Can Architecture help in the fight against desertification?

Designing oases
In this essay I have investigated the potential contribution architecture can have to the important struggle against
desertification. This was inspired by the desert greenhouse invention and biomimicry methods based on the stenocara beetle
of the Namib Desert.
Desertification is a problem that has always existed, nonetheless humans have been a major factor in the spread of
exhausted land vulnerable to desertification. This is caused by logging, overgrazing, ploughing, agricultural chemicals that
disrupt the biological diversity and structure in soils weakening the soils ability to retain water, nutrients and ultimately
supporting life.
12 million hectares is lost every year to desertification (Good planet foundation.)
In 2000, drylands, which occupy 41% of Earths land area, were home to a third of the human population, or 2 billion people.
(Millenium ecosystem assessment)
The ecosystems lost to desertification are extremely important, as they provide the ecosystem service of recharging the
water table, filtering water and creating microclimates benefit those downstream who rely on groundwater. Ecosystem
service are unbeknownst to most of us Filtration, transport, climate regulation. Ecosystem services play a key role in water
resources $63 trillion to Global GDP $51 trillion value provided by earth to the global economy (ANA, Nature in Water Security
- Water Security animation)
Desertification is not irreversible however prevention is better than cure. Effective examples of the return of desert land to
forest have been proven in northern china known as The green wall of China. Africa has started planting a green wall from
Senegal to Jebuti, West to East, 300 miles has been planted so far. This will be a political challenge. However the positive part
is it is not like a road that would require knocking peoples houses down. Each country will have a battle to protect the green
wall.

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Building performance and energy use impact?

Human settlement has an impact on desertification in that cities in arid regions often pipe water from other locations whether
from aquifers or from rivers and lakes, in turn lowering the water table for people who rely on wells and even dry up rivers.
Timber cut from upstream highland areas can have a grave impact, as removal of the ecosystem services upstream removes,
filtration, collection, disease control and flood prevention. Therefore architects in arid regions need to minimize the use of
unsustainable timber supplies. More indirectly, architects and builders need to be careful where they source all their materials
and look at their impact on arid regions. The problem being that impacts are not always direct or obvious.
The problem is exacerbated in arid regions due to a lack of understanding of the impact certain activities have. Farmers or
animal herders are often just following in the footsteps of their fathers. The lack of knowledge or simply lack of care combined
with greed, power and vast economic resources results in developments like those in Dubai.
Building performance in arid regions
In arid areas of the world building performance is viewed from a different perspective from our own temperate one. The focus
of a high performance building in arid regions is cool indoor temperatures and low water use levels, both important due to
limited potable water that is often used to service contemporary buildings via air conditioning units, swimming pools. The
same rules apply to energy use, as there is no reason that people should use much more than their European counterparts in
Arid regions.
Worst case scenario UAE
Abu Dhabi, of the UAE the wealthiest of its emirates, consumed 550 liters of water per person per day, two to three times the
world average of 180-200 liters. Analysts say per capita water use in the UAE overall is roughly four times that of Europe. To
ease groundwater use, about 60 percent of consumption in the desert country, the UAE has invested heavily in desalination,
producing nine million cubic meters of water daily at $18 million a day. De-salination often happens 24 hours a day at the
same rate of production. When there is surplus water, it is pumped back into the gulf (Reuters, ERIKA SOLOMON, 2010)

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These figures are outrageous in terms of urban or building performance. This is the equivalent of using absolutely no
insulation in a building, whilst maintaining a comfortable indoor temperature in the middle of winter. If there was a form of
energy policing this would be a major crime.

Abu Dhabi experiences thick fog and mist at various points through the year. This has been provable to be harvestable in
many places. Most months of the year there is at least 2 days of fog per month up to an average of 5 days alongside
thunderstorms and small amounts of rain. (http://www.avmet.ae/climate.aspx) Water collected at these times would at least
decrease the burden on de-salination.
However due to the high output of de-salination plants it would be unlikely that they would invest in the use of fog collection
strategies.

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Has the UAE woken up?

