Introduction

This tutorial is intended to explain what RAM is and give some background on
different memory technologies in order to help you identify the RAM in your PC. It
will also discuss RAM speed and timing parameters to help you understand the
specifications often quoted on vendors' websites. Its final aim is to assist you in
upgrading your system by suggesting some tools and strategies to help you
choose new RAM. It is written from the standpoint of a desktop PC owner but
most of the concepts apply to laptops and notebooks as well. Like all PC
components, RAM has gone through a number of evolutionary changes (and some
revolutionary changes) and only the RAM designed for your computer will work in
your computer. There are literally hundreds of different RAM products on the
market today so it is important to know the correct type for your system. I am
attempting to write this for the non-technical user but the further I get the more I
descend into techno-babble so you may need to learn a few terms along the way.
I'll assume familiarity with common terms like Megabytes and Gigabytes etc.
Finally I should say I'm not a memory expert, some of the information here I
came across in the process of writing this tutorial, but I hope you will get as
much out of this exploration of RAM as I have.
WARNING - this tutorial may contain more than you ever wanted to know
about PC memory!
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Tools Required
The latest version of CPU-Z from http://www.cpuid.org/cpuz.php#about

Memtest86 from http://www.memtest86.com

Follow the instructions to make a boot Floppy or bootable CD (optional).

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What is RAM?
The term 'RAM' is an acronym for Random Access Memory, this is the memory
that your computer uses to run its operating system and any applications that
you start. The name means that the computer can access information held
anywhere (i.e. at a random location) in RAM by addressing that part of the RAM
directly. In other words if there is some information stored in the 1000th location
in memory the system does not have to read the information in the preceding
999 locations to get there, instead it can access the 1000th location simply by
specifying it. The alternative would be called sequential access, an example of
which would be accessing information stored on a hard drive - the drive can
only read the information which is currently passing underneath the read/write
heads, so if an application wants information in say sector 14 of a certain track
the drive has no option but to read all the information on that track. The drive
electronics then separates out the information from sector 14 and returns that to
the application, the information from the rest of the track is discarded. So RAM is
the quickest way of organising information for retrieval. Why not have everything
on your computer stored on RAM? The answer is cost and volatility - RAM costs
far more per GB than a hard drive and most RAM requires power to maintain the
information stored in it (It's memory is "volatile"). If you had a RAM only

computer you would have to reload the operating system and all your
applications and data every time you switched off or there was a power cut.
There are appropriate uses for this type of computer (e.g. thin clients) but
generally a system is best served by a mix of RAM and Drive storage. Your
computer needs different amounts of RAM for different tasks and the more
applications you open the more RAM is required. You might think that sooner or
later you will run out of RAM and then what? Well the operating system is
designed to cope with that situation by 'paging' blocks of RAM to the Hard Drive.
What that means is if the system is running out of RAM it takes the contents of a
'chunk' of RAM (usually the least used part) and writes it to a reserved area of
the Hard Drive, called the Page File or Swap Space. The 'chunk' of RAM is then
declared free for use. By using the swap space in this way the system
normally never runs out of RAM. But as we have already discussed accessing
information on the Hard Drive is inherently slower than accessing it from RAM so
the result is the computer slows down. No-one likes a slow computer so what do
you do about it? Obviously you want to add more RAM but to do this you need to
match the additional RAM with what is already in your PC and you need to be
sure your motherboard will support the kind of RAM you intend to use.
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Different Types of Memory and some Terminology

In "the beginning" RAM came in the form of semiconductor chips which were
individually plugged, or soldered, into the motherboard. That made up the
original 640KB of system memory that DOS hung onto for so long. Now memory
comes in clip-in modules, usually called memory sticks (not to be confused with
USB Flash drives which sometimes go by that name). Memory sticks or modules
have changed format over the years as their capacity has increased. Here is a list
of the main types, in rough order of increasing complexity, along with other terms
used to describe them:
Pins - Originally the name for the "legs" on a memory module, similar to
the legs (or lead) on an electronic chip. The terminology has carried over
to describe the number of contacts on memory modules even when they
are not pins.

Bus - A group of electrical conductors linking different parts of the

computer. Just as a bus in real life is a means of transporting large
numbers of people from one location to another, so a bus in a computer is
a means of transporting large numbers of signals (or data) from one
integrated circuit to another. For example the front-side bus (FSB)
transports data between the CPU and the Memory Controller (and to other
destinations). Buses may contain subgroups that are also buses, for
example the "Memory Bus" which links the Memory Controller and the
RAM contains an address bus, a data bus and a command bus.

SIP - Single Inline Package - an obsolete type of memory module with a

single row of (actual) pins along one side.

A 30pin SIP module

SIMM - Single Inline Memory Module - an obsolete type of memory stick

with power and data contacts on one side of the board. 30 pins.

A 30pin SIMM module

DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory - a generic term describing RAM

in which the data needs to be refreshed continually. Very widely used in
mass production PCs.

SRAM - Static Random Access Memory - a generic term describing RAM in

which the data is retained without the need to refresh. Faster, larger and
more expensive than DRAM.

Cache Memory - Cache is a term used to describe a number of different

functions in the computer. Cache memory is a separate store of SRAM
used by the CPU to store the most frequently used 'information'. The
cache can be accessed more quickly than normal RAM so by storing
frequently used functions/data there an overall speed increase can be
obtained. There are different "levels" of cache depending on how close
they are to the CPU, Level 1 cache is actually part of the CPU chip itself,
Level 2 and Level 3 are external to the CPU usually on the motherboard.

