Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Volume 1/2
THEORY and EXERCISES
TEACHER/STUDENT handbook
MCM7A$$101E0.doc
CONTENTS
SAFETY RULES
page 1
page 3
A21.1
A21.2
A21.3
A21.4
A21.5
A21.6
page 5
Introduction
V/I converters
I/V converters
Characteristics of V/I Converters
Characteristics of I/V Converters
Exercises
page 15
A23.1
A23.2
A23.3
A23.4
A23.5
A23.6
page 22
Introduction
V/F Converters
F/V Converters
Characteristics of V/F Converters
Characteristics of F/V Converters
Exercises
page 35
SAFETY RULES
SAFETY RULES
-1-
LESSONS
The lessons described in this handbook include some MULTIPLECHOICE questions (quizzes).
Several possible answers are suggested to each question, but only one is
correct.
__________ _ __________
-2-
-3-
-4-
INSTRUMENTS
Dual-trace oscilloscope
Digital multimeter
A21.1 Introduction
Some applications such as driving coils (electromagnets) and
transmitting signals on very long lines often require the use of a current
signal instead of a voltage.
When the current signals transmitted are received, these signals must
often be converted into voltage. These conversions are carried out by
devices called V/I converters and I/V converters.
V/I converters will convert a voltage into a current, whereas I/V
converters will convert a current into a voltage
A current range, usually normalized at 4 to 20 mA, will correspond to
the input voltage range.
Also the range of 0 to 20 mA is used, but in this case the condition of
broken wire cannot be differentiated from the condition I=0.
The output range of I/V converters is chosen according to the use;
usually it goes from 0 to 8 V, from 0 to 10 V, from -8 V to +8 V, from
-10 V to +10 V.
Aim of this lesson is to introduce the notions on the operation and main
characteristics of I/V and V/I converters.
The following lessons will analyze the other converters included in the
module, as well as their operation and characteristics, and how these
characteristics can affect the system behaviour.
A21.2 V/I converters
This section will explain the theoretical operating principles of
converters for an easier understanding of their operation.
The simplest V/I converters are those used with floating loads (not
earthed).
-5-
Fig. A21.2.1
The circuit shown in Fig. A21.2.1A is a simple operational amplifier
connected in inverting configuration.
Its input current is:
i1 =
ei
R1
ei
R1
and i1 is also the load current. The current required by the signal source
is very faint because non-inverting amplifiers have a high impedance.
Fig. A21.2.2 shows another V/I converter for floating load.
Most current is supplied by the operational amplifier, in this converter
and only a small portion comes from the signal source.
-6-
Fig. A21.2.2
Analyzing the circuit will lead to the following equation for the load
current:
iL =
ei R 2
1 +
R1 R 3
Resistor R1 can have a rather high value to minimize the load of the
signal source.
The amplifier must be able to supply the load with all the current
besides outputting a voltage equal to:
eo max iL max (ZL + R3)
The loads with an earthed end require some circuits that can convert a
voltage into a current. The circuit with only one amplifier shown in Fig.
A21.2.3 works like a current source controlled by voltage ei.
The formula relating voltage to current is indicated here below:
iL =
ei
RL
-7-
Fig. A21.2.3
If these resistance ratios are equal, the circuit operates like a real current
source with very high internal impedance. If these ratios are not equal, a
reduction of the input impedance of current source must be considered.
Then fluctuations of the real load impedance will lead to fluctuations of
the output current.
The output voltage range of the operational amplifier of the circuit of
Fig. A21.2.3 must be sufficient to supply the maximum load voltage
plus the voltage drop across R3. Usually R1 and R2 are chosen so that
faint currents can flow, whereas the values of RF and R3 are low to
minimize voltage drops.
The circuit of Fig. A21.2.4 uses two inverting amplifiers to drive a
current in a load referred to earth.
Fig. A21.2.4
-8-
R 3 + ZL1 +
R 2 R 4 R 2
if resistors are chosen so that:
1+
R 3 R 5 RF
=
R2 R4 R2
then:
iL =
ei R 5 RF
R 3 R 4 R1
is verified, then:
iL =
ei
R3
Moreover:
R2 = RF R3
If R1 (resistor connected in series with input voltage ei) has a high
value, a very faint current will come from the signal source and
feedback elements will be crossed by very low current.
Then the output voltage is determined by the following formula
eomax = ILmax (ZL + R3)
Fig. A21.2.5 shows a modified configuration of the voltage-to-current
converter that uses two operational amplifiers. In detail, this circuit has
the additional characteristic of having a high input impedance.
-9-
Fig. A21.2.5
1 +
R 4 RL R 2
iL =
R 3 R 5 RF
R 3 + ZL 1 +
R2 R2 R4
If resistors are chosen so that the following formula:
1+
R 3 R 5 RF
=
R2 R4 R2
is verified and:
RF = R4 = R5
2e RF
R2 R4
and at last:
RL = RF R3
- 10 -
Fig. A21.3.1
Zid
RF
1+ A
Zid
1+
(1 + A )
RF
- 11 -
As these measuring circuits are used for signals of very low frequency,
usually a capacitor CF is connected in parallel with resistor RF to
reduce the high-frequency current noise. The output impedance of the
converter is rather low.
A21.4 Characteristics of V/I Converters
- 12 -
A21.6 EXERCISES
Q1
Which is the current range of normal operation for V/I and I/V
converters ?
1
+5 to -5 mA
2
4 to 20 mA
3
+15 to -15 mA
4
+100 to -100 mA
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Use RV6 and select an input voltage of +4 V for the V/I converter.