Masdar city, a renewable energy technology bonanza
Nevertheless the UAE seems to have woken up to the issues of sustainability, or maybe they are just pretending. Masdar city,
is a test bed city in many ways but ultimately is not doing anything very innovative. They are using existing technologies in
an extravagant way as well as using historical methods like narrow alleyways between buildings to provide shade.
However there are concerns that the 6-square-kilometer walled city wont have enough occupants to make it economically
viable, with a targeted population of 47,500 people, and 1,500 businesses on which it would rely to make the plan
worthwhile.
It appears the UAE are showing off again with bravado. Despite their vast economic resources they havent devised anything
better than solar panels, which are actually less efficient in hot weather and also get covered in desert dust. (Masdar Update:
The Green City in the Middle East Struggles With Dust and Departures, Brett Prior July 26, 2010
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/masdar-update)
The aim of the development is to reduce potable water consumption by 54% but from what starting figure is the question.
This is an improvement on the previous pattern of the UAE and hopefully the ideas will spread to the rest of the region.
Masdar makes its own energy and uses, but is it regenerative of the surrounding landscape? No.
It is focused on experimenting with renewable energy technologies. Ultimately the architecture may minimize water use
through natural cooling and shading methods and the use of low water use technologies. However the next step is
regenerative thinking.

Overlooking effective ecological methods

The UAE are still focusing on the expensive technological route of sustainability and seem to be avoiding the more simple
ecological design route, which would actually be a better use of their resources and is regenerative to the land.
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The master plan was to desalinate groundwater with solar energy, but for now water is piped in from one of Abu Dhabi's gasfired, high-energy, desalination plants. (John Vidal, The guardian, 2011)
Architecture is responsible for urban development more than it is for rural agricultural developments or activities. However it
is a combination of these two centres of activity that the problem stems from. The performance of cities, buildings and people
all tie together.
The same goes for cultural patterns and societal norms. If it is seen as acceptable to use vast amounts of water because
there is enough oil or gas to power de-salination plants then people will continue to do it for as long as they can. How quickly
can culture change? One generation?
Architects and urban designers need to tackle the causes of desertification. Erosion, lack of water, irresponsible agriculture,
heat, winds, weather patterns, social and educational deficiencies.
Masdar city A renewable technology experiment
Masdar is an exemplary city in many ways but ultimately is not doing anything very innovative. The master plan was to
desalinate groundwater with solar energy, but for now water is piped in from one of Abu Dhabi's gas-fired, high-energy,
desalination plants. (John Vidal, The guardian, 2011) The aim of the development is to reduce potable water consumption by
54% but from what starting figure is the question..
It is focused on experimenting with renewable energy technologies. Ultimately the architecture may minimize water use
through natural cooling and shading methods and the use of low water use technologies. However the next step is
regenerative thinking.
Despite the efforts of Masdar city to be an example of sustainable architectural design, it is still inward focused. When it
comes to urban design or architecture it is about using less and having a low impact, after all the initial impact of the building
work.
In the case of desertification the city is still extracting aquifer water, albeit brackish water. Masdar makes its own energy and
uses less, but is it regenerative of the surrounding landscape? No.
Adaptation is apathy Conquest is crucial
Humans have directly caused desertification in many regions, such as the dust-bowl disaster in the U.S in the 1930s. The
catastrophe was caused by improper farming methods, particularly unsuitable for the drier regions they were used in. This
was due to a lack of understanding that led to disaster.
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It is not effective to simply adapt to desertification as it is a relentless force that simply isg the dust is not going to settle.
Due to the fact we have actively caused damage in the past, it is necessary to actively restore these areas to a self sustaining
productive ecosystem beneficial to the flora and fauna that provide valuable ecosystem services to humans, still a human
centred perspective. Nonetheless, when deserts are restored again a new apropos attitude must accompany this for
continued stability of these sensitive regions.
Deserts will spread without proper management and regeneration.