FP - Fast Page RAM - A type of DRAM, introduced in 1987, which allows

multiple accesses to a memory location without the need to re-specify the
address.

EDO - Extended Data Output RAM - a type of DRAM which uses

assumptions about the next memory access to pre-read data. Introduced
in 1990 with approx 10% increase in speed over Fast Page. Sometimes
known as Hyper Page Mode (HPM).

DIMM - Dual Inline Memory Module - a memory stick with power and data
contacts on both sides of the board.

A DIMM module *

Parity - Parity is part of an error checking process that can be used to

verify the integrity of data stored in RAM. The data is stored, as is always
the case in computers, in binary - a sequence of eight ones and zeroes
which make up the byte of data. The Parity of that data byte is found by
determining whether there are an odd number or even number of ones in
the data. The parity of each data byte can then be stored by adding an
additional bit of data, which can be either a one or a zero. This extra bit of
data is called the 'Parity Bit'. In the 'even parity' system if the total
number of ones in the byte is an odd number the parity bit is set to one,
thus evening up the number of ones. (There is also an 'odd parity' system
which is the other way round just to confuse us all). When the data is read
back into the system the computer again calculates the parity of the data
byte and compares that to the parity bit that was stored with it. If the
calculated and stored parities agree then all is well (usually) but if they
disagree then there has been an error and the data byte is suspect. To use
parity error checking the RAM must be able to store nine bits per byte of
information.

ECC - Error Correcting Code - RAM that has additional data storage for
checksum bits to allow correction of errors 'on the fly'. The memory
controller on the motherboard must support this function.

SDRAM - Single data-rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory Introduced in 1997, memory access is synchronised to the bus clock and
the bus is 64 bits wide. 168 pin modules.

RAMBUS - A revolutionary memory technology developed by Rambus Inc.

based on a type of video memory and designed for use in PCs with Intel
processors. Introduced in 1999.

RIMM - Rambus Inline Memory Module - the memory stick used in systems
using Rambus RAM. 184 pin modules.

C-RIMM - The continuity module required to fill empty memory slots in the
Rambus system.

RDRAM - Rambus DRAM - originally designed to operate at bus speeds of

up to 800MHz but only 16bits in width.

DDR - Double Data Rate memory - a type of DRAM based on SDRAM

technology that operates at twice the bus clock rate. It uses 184 pin
modules. Released in 2000. This was the mainstream memory technology
to the end of 2005.

A DDR module with heatspreaders *

SODIMM and SORIMM - Small Outline versions of DIMM and RIMM sticks.
These are smaller and thinner memory modules, typically used in laptops.
Modules have 144 or 200 pins.

SPD - Serial Presence Detect - circuitry (an EEPROM) built in to a RAM

module which will send information to the BIOS and to the Memory
Controller to inform it what type and how much memory is present, where
it is and set up complex timing parameters.

Heat Spreader - A thin metal cover making thermal contact with the
memory chips and assisting in cooling. Also allows manufacturers to put
large logos and badges on the memory modules.

DDR2 - Double Data Rate2 memory - a type of DRAM based on DDR

technology that operates at twice the clock rate. Released in 2004. This is
expected to be the mainstream memory technology to the end of 2007.
Not compatible with DDR motherboards. Modules have 240 pins.

A DDR2 module with large heatspreaders *

Dual Channel Memory - There is no difference between Dual Channel DDR

Memory and ordinary DDR Memory, it's the motherboard that is different.
Systems that have dual channel capabilities can effectively double the
bandwidth of the Memory Bus by accessing the RAM modules in pairs. To
use Dual Channelling you would purchase RAM in matched pairs and install
it symmetrically across the memory channels.

Virtual Memory - This is RAM that is simulated by the system when

running out of space in the real memory modules, it is actually space on
the Hard Drive and as such is far slower to access than real RAM.
Significant degradation of system performance occurs if more than a
certain percentage of current data resides in virtual memory.

Latency - A delay interval. I was hoping to gloss over this but so many
RAM companies quote latency figures it's bound to come up. See the
section on Latency below.

Bank - A group of memory chips (not modules) that together can supply
enough data bits to equal the CPU data bus. In the days of 30 pin modules
memory chips only held one bit per address and you could only fit 8 chips
on a module so to "fill" the 486CPU's data bus (which was 32 bits wide),
you needed four modules to make one bank. The introduction of 72 pin
SIMMs meant the whole 32bits of data could be supplied by one module,
but when the Pentium CPU was introduced with a 64bit data bus so you
needed 2 SIMMs to make a bank. This explains why owners of older
Pentium systems always had to add or upgrade their memory in pairs.
With the introduction of the 168pin DIMM this drawback was overcome
and now there can be many banks of RAM on one memory module.

Rank - A row of memory chips. Usually a rank fills one side of a memory
module so if your module has two ranks that means there are chips on
both sides.

