STRETCH-SHORTENING CYCLE

Published On January 23, 2016 221 Views All, Strength & Conditioning

Contents of Article
1.

Summary:

2.

What is the Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC)?

3.

Mechanisms of the SSC

4.

Electromechanical Delay (EMD)

5.

Conclusion

6.

References

Summary:
The stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) refers to the pre-stretch or countermovement action that is commonly observed
during typical human movements such as jumping. This pre-stretch allows the athlete to produce more force and
move quicker. Though there is controversy surrounding the mechanics responsible for the performance
improvements observed from using the SSC, it is likely to be a combination of the active state and the storage of
elastic energy within the tendon. Due to the negative effects of the electromechanical delay, it may be suggested that
training methods which improve muscular pre-activity, such as plyometric and ballistic training, may be beneficial for
improving athletic performance.

What is the Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC)?

thletes have been shown to jump 2-4cm higher during the countermovement jump (CMJ) than they can during

the squat jump (SJ) (1). This is simply because the CMJ incorporates a pre-stretch dropping action when compared
to a squat jump which initiates the movement from a static position without the use of a pre-stretch (2). This prestretch, or countermovement action is known as the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) and is comprised of three
phases (eccentric, amortization, and concentric) (Figure 1) (3). Images A-B display the eccentric phase, image C
demonstrates the amortisation phase, and images D-E represent the concentric phase of the SSC.

The SSC is described as a rapid cyclical muscle action whereby the muscle undergoes an eccentric contraction,
followed by a transitional period prior to the concentric contraction (4). This muscle action is also sometimes referred
to as the reverse action of muscles (5). The action of the SSC is perhaps best described as a spring-like mechanism,
whereby compressing the coil causes it to rebound and therefore jump off a surface or in a different direction (Figure
2). Increasing the speed at which the coil is compressed or how hard it is pressed down (amount of force applied) will

result in the spring jumping higher or farther. This is known as the rate of loading, and increasing this will often mean
the spring will jump higher or farther. Therefore, a jump which incorporates a run-up will often allow an athlete to
jump higher or farther than a jump from a static position because of an increase in the rate of loading (6, 7, 8).

The SSC does not only occur during single-bout jumping or rebounding movements, but also during any form of
human movement when a limb changes direction. For example, during walking, jumping, running, twisting or even
lowering and then raising your arm. As the limbs are continuously changing direction there is a constant use of the
SSC in order to change the direction the limb is moving. As some movements are much faster than others (e.g.
sprinting vs. walking), there are great differences in the speed of the SSC. Consequently, the SSC has been
separated into two categories based upon the duration of the SSC:
1.

Fast-SSC: <250 milliseconds

2.

Slow-SSC: >250 milliseconds

Table 1 provides some examples of common exercises and their potential SSC classification. As displayed in Table 1,
a long jump is typically classified as a fast-SSC movement as it has a ground contact time of 140-170 milliseconds
(9). Whereas race walking, which has a ground contact time of 270-300 milliseconds is commonly classified as a
slow-SSC movement (10).

As measuring the duration of the SSC at each contributing joint (e.g. ankle, knee, hip) during a jumping exercise is
problematic, researchers have often questioned the ability to measure the SSC indirectly by analysing the ground
contact times. As a result, researchers have looked for relationships between ground contact times and coupling
time*. Strong relationships have been found between coupling time and exercises with ground contact times ranging
from 270-2500ms (16, 17). However, no relationships were observed in exercises with ground contact times of 400800ms (17). This therefore questions the reliability of classifying exercises with ground contact times of <850ms into
particular SSC categories based upon their ground contact duration. For example, simply classifying race walking as
a slow-SSC movement because it has a ground contact time between 270-300ms. Though this is often common
practice, understanding the issue with doing so is important.
*Coupling time is the amortisation/isometric phase of the SSC which connects the eccentric to the concentric phase
hence the term coupling, as it couples the two together. Or in other words, coupling time is defined as the transition
between the eccentric and concentric phases of the SSC (16).