Planting an oasis, Permaculture solutions

Regeneration is possible and has been proven to be in several locations. Seemingly simple methods have been used with
little to zero man made technology. Permaculture principles including swales, berms and gabions and other initial man made
interventions can help to regenerate even salty desert land.
Pioneer tree species are planted to fix nitrogen, provide shade, increase soil stability. Organic matter starts to collect and soil
begins to form. Water that falls in these areas soaks slowly into the ground and can be utilised by the plants and also
recharge groundwater.
Initially management is needed but these manmade oases can eventually self manage, creating its own soil and thus being
self fertile and spreadable. Nonetheless, irresponsible human activities could quickly turn the area back to desert, such as
unmanaged grazing, cutting trees down for firewood and building.
The miracle water village, a community initiative that transformed a rural Indian village used swales and other simple land
alterations to great success. (The miracle water village, Black ticket films, You tube)
When food production can be achieved people can live there and thus build homes and infrastructure. This is where the
architecture comes in. Ultimately, once a water supply is created or obtained life can start.
Restorative development
In terms of architecture, the design have to be a continuously productive i.e usage lower than output positive urban sprawl,
buildings need to contribute to water production and or harvesting and subsequently food production.
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Urban sprawl could be positive and desirable. Towns would be founded on the basis of continuous productive urban
landscapes (CPULs, Andre Viljoen, Katrin Bohn) and this could be the principle of development instead of a reaction to
negative urban problems.
The perimeter of towns can be buffered by native suitable tree and plant species, this is something that could be structured
with design utilising permaculture principles. This would actually increase humidity levels and shade locally and provide a
cooling effect allowing for further spread verdure.
Crucially it is the ongoing habitation and effective running of the settlement or building that will ultimately decide the impact
it has.
Architectures power is at the mercy of its creators and guardians.
Can architecture contribute to this process?
Architecture could play a part in helping to perpetuate these rehabilitating areas and also get them started. If the site
becomes established and productive, which is possible in approximately 4 years according to Geoff Lawton of the
permaculture institute, people could settle there.
Before, during and after this time buildings could contribute to the process. For instance rather than just minimising a
buildings consumption of water, the building would perform so that it would have either zero effective water use, such that it
covers its own consumption by its own harvesting of water. Reservoir pools could be used to cool the buildings passively,
combined with wind catchers that can provide rest-bite from the hot desert air.
In the ecologically un-productive landscape of deserts the buildings must be productive due to the scarcity of resources.
Providing shade, water, organic matter and land stability.
Human waste could be processed and utilised to both make gas for energy and also provide much needed organic matter to
help re-create soils and fertilize trees and plants.
Site location contributes to effectiveness
Site location is very important and should be carefully considered when designing a settlement site in arid regions. This can
act as a base for a regenerative community for instance. The base of mountains or hills for example is a beneficial location
for collecting water.

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Most major cities in dry regions are adjacent to the sea, historically for trade and fishing. There is often little rainfall but this is
a better place to be than inland, as water can be de-salinated using low energy methods. Relative humidity is much higher
near the sea and decreases inland therefore using new low impact technologies such as fog nets and their variants to collect
water vapour.
Therefore architectural design needs to take these sorts of factors into account when forming a design.
Existing design solutions
Design and technological solutions currently available to tackle problems faced in arid, desert regions.
There are already methods being utilised around the world to assist people in arid desert regions to collect water. Create
enough water to drink and use to irrigate crops. These solutions come from scientists in the developed world, where most are
free from subsistence and hence have time available to think about solutions.

Biomimicry and technical solutions

Water harvesting architecture
Using modern techniques based on biomimicry, humidity in the air can be captured.
Australian coastal solution
In Australia scientists are developing new materials based on the Stenocara beetle of the Namib desert, which collects water
on its back. The beetles shell is covered in a combination of hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces enabling it collect sea mist
from the air and provide itself with a drink. The materials mimicking the texture of the beetles shell could be used on
buildings to collect airborne humidity. (Renee cho, 3.7.2011, State of the Planet, The earth Institute, Columbia University)

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Credits: James Anderson

Jochen Bongaerts

Spider silk collecting dew

Scientists in China are researching how spider silk collects so much dew, they discovered that the fiber forms hydrophilic
spindle knots while the joints in between the knots remain smooth, so condensing water droplets slide along the smooth
surfaces and coalesce into bigger drops at the knots.
(Renee Cho | 3.7.2011 The Earth institute, Columbia University)
Competition design for water from air collectors
Water harvesters provide shade and harvest water from the air. Designed by Geotectura practice. Entry to waterAid
competition 2007.

Geotectura with Eyal Malka creative structures

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Fog nets
In coastal areas flanked by mountain chains fog nets can be utilised particularly effectively.
There are already mist catching methods used across the world which have succesfully supplied 100s of people with a
consistent supply of drinking water, from 15,000l per day to 100,000 litres per day, for 10 years, in Chungungo Chile,
resulting in a reversal of migration away from the fishing village.
One large fog collector with a 40m2 collecting surface can produce from 200litres to 1000 litres per day or none at all so
storage is necessary.

Fog nets at work in Chile

Mukerji (n.y)

Schemenaur & Cereceda (1994)

Sadly the Chungungo fog net project was neglected by local governments in an attempt to gain funding for a de-salination
plant or pipeline from other region at a potential cost of $1 million. The request has been rejected so they returned to tanker
water deliveries.
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Fog collection architectural solution

A beautiful design for a fog collection tower was designed by Chilean architect Alberto Fernandez and Susana Ortega for the
evolo skyscraper competition in 2008. If the Chungungo had a water collection tower like this they may have kept it as a
tourist attraction and produced their own water.
The population may have felt they didnt want a rudimentary system providing them water even if it did function well.
Presentation is often the key to gain support for an idea. This could be scaled down to make it cheaper, but the design is very
attractive.