For an illustrated guide to memory modules see this link http://www.crucial.com/library/memorymodid.asp

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Common RAM Sizes

If I remember correctly the original SIMMs came in 256KB, 512KB and 1MB
packages and cost a small fortune. In the days of Windows 95 a computer
would commonly have several 4MB or 8MB memory modules. By the time
Windows 98 came out these had become 16MB or 32MB modules to make up

around 64MB in a good system. For Windows XP computers 128MB is a workable

minimum depending on what applications you want to run, modules tend to be
128MB, 256MB or 512MB. Currently systems routinely ship with 512MB sticks and
1GB sticks are becoming more common.
RAM module sizes always double: 4MB, 8MB, 16MB, 32MB, 64MB, 128MB,
256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, etc. (since strictly speaking 1GB = 1024MB) You wont
find any 96MB RAM modules for example, but your system may have an
"unusual" amount of total RAM for a couple of reasons
a. The system contains different sized RAM modules.
For example your system shows 192MB of RAM. Most likely this was a
system that started life with 64MB of SDRAM and was upgraded by adding
a 128MB module.
b. The system has onboard video.
When a system has onboard video the video 'card' is integrated into the
motherboard, but no video memory is provided, instead the system
reserves part of the system RAM to act as video memory. How much
memory is reserved depends on settings in the BIOS and is usually any
standard size from 4MB to 64MB. The 'total' amount of RAM that Windows
sees is then the size of the RAM module, less the amount reserved for
video. This can result in some very odd-looking amounts for total system
RAM. For example a system's total RAM may be reported as 352MB. This
could be made up of one 128MB module plus one 256MB module less
32MB reserved for video.
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RAM Speed
The RAM in Intel based computers is accessed by the CPU via the front-side bus
(FSB) and the memory bus. Improvements in technology have changed the speed
of the FSB dramatically. Similarly the RAM itself has a maximum speed at which it
can reliably operate and this must be at least as high as the memory bus speed.
Clearly there is a 'grey area' where the definition of reliable operation is made
and this is one difference between 'low quality' and 'high quality' RAM - the high
quality RAM is likely to operate with close to 100% reliability significantly above
the bus speed for which it is rated. This is one of the regions that overclockers
exploit to boost their system performance - increasing the FSB speed to take
advantage of the performance 'buffer zone' of good quality RAM.
Obsolete SIMM modules (EDO or FP) were rated by the response of the chips on
the module e.g. 70 nanosecond. Older SDRAM sticks were rated as 66MHz,
100MHz (PC100) or 133MHz (PC133) speeds. Original DDR was rated at PC1600
or PC2100. Current DDR is rated as PC3200. Original RIMM modules were PC600,
PC700 and PC800 speeds. Current RIMM modules are rated PC1066. Original
DDR2 is designed for 400MHz, 533MHz and 667MHz speeds. Latest DDR2 is
designed for 800MHz operating speed.
What does this mean in terms of quantity of data that could be transferred per
second? Taking information from a variety of memory manufacturers sites we can
make a table to show some comparisons of peak memory performance:

RAM
Peak
Type of PC Speed
Throughput
RAM Rating in
in MB/sec
MHz

SDRAM PC100
SDRAM PC133
RIMM PC800
RIMM PC1066
DDR
PC1600
DDR
PC2100
DDR
PC2700
DDR
PC3200
Dual
Channel PC800
RIMM
Dual
Channel PC1066
RIMM
Dual
PC2Channel
3200
DDR2
Dual
PC2Channel
4200
DDR2
Dual
PC2Channel
5300
DDR2
Dual
PC2Channel
6400
DDR2

100
133
400
533
200
266
366
400

800
1100
1600
2100
1600
2100
2700
3200

400

3200

533

4200

400

6400

533

8400

667

10600

800

12800

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Memory Latency
Now we are getting technical... In the simplest terms Latency is delay. In a
computer it is the inevitable pause between asking for some data and having that
data available to be used. To give a real life example I looked at the Newegg site
and found a couple of pairs of 1GB DDR PC3200 RAM modules which would look
nice in my system, but am I better off ordering the OCZ Gold RAM with 2-3-3-8
timing or the Mushkin High-Performance RAM with 2-3-2-6 timing? What the heck
do those numbers mean anyway?
I'll try to offer a simple explanation, but if all this terminology really makes your
eyes glaze over then just remember if all else is equal then the lower the
numbers are, the better the RAM will perform. Then skip to the next section. For
the rest of us here goes:
Data is stored in your computer's memory chips in a similar way to storing data
in a spreadsheet - it is organised in rows and columns and is sequential along a
row. For example in a 16Mbit chip there would be 4,194,304 address locations or
"cells" arranged in 2048 rows and 2048 columns. Each cell in the chip holds four
bits of data. Part of the chip might look like this:

Address Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

Row 1
1101
1001
0100
0110
Row 2
1011
1000
1100
0000
Row 3
1111
1010
0101
1100
Row 4
1011
0011
1010
1100
Keep in mind the ones and zeroes are represented by voltage levels in the form
of electrical charge in a capacitor in the real chip and that these are being
refreshed repeatedly. To read the data in a particular cell in our 2048x2048 chip
the computer needs to indicate which Row the data is in and then indicate the
Column that holds the cell containing the required data. It does this by issuing (in
binary) an "address" for the Row and then the Column using the same 11 bit
address bus in each case (because it takes 11 bits to count up to 2048 in binary).
For example to read the data in the green cell in the diagram the computer must
first address Row 3 (highlighted in yellow) and after that address is fixed it
addresses Column 2 (highlighted in blue). Can you see a delay here already?
Because everything is taking place at mind-boggling speed there has to be a
'pause' between issuing the Row address and issuing the Column address to allow
the voltages to stabilise. If the pause is not long enough the Column address
could be corrupted by voltage remaining from the Row address resulting in the
wrong data being read. Both the Row address and the Column address are
"latched" into the memory chip by signals called "strobes", so we have a Row
Address Strobe (RAS) and a Column Address Strobe (CAS). The necessary delay
between them is called the RAS-CAS delay or TRCD. All the delays referred to are
measured in clock cycles rather than actual time intervals.
Once the cell data (1010) has been read the next four bits of data required are
(usually) in the same Row but in the next Column along so only the Column
address needs to be changed. Again there must be a delay while the previous
address 'evaporates' and the new address voltages stabilise before the address
can be latched. This delay is called the CAS Latency or CL.
Similarly, once all the required data in a row has been read a different row needs
to be addressed. Since the contents of the cells have to be refreshed and this is
done on a Row by Row basis there is another delay required called the RAS
Precharge time or TRP.
The memory in your computer is not active all the time and during the (tiny)
intervals of inactivity certain parts of the memory are shut down to help prevent
the chips from overheating. This introduces a delay when they need to be
activated again. This is called the "Active to Precharge" delay or TRAS.
Finally there is another delay that must be allowed for, which is the delay
between the computer selecting a particular memory chip (as there will be many
chips making up your RAM) and being able to issue a command to that chip. This
is called the Command Rate and for some reason seems to be without an
acronym.
So coming back to the real world and our examples from Newegg can you guess
what the quoted "timing" numbers are? That's right - they are the delays or
latencies we've just discussed. Here's how a typical timing specification might
look:

2-3-2-6-1T

The first number (2) is CL, the CAS Latency. This value has the most
effect on system performance. It is usually 2, 2.5 or 3 for DDR memory.

The second number (3) is TRCD, the RAS to CAS delay. Not as critical as
CL, it is usually 2,3 or 4 for DDR memory.

The third number (2) is TRP, the RAS Precharge delay. This value has
similar effects to TRCD.

The fourth number (6) is TRAS, the Active to Precharge delay. This value
affects stability more than performance. Typically between 5 and 8 for
DDR memory.

The last figure (1T) is the Command Rate and is often omitted, as it is
almost always 1T. For slow RAM it would be 2T. Strangely some
overclockers get very good results by deliberately setting the Command
Rate to 2T even with low latency RAM as it allows them more flexibility
when tweaking the other latencies and bus speeds.

Note that the numbers are valid only for the rated clock speed and will also be
quite different for different types of RAM.
The real life examples were 2-3-3-8 and 2-3-2-6 both of which are good for DDR
at 400MHz, but I can now see that the Mushkin 2-3-2-6 RAM may be more stable
under heavy load than the OCZ RAM. So I can check the price differential and
consider whether that is likely to be an important factor for my computer usage.
These latencies and timing figures have to be entered in the BIOS when the RAM
is installed - the reason you've probably never had to do this is they are
programmed into the SPD EEPROM on the RAM module and the BIOS reads the
values automatically (unless set to manual). If you have two RAM modules with
different timing figures then the BIOS takes the highest figure (slowest setting) to
work with. The timing figures are manufacturers recommendations for successful
operation, there is no law which says the memory module will not work with
different timing and this is fertile ground for overclockers to experiment. They
switch the BIOS memory settings to Manual so the SPD is ignored and insert their
own figures in the BIOS. I am NOT suggesting anyone attempt to do this, unless
you know exactly what you are doing. You can destroy your RAM with
inappropriate settings.
Back to table of contents

How to Identify your RAM

To properly identify your RAM you need to know the total memory size in
Megabytes(MB), how many memory modules there are, the type of RAM you

have, its speed and ideally its manufacturer. There are a number of different
ways you can find some or all of this information.
1. Check the Paperwork
The purchase invoice/docket may specify the RAM used. Or you may have
a brochure with system specifications on it. Usually these are vague but
they can provide a starting point.
2. Read the POST Messages
As the computer boots it performs a Power On Self Test (POST) and this
generates various messages about system components including the
memory. As the system boots, depending on BIOS settings, you may see
a report of the 'Main Processor' type followed by a 'Memory Testing' result
which shows how much RAM has been detected. Pressing the 'Pause' key
at the top right of your keyboard, at any time, will halt the display so you
can read it. Press Enter to continue booting. At some point, depending on
BIOS settings, the system may draw a box containing the main system
parameters. In the top of the box it will list CPU information on the left
and memory information on the right. Again using the 'pause' key will give
you time to read it. In the lower part of the box, following information
about drives, display type and I/O ports is some information about the
physical RAM. In my example system it reports there is SDRAM at ports 2,
3, 4 & 5. This tells me I have 4 sticks of SDRAM making up my 256MB.
Some systems may not show the POST messages, instead being set to
display a manufacturer's logo (look for the settings "Quick Boot" and
"Quiet Boot" in the BIOS). Either way in modern system the display may
go by so quickly you don't even see it.
3. Ask Windows
If you use Windows XP you can check how much RAM you have using the
System Information tool. Click Start >> All Programs >> Accessories >>
System Tools >> System Information. This will open a 'System
Information' window and in the summary it will tell you the total amount
of RAM recognised in your system, as circled below. Unfortunately this is
all it tells you about your RAM.