- 13 -
Turn switch S9 to ON
MCM7A
MCM7A
Measure the output current between test point TP 5 and earth, with
a multimeter. Its value will be equal to approximately 12 mA
Q6
Q7
- 14 -
INSTRUMENTS
Dual-trace oscilloscope
Digital multimeter
Fig. A22.1.1
- 16 -
Fig. A22.3.1.
- 17 -
adjust RV4 so that the voltage across jack 7 reaches the value of
-1.6 V
adjust RV3 so that the voltage across jack 8 attains the value of
8 V,
A22.5 EXERCISES
Q1
Q2
Q3
Which is the maximum value of load resistance at the output of the V/I
converter ?
1
1 k
2
150
3
1 M
4
5
5
1
- 18 -
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Turn switch S3 to ON
MCM7A
Q8
Q9
MCM7A
MCM7A
MCM7A
Q10
Q11
- 20 -
Turn switch S4 to ON
MCM7A
Q12
Measure the output voltage of I/V converter across TP8. Its value
will not be 4 V, but a lower value (approximately 0.8 V).
MCM7A
MCM7A
Q13
MCM7A
- 21 -
INSTRUMENTS
Dual-trace oscilloscope
Digital multimeter
A23.1 Introduction
Using these two waveforms in output will usually simplify the design,
especially if a very wide dynamic frequency band is required. The next
sections of this chapter will explain the operating principles of some
typical voltage-to-frequency converters
V/F converter with square-wave output
Fig. A23.2.1 will show the basic diagram of a device carrying out this
type of conversion.
Fig. A23.2.1
time at all because also input signal e1 is multiplied by the same e0.
Then varying e1 will vary the frequency of output signal e0 linearly. The
operational amplifier A3 has a function of limit for the output signal.
Fig. A23.2.2
V/F converter with pulse-train output
Fig. A23.2.3 shows a circuit that converts an analog signal into a pulse
train.
The operational amplifiers included in this circuit must have good
saturation characteristics, high input impedance and high slew-rate so
that the resulting converter can ensure very good performance.
The operational amplifiers normally used are J-FETs because the use of
bipolar devices would limit the operating range.
Suppose that in the beginning transistor Q1 turns off and the adjusting
potentiometer is set to obtain an output signal with amplitude of -8 V,
thus the operation of this circuit can better be understood. The output of
A2 will be negative if e2 is more positive than -8 V.
As the collector of Q1 is at 0 V, a voltage of -11, -12 Vis applied to its
base by the output of A2. In these conditions Q1 is OFF, as supposed.
But, as input is positive, the output of integrator A1 will become more
and more negative (integration constant RC) until it falls below the
value of -8 V with a consequent switching of the output of A2 to
positive values. This implies that transistor Q1 starts turning on and
consequently output e0 will go to approximately 0 V. More exactly, this
output will take the value of -VCE (sat), that is -0.1 V.
- 24 -
Fig. A23.2.3
- 25 -
Fig. A23.2.4
V/F converter of high performance
A linear V/F converter, with very wide dynamic range, can be designed
with functional modules of high performance. It uses a high-speed
integrator and a reset system with amplified current.
These circuits are generally more expensive than those described before,
but they offer excellent performance.
The example of Fig. A23.2.5 shows the electric diagram of a V/F
converter of high performance.
Fig. A23.2.5
- 26 -
Fig. A23.2.6
This circuit can operate up to 100 kHz; improving its design will lead to
obtain an operating range of 1000 to 1 with linearity of 1%.
Monolithic V/F converters
- 27 -
Fig. A23.2.7.
- 28 -
Fig. A23.3.1
When choosing the time constant RC of this filter consider that if this
constant is too low, the ripple of output signal is increased, whereas if it
is too high, it reduces the response rate of the device considerably.
The simple situation considered above concerning a sequence of pulses
of constant shape and amplitude, can be obtained from a signal of any
- 29 -
Fig. A23.3.2
Fig. A23.3.3
- 30 -
Fig. A23.3.4
frequency range: the wider the frequency band is, the better the
resolution for a certain counting period will be
This section will describe the main characteristics that a frequency-tovoltage converter must have, besides those environmental and of
measurement already explained for V/F converters; they are:
threshold value, that is the value required by the input to know that
a new cycle has started
- 32 -
A23.6 EXERCISES
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
- 33 -
Q6
Q7
- 34 -
INSTRUMENTS
Dual-trace oscilloscope
Digital multimeter
- 35 -
Fig. A24.1.1
Operating principle
Fig. A24.1.2
- 36 -
3.
4.
5.
6.
Fig. A24.1.3
Functional blocks
- 38 -
VIN RS
1
2,09V RL R C
Fig. A24.1.4
- 39 -
Select a different input voltage, e.g.: +4.00 Vdc, and check whether
the output frequency is 4.00 kHz.
Fig. A24.3.1
- 40 -
Fig. A24.3.2
Select a different input voltage, e.g.: +4.00 Vdc, and check whether
the output frequency is 4.00 kHz.
- 41 -
A24.5 EXERCISES
Q1
Which type of converter is used for the V/F and F/V converters of this
module ?
1
Converter with operational amplifiers
2
Monolithic V/F converter
3
Converter with discrete components
4
Microcontroller converter
Q2
Q3
MCM7A
Q4
- 42 -
Q5
MCM7A
MCM7A
MCM7A
Q6
Q7
MCM7A
Turn switch S5 to ON
Q8
MCM7A
- 44 -