Mechanisms of the SSC

here are numerous neurophysiological mechanisms thought to contribute to the SSC, some of which include:

storage of elastic energy (18, 19, 20, 21), involuntary nervous processes (22, 23), active state (1, 24), length-tension
characteristics (25, 26), pre-activity tension (27, 28) and enhanced motor coordination (1, 24). Despite this large list, it
is commonly agreed that there are three primary mechanics responsible for the performance enhancing effects of the
SSC (2).
These three mechanisms are:
1.

Storage of Elastic Energy

2.

Neurophysiological Model

3.

Active State
Storage of Elastic Energy
The concept of elastic energy is similar to that of a stretched rubber band. When the band is stretched there is a
build-up of stored energy, which when released causes the band to rapidly contract back to its original shape. The

amount of stored elastic energy (sometimes referred to as strain or potential energy) is potentially equal to the
applied force and induced deformation (5). In other words, the amount of force used to stretch the band, should be
equivalent to the amount of force produced by the band in order to return to its pre-stretched state.
In humans, this stretch and storage of elastic energy is instead placed upon the muscles and tendons during
movement. However, due to the elastic properties of the tendon, it is commonly agreed that the tendon is the primary
site for the storage of the elastic energy (29, 30). Unlike muscles, the tendons cannot be voluntarily contracted, and
as a result they can only remain in their state of tension. This means that the muscle must contract and stiffen prior to
the beginning of the SSC during ground contact known as muscular pre-activity. The muscle must then remain
contracted/ stiff during the first two processes of the SSC (eccentric and amortisation phases) in order to transmit the
isometric forces into the tendon. This causes the deformation/ lengthening of the tendon and the development of the
storage elastic energy.
During the concentric phase of the SSC (often referred to as the positive acceleration phase), the muscle is then
able to concentrically contract and provide additional propulsive force (2). Failing to stiffen during the eccentric and
amortisation phases, means the performance enhancing effect of the SSC will be lost and the joint would likely
collapse. This demonstrates the importance of muscle stiffness during the SSC and its ability to improve
performance. It also suggests that athletes with higher levels of muscular strength can absorb more force (i.e. higher
rate of loading), and therefore have a better ability to use the SSC. An abundance of research has demonstrated that
stronger athletes have a better ability to store elastic energy over weaker individuals (31, 32, 33). Elite athletes from
both power- and endurance-based sports have also been demonstrated to possess a superior ability to store elastic
energy (31, 32). Furthermore, efficient utilisation of the SSC during sprinting has shown to recover approximately
60% of total mechanical energy, suggesting the other 40% is recovered by metabolic processes (34, 35). In aerobic
long-distance running, higher SSC abilities have also been shown to enhance running economy suggesting that
athletes with a better SSC capacity can conserve more energy whilst running (33, 36, 37). This indicates the
importance of the SSC for both energy release and energy conservation. However, this storage of the elastic energy
within the tendon cannot last forever, and has been shown to have a half-life of 850 milliseconds (38).
Neurophysiological Model
The muscles and tendons contain sensory receptors known as proprioceptors, these send information to the brain
about changes in length, tension and joint angles (39). The proprioceptors within the muscle are known as muscle
spindles, whilst those in the tendon are called Golgi tendon organs.
When a muscle is forcefully lengthened, the muscle spindles engage a stretch-reflex response to prevent overlengthening and limit the possibility of injury. The engagement of these muscle spindles is thought to cause an
increased recruitment of motor units and/ or an increased rate coding effect (40, 41). An excitation of either or both of
these neural responses would lead to a concurrent increase in concentric force output and may therefore explain the
performance enhancing effects of the SSC. The increase in concentric force output would therefore then lead to an
enhanced power output during sporting movements (e.g. jump), and thus may improve performance. However, many
studies have reported no increase in muscle activation after a pre-stretch activity (e.g. CMJ) when compared to nonpre-stretch activity (e.g. SJ) (26, 42, 43). This suggests that muscle spindle reflex activity does not have any impact
on the increased force by the SSC (1).