Total amount of RAM in the System

The same information can be obtained in all versions of Windows (since

Win95) by right-clicking the 'My Computer' icon and clicking on
'Properties'. The 'System Properties' window opens and displays
information including the amount of system RAM Windows has detected.
4. Use a System Information/Diagnostic Tool
Refer to Bleeping Computer's compendium of Recommended Freeware for
a range of diagnostic and information tools: Freeware Replacements for
Common Commercial Applications

As an example let's use SpeedFan to check what RAM I have:

Launching SpeedFan from its desktop icon reveals I have version
4.27 installed. The program takes a few seconds to gather
information then settles down at the 'Readings' screen where it
shows you fan speeds and component temperatures. Click on the
'Info' tab and click the 'Read info' button. This gathers information
and displays it in the 'DIMM info' box. Scroll up and down to see all
the information. As shown below SpeedFan tells me I have only one
RAM stick (DIMM #0) and it is DDR, it does not store parity
information, and the total size is 512MB. If I had more than one
stick there would also be information for DIMM #1, DIMM #2, etc.

SpeedFan 'DIMM info' Box

Now let's have a look using Everest Home Edition: Start Everest,
in the 'Menu' column on the left hand side click on 'Motherboard'.
The right hand window should change to show CPU, CPUID,
Motherboard, Memory, SPD, Chipset and BIOS icons. Click on the
cryptically named 'SPD' icon (for an explanation see the SPD entry
in the previous section). As shown below this reveals a wealth of
information. The single entry for 'DIMM1' under device description
shows I only have one memory stick. The details below show a
serial number, date of manufacture, size (512MB), type (DDR
SDRAM), speed (PC3200) and other information including the
Manufacturer's name (Kingston Technology Company Inc.) and a
link to their website. It incorrectly reports I have four DIMM slots
when in fact my motherboard only has two. Note that Everest
Home Edition is no longer under development and some of the
information may be out of date.

Everest Memory Module Properties

Additional information about the Memory Controller can be found in

the 'Motherboard' window by clicking on 'Chipset' and highlighting
'North Bridge'. This will indicate for example whether the Memory
Controller can support Dual Channelling, which you will need to
consider if you are upgrading.
Finally let's check out our RAM using the freeware program CPU-Z.
If you downloaded this from the address in the "Required Tools"
section you will have a zip file somewhere in your computer.
Extract the zip file to a directory called 'CPU-Z' or some name you
can remember easily. That's all you need to do, there is no
installation process. To run CPU-Z navigate to the CPU-Z folder and
double click the cpuz.exe file. This will run the program and
present you with a report window which looks like this:

CPU-Z Opening Screen

We're interested in the RAM at present so click the 'Memory' tab.

Here it tells me I have 512MB of DDR SDRAM on a single channel,
running at 133MHz. It tells me the ratio of the FSB to the DRAM
clock is 3:2 when I would have expected it to be 1:1 (I fixed this
later - see under "Look in the BIOS" below). This tab also tells me
the timing figures are 2-2-2-6 @133MHz. (See the 'Memory
Latency' section for an explanation of these figures). Now click the
'SPD' tab.
Information for Slot #1 is displayed, a pull down menu lets you
select slot #2, slot #3, etc., which in my case say "Empty". The
rest of the display looks like this:

CPU-Z SPD Screen

Which shows me my Kingston Value RAM has some pretty ordinary

latencies at 200MHz, but otherwise doesn't tell me anything new.

5. Go to the Computer Manufacturer's Website

If you have a 'brand name' computer, most manufacturers websites allow
you to search by model name or number and find detailed specifications of
your system in its original condition. They often include FAQs and
Support pages that will give you information about what memory is
compatible and how to upgrade. Some of these are excellent and include
videos of how to open your case and how to remove and/or add memory.
Naturally they will usually only suggest their own brand name memory as
an upgrade.
6. Use an Online Configuration Tool
Major manufacturers and suppliers of RAM offer downloadable 'Memory
Advisor' or 'Configurator' tools that can scan your computer, display the
memory specifications and recommend a compatible upgrade. I'll take a
look at some of these in the "How to Upgrade your RAM" section.

7. Look in the BIOS

Consult your motherboard manual if you don't know how to enter the
BIOS - on most systems you press the 'Del' key as the system starts to
boot. There are many different formats for the BIOS screen so I cannot be
accurate about what options you may see available. On my own system I
have American Megatrends Inc. BIOS (AMIBIOS) and clicking on 'Standard
BIOS Features' showed 'System Memory : 512MB' with no other
information. Looking under 'Advanced BIOS Features' >> 'Advanced
Chipset Settings' >> 'Northbridge Config' I found "DRAM Frequency : 266
MHz" which is a manual setting, overriding what is stored in the RAM
modules SPD. I changed this setting to 'Auto' so the BIOS would read the
SPD for the recommended value. After booting I ran CPU-Z again and the
bus ratios had changed to 1:1 and the memory frequency was now
200MHz. (Notice there is some confusion over what frequencies are which.
Because the RAM is Dual Data Rate the memory bus runs at 200MHz in
this example but the equivalent DRAM Frequency would now be 400MHz.)
8. Open the Case and Read the Labels
A quick look inside the computer will tell you how many RAM sticks you
have already. If nothing else will give you concrete information then you
can power off the system, observe static handling precautions (see below)
and remove the RAM already in there. If you are lucky the RAM stick(s)
will have a label giving you appropriate information about the size, speed,
manufacturer and possibly some warranty information. Some
manufacturers are more cryptic than others and may only give you a part
number. Some will have no label at all in which case you would have to
track down information on individual memory chips using the part
numbers printed on them. Following that process is beyond the scope of
this tutorial.
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How much RAM do you need?

