense of air movement (800 Ferry building)

70
Percentage of People
60
50
No
Little
40
Moderate
Strong
30
obs_No
obs_Little
20
obs_Moderate
obs_Strong
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Flow rate (%)

OCTOBER 2015
235
Perceived air quality

"How satisfied are you with the air quality in your workplace right now ? "
HIGH min flowrate
% of Dissatisfied people
25%
LOW min flowrate

263
20%
15%
N=763
10%
1072
1508
1397
512
5%
0%
Yahoo! warm season
Yahoo! cool season
OCTOBER 2015
800 Ferry Building
236
118
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Low Minimum buildings compared to CBE database
OCTOBER 2015
237
Comparison with CBE database
OCTOBER 2015
238
119
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Comparison with CBE database
OCTOBER 2015
239
Conclusions and acknowledgment

Conclusions
Counter to received wisdom, comfort improves rather than gets
worse with low flow operation
Dumping & draft are not found to be an issue at low flow
Acknowledgment
To ASHRAE for funding RP 1515
To California Energy Commission PIER program, Price
Industries, and CBE for co-funding.
To Yahoo!, Contra Costa County, and UC Merced for allowing
us to study their buildings
OCTOBER 2015
240
120
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Laboratory Test
Results
Laboratory Testing Summary

Price Industries laboratory
6 diffuser types
SPD Square plaque
PDF perorated with controller in face
PDN perforated with controller in neck
SDB linear slot with plenum
RCD round cone
520 high sidewall
Measure temperature & air speed, and calculate ADPI
Flowrates: 18%, 26%, 33%, 49%, 80%
Measure air change effectiveness (ACE)
Flowrates 10%, 18%, 26%
OCTOBER 2015
242
121
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Terminology
ASHRAE Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy
Air Speed average air speed at three heights over 1-3 minutes
Still air below 40 ft/min
Draft limit below 72.5F the air speed limit is 30 ft/min
Air speed limit above 72.5F & no occupant control, 160 ft/min
Vertical temperature limit 5.4F from head to ankle
ADPI Air Diffusion Performance Index. Measure of mixing.

Well mixed ADPI > 80% ensures ASHRAE 55 vertical air
temperature limit per ASHRAE Fundamentals Ch. 20
Air Change Effectiveness (ACE) Measure of age of air.

Perfectly mixed ACE = 1
OCTOBER 2015
243
Laboratory tests
8x6 520 Grille Smoke Pattern
Testing Chamber
OCTOBER 2015
244
122
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Test setup
Simulated loads
Measure temperature and
air speed at 4 heights
4
24
42
66
OCTOBER 2015
245
OCTOBER 2015
246
Video
123
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Slot diffuser results
< 30,40 ft/min

> 80% ADPI
< 30,40 ft/min

> 80% ADPI
Similar results for all other ceiling mounted diffusers

OCTOBER 2015
247
Sidewall diffuser results
< 30,40 ft/min

> 80% ADPI
< 30,40 ft/min

> 80% ADPI
OCTOBER 2015
248
124
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Round Cone Duct Mounted Diffuser Results
< 30,40 ft/min

> 80% ADPI
< 30,40 ft/min

> 80% ADPI
OCTOBER 2015
249
Temperature & Air Speed distribution

Price PDN perforated face diffuser
Temperature is more even at lower flow

Air speeds decrease at lower flow
Air speeds below 30 fpm draft limit
Similar results for all other ceiling mounted diffusers
OCTOBER 2015
250
125
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Air Diffusion Results Summary

Diffusers Flush with Ceiling (PDF, PDN, SDB, SPD)
98-100% ADPI regardless of flow or temperature
Lower air speeds at lower flow
Average air speed below ASHRAE 55 draft limit
Lower air speed at 65F discharge temp compared to
55F
No Ceiling (RCD, 520 grille)
87-100% ADPI at 65F
Lower air speeds at low flow
Average air speed below ASHRAE 55 still air limit
Sidewalls can dump at 55F and low flow
OCTOBER 2015
251
Cooling Mode Air Change Effectiveness (ACE)

PDN 24X24
55 CFM @55F EAT
CO2 Concentration (PPM)
4500
4000
3500
3000
Supply Air
2500
4" height
2000
24" height
1500
43" height
1000
67" height
500
Exhaust
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
Time (s)
OCTOBER 2015
252
126
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Cooling Mode Air Change Effectiveness (ACE)

Linear slot
Full mixing down

to 10% flow
Previous
research showed
good ACE down
to 25%
Perforated
OCTOBER 2015
253
Overall Conclusions and acknowledgment

Conclusions
Counter to the original hypothesis, comfort improves rather
than gets worse
Dumping & draft do not occur at low flow
Ventilation is maintained
Energy savings is significant and similar to simulation
predictions
Significant retrofit opportunity for existing building with DDC
controls. Less than 1 year payback.
Acknowledgment
CEC/PIER, ASHRAE, and CBE for the funding
Yahoo! for allowing to do the study in their buildings
OCTOBER 2015
254
127
10/5/2015 10:10 AM
Questions
OCTOBER 2015
255
128

Revisiting VAV Systems - 10-2015 PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Revisiting VAV Systems - 10-2015 PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

10/5/2015 10:10 AM

Jeff Stein, PE, Principal

Revisiting Variable Air

Taylor Engineering, LLC

Site 1 Monitored CFM vs DP from 12/20/01 to 9/16/02

Perfect System Curve (i.e. SP reset)

Pressure Drop Across Fan (" H2O)

Design Point (145,000 CFM at 4.0")

Likely Actual System Curve (No SP Reset)

Total CFM (SF-1 + SF-2)

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Click on the link for Revisiting VAV to download the

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Audience & Objectives

Provide updates based on recent research by ASHRAE,

HVAC System Selection

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

HVAC System Options

Multiple zone air systems

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Title 24 Baseline Mapping

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Evaporative Cooling Climate Analysis

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Evaporative Cooling Climate Analysis

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Evaporative Cooling Climate Analysis

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

HVAC System Selection Matrix

HVAC First Cost

Impact on Other Trades: General Contractor

Impact on Other Trades: Electrical Contractor

Floor Space Requirements

VAV Reheat System

Dual Fan Dual Duct System

core cost resulting in slightly lower overall

Larger penthouse space required for heating

Smallest equipment rooms or wells

Smallest shafts required.

Slightly higher cost compared to reheat due to

Usually extra heating duct can fit into same

Reheat system causes higher heating

Only rooftop equipment requires

Reduced reheat and heat recovery from

Any number of zones may be used, but

Any number of zones may be used and zone

HVAC System Selection Matrix

Variable Air Volume with Reheat

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Demand Control Ventilation

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Title 24 DCV Requirements

DCV Multiple Zone Control Sequence

50%-100%: reset AHU OSA minimum position from Table

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

CO2 Control at Zone (Multizone)

Largest zone demand

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

PG&E PACIFIC ENERGY CENTER

Carbon Dioxide Transmitters

Problem: Ageing of light