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Saltwater Greenhouse
The Saltwater greenhouse, invented by Charlie Paton de-salinates saltwater using only the power from the sun. It was first
implemented in 1992 in Tenerife and has been used in various arid regions to positive effect. The below photos were taken of
a project in Oman 2 years apart and show the greenhouses potential.
If this was integrated into communities there would be local food production as well as improved green spaces and more
comfortable living environments, as the greenhouses create a localised cooling effect like forests.
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Saltwater greenhouse in Oman

Sahara forest project illustration

Saltwater greenhouse technical details

The saltwater is run over a cardboard honeycomb allowing air to blow through, in turn cooling the air, providing an optimum
environment for plant growth and resulting in clean distilled water for drinking or irrigation. The result is fresh food and
regenerated land around the greenhouse.

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This could be taken a step further and include both saltwater fish species and freshwater fish to add to the produce output
and make more use of the seawater particularly.
.

Seawatergreenhouse.com

Green Pathways

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If a sustainable model is produced one greenhouse could be used like a green planting machine that leaves a green trail in
its wake, it can move and be re-used. Leaving a self sustaining agroecology system behind that protects its own soil and
spreads itself.
The greenhouses nearest the sea could pass water back to the other greenhouses inland this could then be met further inland
by water collected by fog nets. With enough water, the structures could spread in all directions. They could also be designed
to be movable so the whole system can be moved to regenerate neighbouring areas. These could support settlements based
around the food production. The food could then be sold to established towns and cities nearby creating new economies from
once barren land.
The sahara forest project are planning a similar idea. However it would be better if it could be implemented by communities
rather than corporations.

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Conclusion
Desertification is a dangerous problem, on par with climate change. It is a problem that has been proven to be reversible and
one that people can adapt to, as proven by several examples such as Chinas green wall, the miracle water village in India
and the saltwater greenhouse design solution.
These are the basis for sustainable development, they are all in progress and still developing.
There will be a lot of temptation for local people to cut down the wood made available, therefore alternative fuels are needed.
Biogas could be produced from food and human waste, animal dung can be burnt but education will be needed in order.
It could be argued that settlement should follow the old patterns of common sense. Settling near a water source, fertile land
and raw building materials, which has lead to the development of cities in these areas that have turned into the places they
are now, often attracting rural people, which move to the outskirts of cities often overburdening and putting pressure on the
local resources.
There is a limit to these resources that has in many cases been surpassed. Historically the natural
offering of resources was enough. However with increasing demand in areas with scarce natural resources, production of
natural resources needs to grow too, which in many cases isnt happening.
At times, the solution comes from one determined individual inspired by a cause who pursues it zealously to wake people up
and show what is possible. These pioneers always face misunderstanding and often ridicule. Chinas green wall was started
by one woman and has attracted government attention and support.
This natural infrastructure could be accompanied by very careful and clever developments for pioneer people who could have
responsibility over recovered lands. Any development would need to be accompanied by education of the solutions, specific
to each region.
A model of regenerative, low cost architecture and development needs to accompany efforts to tackle desertification,
desertification is not static, so any efforts to prevent cannot be static, flexible and adaptable design solutions must be
implemented.
There are also people who believe the best solutions are manmade technology and often go down a route requiring huge
resource and energy input, often leaving damage and being unavailable to the normal man, playing people into the power of
those already in power.

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Architecture can play a role in tackling desertification but actually isnt really necessary to directly regenerate arid regions.
When it is implemented it can actually help the process
Any architecture in arid regions ideally should be able to at least harvest its own water to relieve pressure on ground water
and minimise the need for costly energy hungry processes like de-salination.
An assumption was made that architecture could have more of a direct impact but it is more about peoples attitudes and
activities. This essay doesnt delve deep into the social, educational and governmental issues that ultimately tie in with
architecture and the fight against desertification and form the main reasons for the problem.
Architects, designers or engineers arent always able to provide the solution through the design of buildings or technological
solutions and need to pay respect to the power of ecological understanding and design and its ability to regenerate land,
relying on more earthy people who understand and care for nature. They make their own credentials that will ultimately
become accepted in the future as official titles and educational certificates internationally.
Architecture students need to be made acutely aware of the implications of their design strategies for any region. This need is
more acute in more vulnerable regions of the world, where resources are scarce. Water conservation and generation needs to
be greatly advocated by the architectural community in arid regions rather than just following design fashions across the
globe and using the same technologies anywhere. Ecological understanding needs to be made paramount so that designers
can make informed decisions and can therefore be held accountable.
Architecture can be productive and contribute to the regeneration of degraded lands across the world, however this will only
happen when people have the desire to create buildings, streets and cities that produce more than they consume.

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