"640K should be enough for anybody." - Bill Gates 1981
Ironic that this quote should come from the founder of Microsoft - the company
whose Windows operating system goes through computer resources like kids go
through birthday cake. Users of Windows XP will quickly realise that it does not
run properly on the minimum system requirements of 64MB RAM and many
people recommend 512MB as a minimum for running even medium complexity
applications. Budget systems are still being released with 128MB of RAM to run
XP Home and those owners will soon be wanting to upgrade their memory to
make their systems more responsive. So how much RAM is enough for anybody
these days? Well there is lots of advice available on the Internet including
detailed analyses covering different Operating Systems such as the 'Kingston
Ultimate Memory Guide' (see references). There is also a lot of nonsense written
about RAM requirements, for example one site said 512MB is adequate for a
Windows XP system "if you only run one application at a time or if it's your
grandmother's computer" - I'm guessing the author doesn't own a "PC" but
instead owns a "Gaming Rig".
To cut a long story short you should look at the maximum RAM your system can
accommodate, the maximum you can afford to spend on the upgrade and then
aim to at least double what you have now. Assuming you're running Windows XP

on a PC with 128MB then if you're an average user on a tight budget aim at

adding 128MB or 256MB. If you're an average user that does some digital
photography and some gaming look to have 512MB in your machine or if you do
more complex stuff or play some serious games on your PC make that 1GB. If
money is no object, make it 2GB and if you're a gaming freak... well you won't be
reading this tutorial anyway.
Back to table of contents

Can you have too much RAM?

Yes you can!
Windows 95 and Windows 98 (first edition) do not recognise more than
256MB of RAM - adding more than this can slow down your system
markedly. There is however a fix for this detailed in an AumHa article see the references section. If you have more than 1GB of RAM (though I
can't imagine why you would) Windows may not start.
See the Microsoft knowledgebase article here:
http://support.microsoft.com/?kbid=184447

Windows 98SE and Windows ME have trouble with more than 512MB RAM
- you may get "Out of Memory" errors or other symptoms.
See the Microsoft knowledgebase article here:
http://support.microsoft.com/kb/q253912/

Windows 98SE and Windows ME will not run well with more than 1GB of
RAM. This may cause "potential system instability" according to Microsoft.

Some versions of the Award BIOS slow down your system markedly when
more than 768MB of RAM is installed.

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How to Upgrade your RAM

1. Consult your Motherboard Manual

There are five important things to know about your motherboard during
RAM upgrades a. How many RAM slots do you have altogether?
b. How many RAM slots are free?
c. What is the maximum amount of RAM the motherboard will
address?
d. What is the maximum size of each memory module you can fit into
a slot?

e. Is dual channelling supported?

You might think you could calculate the maximum amount of memory
supported from the other parameters but they don't always follow simple
arithmetic. For example some motherboards have three slots, each
capable of taking a 1GB module, but the maximum addressable RAM is
2GB. If you do not have a manual available some of this information is
obtainable by simply taking the cover off the PC and shining a torch
(flashlight) inside, for the rest you will need to gather this information
from the motherboard manufacturer's website.
2. Flash your BIOS

I'm a little uncomfortable including this because if you are not very clear
on what you are doing the results may be disastrous. However I have read
that upgrading the BIOS can dramatically alter the maximum size of the
memory modules you can use in limited systems and also bugs in older
versions of your BIOS may be the cause of performance problems. Consult
your PC or motherboard manufacturers website for a "How to" on BIOS
upgrades (sometimes called "flashing the BIOS"). If your PC already
supports 512MB or 1GB modules then you probably don't need to worry
about this.
3. Use a 'Configurator'

There are online tools provided by major RAM manufacturers and

suppliers, which will analyse your system (some automatically) and
recommend RAM products that are compatible. Below I have written out
my experiences trying a few of these tools:
i.

The Corsair Configurator http://www.corsairmemory.com/corsair/configurator_search.html

Since I had the manual handy I knew the model number of my

motherboard and chose to search by motherboard in the selector.
Every time a choice is made you have to wait a few seconds while
the whole frame blanks out and re-appears with your choice
displayed, which is a little off-putting, but it did allow me to select
my brand and model number and then press the 'GO' button. You
might want to go and get a cup of coffee at this point because you
need to sit and read for a while to digest the results which are
displayed - rather like a Logies award night these include sections
for the "Most Popular", "Best Overclocking", and "Lowest Latency"
memory modules along with a list of fun facts about my
motherboard and it's chipset including a link to the manufacturers
website if I want to double check. Clicking on any of the categories
gives more readable information on the right of the frame. Below
this is a more serious section "A Complete List of Modules
Compatible with your Product" which listed lots of modules. One
problem was they were listed in a box inside a frame on the
webpage, which on my display was about the size of a couple of
matchboxes. They were quite legible though. The recommended

modules shown in the categories were kits of 2 x 512MB PC3200

184pin DDR ideal for taking advantage of the boards dualchannelling capabilities. Curiously some of the modules
recommended were listed as 240pin DIMMs, which could not be
plugged in to my motherboard.
ii.

The Crucial Memory Advisor - http://www.crucial.com//

I entered my PC manufacturer (missed it the first time round),

failed to enter the model because I didn't know the model number
of my QBIC so I used the other option of searching for a
motherboard. I found my Soltek motherboard after scrolling down
the list and after clicking 'Go' I was presented with a list of Crucial
DDR modules ranging from single 128MB sticks to pairs of 1GB
sticks (to take advantage of dual channelling). Most of the modules
were either PC2700 or PC3200, which fits well with what I have at
the moment. Clicking the 'Performance Memory' tab showed me
some PC4000 modules that, strangely, weren't listed under the 'All
Compatible Upgrades' tab. If you really can't decide there is a
'Crucial Recommends' button that picks out one module, in my case
it chose a 512MB PC3200 DDR, which would fit very nicely.
iii.