Furthermore, when a muscle is forcefully lengthened, the Golgi tendon organs (GTO) engage an opposite stretchreflex response to the muscle spindles. Their role is to inhibit (i.e. prevent) the excitation of the muscle spindles
during forceful over-lengthening to prevent the possibility of injury (5). Though this may seem as a bizarre trade-off
between the muscle spindles and the GTO, the muscle spindles activate when muscle-tendon unit is forcefully
lengthened, whilst the GTO activate when the forceful lengthening becomes too large (39).
Due to the inhibitory stretch-reflex response of the GTO, it is thought that this may counteract the contraction action
of the muscle spindles. If so, this would mean that the GTO inhibits the high-muscular stiffness needed during the
SSC and therefore reduces the concentric force output and subsequent performance (2). In fact, research has shown
that muscle activation levels and therefore muscle stiffness have been reduced during the early phases of the
SSC in individuals who are unaccustomed to intense SSC movements (28). Interestingly however, 4-months of
plyometric training has been shown to reduce this GTO inhibitory effect (disinhibition) and increase muscular preactivity and muscle-tendon stiffness (27). As a result, it appears that effective training methods (e.g. plyometrics) can
reduce or even eliminate the potential negative effects observed from the GTO inhibitory effect.
Active State
The active state is the period of time in which force can be developed during the eccentric and amortization phases of
the SSC before any concentric contraction occurs. For example, during the countermovement or dropping action of
the CMJ, the active state is developed during the eccentric and amortisation phases. The unpinning belief is that
exercises which possess longer eccentric and amortization phases of the SSC will allow more time for the formation
of cross-bridges, therefore enhancing joint moments, and thus improving concentric force output. Increasing the
amount of force, and the time available for force to be developed, typically leads to a concurrent increase in the
impulse (Impulse = Force x Time) (24, 44). In other words, increasing the force application will lead to improvements
in power output and therefore athletic performance.
There is widespread agreement to suggest that the active state is largest contributor to the performance enhancing
effects of the SSC, as it allows for a greater build-up of force prior to concentric shortening (1, 24, 44, 2).

Electromechanical Delay (EMD)

he electromechanical delay (EMD) refers to neural and physiological delay in the production of mechanical force.

This simply implies that the muscles cannot generate and transmit force to the skeletal system instantaneously,
instead there is a slight delay. A delay in the production of mechanical force can therefore lead to a reduction in
performance (24).
Currently there are numerous components which have been suggested to contribute to this delay:
1.

Finite rate of increase in muscle stimulation by the central nervous system.

2.

Propagation of the action potential on the muscle membrane.

3.

Time-constraints of calcium release and cross-bridge formation.

4.

Interaction between the contractile filaments and the series elastic components.

5.

Toe-region of the tendon.

As a complete analysis of all these neurophysiological factors are beyond the scope of this article and readily
available in exercise physiology textbooks, only the toe-region will be explained.

The toe-region of the SSC, otherwise simply explained as slack within the tendon is present at the very beginning of
the SSC. To simplify this concept, imagine a coiled up piece of string that is being pulled from both ends in order to
straighten it out and create tension. Well this slack, before the string is straight, is referred to as the toe-region. It is
recognised that this slack within the tendon delays the time in which muscle-tendon stiffness and concentric force can
be generated simply the time taken to straighten the string and create tension (45) (Figure 3). Therefore, the toeregion reduces the time available to generate force during the SSC, and thus reduces concentric force output.

Due to the negative effects of the EMD on mechanical force, it has been proposed that optimising muscular preactivity may reduce or even counteract the effects of EMD by exciting the muscle and creating muscle-tendon
stiffness prior to the start of the SSC (2). As a result, training methods which improve pre-activity, such as plyometric
and ballistic training, may be beneficial for the optimisation of the SSC (27).

Conclusion

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