The Kingston Memory Search - http://www.kingston.com/

This fell at the first hurdle since it didn't list Soltek as a

manufacturer under 'MemorySearch'. Most common manufacturers
are listed.
iv.

The Crucial System Scanner - http://www.crucial.com/

On the right hand side of the Crucial homepage is a blue 'Scan My

System' button. This leads to a software tool that has to download
to your system and run. There is a tick-box to agree to their terms
and conditions, clicking the continue button leads you to a
'Download the Crucial System Scanner' button which starts the
download of a file CrucialScan.exe of about 170KB. They
recommend saving it to your desktop.
Running the program opened a browser window and displayed the
slightly disappointing result "The Crucial System Scanner was
unable to determine the exact Intel model that you have." But in
the left hand frame it did display my current memory as 512MB
Non-Parity DDR PC3200 along with the (incorrect) assertion that I
had three empty RAM slots.
v.

Others

The OCZ "Ultimate Memory Configurator" http://configurator.ocztechnology.com/index.asp

The "Mushkin Advisor" http://www.mushkin.com/doc/products/advisor.asp

4. Choices

Do you keep the existing RAM?

This depends on what speed it is, how many slots you have and
whether you are dual channelling. If your original RAM is slow then
the new RAM you add will run at the same speed as the original - if
the motherboard supports significantly faster RAM it would almost
certainly be worth replacing the old RAM. If you have a limited
number of RAM slots you may have to bump the original RAM just
to get the quantity of RAM you want in the PC. If the PC is dualchannel capable but you only have one RAM stick in there then a
pair of upgrade sticks (one for each bank) would be best - do NOT
put the original RAM back in a spare slot because then the system
will revert to single channel mode. Put it in the anti-static
container, label it and give it to another computer owner who can
make good use of it.
a.

What Series RAM should you buy?

Always buy good quality, brand name RAM - one reason for this is
confidence that you are getting what you pay for. In a huge market
like this there are some suppliers willing to over-rate their products
to make a sale, working on the assumption that most people will
never know the difference. If you are keeping your existing RAM it
would make sense to buy the same brand of RAM to upgrade
because you will get the 'best fit' if you do. This becomes more
important as you run more advanced applications and games. Also
you will find that many manufacturers divide their RAM into series
called 'Gold' or 'Platinum', 'Pro' or 'XMS' for example. The higher
priced series reach higher performance criteria than the standard
modules. If you run business applications the cheapest series will
be fine. If you want to game you should check the price
differentials and consider a higher performance series. If you want
to overclock then you're probably eyeing the top of the range.
Looking past the hype we need to remember that the difference
between "value" RAM and "ultra low latency" RAM is, at best, about
10% in performance terms. Once again, for the average user that's
hardly worth the cost, but for the gamer/overclocker that may be
worth it's weight in gold. Even when looking at the most important
latency CL according to the 'RAM Guy' at Corsair "the bottom line
is, moving from CAS-3 to CAS-2 will offer a percentage
performance increase in the low single digits for most applications."
(see references)
Fashion is creeping in to RAM design now - do you want your heat
spreaders in black or silver? Like some swirling coloured LEDS on
your RAM modules? Or want them to glow a mystic blue? No
problem! Some manufacturers build a diagnostic function into the
LED displays but mostly they are sheer gimmickry. For example
one series have LEDs which display scrolling "parametric data" like
frequency, voltage and temperature or "your own personal

message" - I suppose it might impress the neighbour's kids for a

while.

LED display module *

b.

How much RAM can you afford?

Obviously that depends on how deep your pockets are. At present

RAM is relatively cheap and it may be tempting to "max out" your
motherboard but you should bear in mind the diminishing returns
from adding more and more RAM. Installing 2GB of RAM instead of
1GB costs twice as much but it will not double your computer's
performance, it may only make a difference of a few percent. If
your computer usage is mostly high-end gaming then that few
percent may make a big difference to you and it's worth
considering. If your usage is browsing, office applications and light
games then it will make no noticeable difference and therefore
would be a waste of money.

5. What to Order

Putting together all the information gathered above, along with your
choices, you should now have a clear idea of what you want to put in your
system so you can shop around for the best deal. Make a table like the
example here so you have all the details at hand:

Size
Total
No. of of RA
Add or
RAM Latenc Preferre
Amoun
Pric
RAM Each M
Series
Replace
Speed
y
d Brand
t of
e
Sticks Stic Type
?
RAM
k
2
PC320 2-3-2Iridiu
(matche 1GB DDR
xyz
2GB Replace $???
0
6-1T
m
d pair)
If you are thinking of buying something expensive look for reviews of your
chosen RAM such as the ones at Extreme Overclocking http://www.extremeoverclocking.com/articles.php or PCSTATS http://www.pcstats.com/articles.cfm before you buy.

6. A note on Dual Channelling

I have come across some contradictory information on Dual Channelling of

RAM. Remember this is a function of the motherboard, not the RAM, but
the RAM must be symmetrically placed on the two memory channels and it
has to have "matching" characteristics. Exactly how they match is not
clear. RAM manufacturers sell boxed pairs of matched RAM for dual
channelling yet according to Intel the memory does not have to be the
same brand, have the same latencies or even the same speed to dual
channel. They also say you can dual channel using say two 256MB RAM
sticks on channel A and one 512MB stick in channel B. In the end the
motherboard "decides" whether the dual channelling will be implemented
or not. If your computer has (like mine) one memory module in a dual
channel system, then adding another module of the same size, and
sensibly the same speed, should enable the system to dual channel, but it
may not. If the modules are not sufficiently "matched" the system will
continue to run with single channel access and most of the benefit of the
upgrade would be lost.

Matched Pair of DDR2 Modules *

Motherboard manufacturers try to make it easy for us to install the RAM

by colouring the RAM slots differently for different channels. So you might
have a motherboard with four slots, two of them blue and two of them
green for example. Unfortunately some manufacturers use the colour to
indicate which channel the slot belongs to while others use it to show
which is the first slot on each channel. If you get it wrong you can still use
all your RAM but you won't have the speed benefit of Dual Channelling.
Check your motherboard manual for their recommendation for where to
install the RAM modules. After installation use a utility like CPU-Z to check
whether Dual Channelling is active or not.
7. Install the New RAM

Once you have purchased and received your new RAM all that remains is
to install it, which is probably the simplest part of the whole process. Do
NOT take the new RAM out of its container until you have read the static
precautions detailed below. It's probably best to open the RAM container
after you have your computer powered down, the case opened and your
static strap attached (if available). Just before inserting or removing any
components pull the power cord out of the back of the computer and wait
for at least 30 seconds so there is no chance of any voltages left inside the
case to cause damage. Then all that is required is to unplug and remove
the old RAM if it is being replaced. For modern DIMM slots pressing down
on the plastic latches at the ends of the RAM slots will eject the RAM
module. Older systems may have less user-friendly mechanisms, but all of

them use a mechanical latch at either end of the module. To remove the
module you must disengage the latch, do NOT try to just lever the RAM
module out.
Inserting the new RAM is a matter of choosing which slots to use (if your
are not using Dual Channelling then just use the next available slot). Hold
the module close to and centred on the slot and check the notch in the
RAM module lines up with the "key" in the slot to make sure you have the
module the right way around.

RAM slots showing the key (arrowed)

Then press down (towards the motherboard) on the latches at either end
of the vacant slot to put them in the 'open' position. Insert the module in
the slot with the gold contacts towards the slot, double check it's the right
way round, then push it firmly down into the slot using firm thumb
pressure equally on each end of the module. If all is well the latches will
pop up to lock the module in place. Do the same thing for any other RAM
modules to install and you're done.
Put any removed modules in the RAM container, take off your static strap,
close the computer case and reconnect the power. The system is ready to
go.
For a rather simplistic Flash presentation on installing RAM see this link:
http://www.kingston.com/support/howto/default.asp
8. Reboot and check everything is Okay

As you reboot your system you may see POST messages reporting the
amount of memory present. If Windows will not boot you can use the
bootable disc made with Memtest-86 to test the memory. Make a note of
any error messages and revert to the original RAM. Then check the
troubleshooting sections of your RAM manufacturer's website. When
Windows has loaded okay run CPU-Z again to check the new memory has
all been recognised and is running at the correct speed and in the correct
mode. Then enjoy!
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Static Precautions
When handling RAM, as with other computer components, care needs to be taken
to avoid damaging the component through the discharge of static electricity
that builds up on your body or clothing. Static is especially a problem during dry
weather and if you have synthetic carpets or clothing. For example a synthetic
pullover (sweater) would be a bad choice of garment to wear while upgrading
memory, a short-sleeved cotton shirt would be a much better choice. The best
way to combat static while working inside your computer is to wear a static
strap attached to the chassis and worn on your wrist during the whole process.
Disposable static straps are available for a few dollars; professional versions may
cost $30-40. Alternatively if you can maintain good contact between yourself and
the metal chassis for most of the process and try not to move around too much
then that may be adequate without a strap.

Professional Static Strap

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Conclusion
I hope this tutorial has informed you of some of the different types of RAM found
in computer systems, explained some of the intricacies of RAM timing, shown you
how to identify the RAM in your own computer and helped you to choose the
correct quantity and type of RAM when upgrading.
Back to table of contents

References and Credits

1. Kingston Technology "Ultimate Memory Guide" http://www.kingston.com/tools/umg/default.asp

2. Al Weil "Introduction to Basic Overclocking" http://www.abxzone.com/abx_reviews/al2/article_p2.html

3. Windows Support Centre "Windows98 and WinME Memory Management" http://aumha.org/win4/a/memmgmt.htm

4. The Tech Report "Exploring the performance of Memory Latency" http://techreport.com/etc/2005q4/mem-latency/index.x?pg=1

5. Corsair Memory "CAS Latency: What is it, and How Does It Impact
Performance?" - http://www.corsairmemory.com/main/trg-cas.html

6. Tom's Hardware Forum "Memory FAQ" http://forumz.tomshardware.com/hardware/FAQ-read-postingftopict55024.html

7. Lost Circuits "Memory Reviews" - http://www.lostcircuits.com/memory/

8. Intel "Desktop Boards: Single/Dual Channel Memory Modes" http://www.intel.com/support/motherboards/desktop/sb/cs-011965.htm

9. AnandTech Memory Section http://www.anandtech.com/memory/default.aspx?ATVAR_SECTIONDO=lis

t

* Images of Corsair memory products are used with the kind permission of
Corsair Memory.
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