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Lecture 37-38
Switching methods
Switching methods:
Circuit switching: A mode of operation of a telephone network and also some of the
newer digital data networks. A communication path is first established through the
network between the source (calling) and destination (called) terminals and this is used
exclusively for the duration of the call or transaction. Both terminals must operate at the
same information rate.
Advantages:
1. Once the circuit is established, the network is effectively transparent to the users.
2. Data is transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than the propagation delay
through the transmission links.
3. Compatible with voice. Economies of scale can be realized by using the same
network for voice and data.
4. Commonality of calling procedures for voice and data. No special user training or
communication protocols are needed to handle data traffic.
Disadvantages:
1. Both stations must be available at the same time for the data exchange.
2. Resources must be available and dedicated through the network between the two
stations.
3. Subject to blocking. This makes it difficult to size the network properly. The problem
is less severe with the use of dynamic nonhierarchical routing techniques.
4. Requires subscriber compatibility. The devices at each end of a circuit must be
compatible in terms of protocol and data rate, since the circuit is a transparent
connection. Furthermore, for each terminal connected to a host, a separate physical
line into the host is required.
5. Large processing and signal burden. For transaction type applications, data calls are
of short duration and need to be set up rapidly. This proportionally increases the
overhead burden on the network.
Message switching: A mode of operation in which the entire message being transmitted is
switched to the other location without regard to whether the circuits actually are
interconnected at the time of your call. This usually involves a message store and forward
facility.
Advantages:
1. Line efficiency is grater, since a single node to node channel can be shared by many
messages overtime.
2. Simultaneous availability of sender and receiver is not required.
3. When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit switched network, some calls are blocked,
that is, the network refuses to accept any additional connection requests until the load
on the network decreases. On a message switched network, messages are still
accepted, but delivery delay increases.
4. A message switching system can send one message to many destinations.
5. Message priorities can be established.
6. Error control and recovery procedures on a message basis can be built into the
network.
7. A message switched network can carry out speed and code conversion.
8. Messages sent to inoperative terminals may be intercepted and either stored or
rerouted to other terminals.
Disadvantages:
1. It is not suited to real time or interactive traffic. Thus it cannot be used for voice
connections.
Packet switching: A mode of operation of a data communication network. Each message
to be transmitted through the network is first divided into a number of smaller, selfcontained message units known as packets. Each packet contains addressing information.
first stored and, depending on the addressing information contained with in it, forwarded
along an appropriate link to the next node and so on. Packets belonging to the same
message are reassembled at the destination.
Advantages:
1. This mode of operation ensures that long messages do not degrade the response time
of the network.
2. Provides speed conversion. The source and destination devices may operate at
different data rates.
3. Appears to be no blocking. As the network load increases, the delay increases, but
new exchanges are usually permitted.
4. Efficient utilization. Switches and trunks are used on demand rather than dedicating
capacity to a particular call.
5. Logical multiplexing. A host system can have simultaneous conversations with a
number of terminals over a single line.
Disadvantages:
1. Complex routing and control. To achieve efficiency and
resilience, a packet switched network must employ a
complex set of routing and control algorithms.
2. Delay. Delay is function of load. It can be long and it is
variable.
Virtual circuit packet switching: Packets will be delivered to the destination in order,
on a predetermined path (virtual path).
Advantages:
1. Helps prevent congestion. Since a node knows it is part of a virtual circuit, it can
reserve space for the anticipated arrival of packets.
2. A routing decision is made just once for each set of packets sent along the virtual
circuit.
3. Provides the user with connection oriented services, such as sequencing (Packets
arrive in the order they were sent) and error control.
Disadvantages:
1. If a virtual circuit is open too long, the current path may not be the best given current
network conditions.
2. A node failure breaks the virtual circuit connection, causing a loss of packets.
Datagram packet switching: Packets will be delivered to the destination on different
paths.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Advantages:
Nodes route each packet using the most current information about the network.
If a node fails, packets can be routed around it. It improves network reliability and
delivery performance.
Supports connectionless applications.
Avoids call setup time.
Disadvantages:
1. Unexpected packets make congestion control more difficult.
2. Separate routing decisions are necessary for each packet.
3. Packets can arrive out of order requiring the destination to order them.
Lecture 39
X.25
It was developed by CCITT to provide an interface between public packet switched networks
and their customers.
The standard specifies an interface between a host system and a packet switched network
(that is, it is an interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit terminating
equipment (DCE) for terminal operation at the packet mode on public networks).
1 It is a connection oriented network.
2 It was the first public data network.
3 Employed for packet switching in ISDN
1 It defines how a packet mode terminal can be connected to a packet network for the
exchange of data.
2 It describes the procedures necessary for establishing, maintaining, and terminating
connections (such as connection establishment, data exchange, acknowledgement,
flow control and data control).
3 It also describes a set of services, called facilities, to provide functions such as
reverse charge, call direct and delay control.
It is organized into three layers.
Packet Layer Protocol
(PLP)
Link Access procedure-Balanced (LAP- Subset of HDLC
B)
Physical Layer
(X.21)
The physical layer protocol, called X.21, specifies the physical, electrical and procedural
interface between the host and the network.
X.25 provides data link controls using a bit oriented protocol called link access procedurebalanced (LAP-B), which is a subset of HDLC. It deals with transmission errors on the
telephone line between the users equipment (host terminal) and the public network (router).
The network layer in X.25 is called the packet layer protocol (PLP). This layer is responsible
for establishing the connection, transferring the data and terminating the connection and deals
with addressing, flow control, delivery confirmation, interrupts and related issues.
X.25 uses two types of PLP packets. Information packets (I-packets) and control packets (Cpackets).
Information packets are used to transmit user data coming from the upper layers.
The control packet does not contain user data; however, it may contain an
information field necessary for the operation of the network. There are essentially
two categories of control packets.
The first category is used for flow and error control.
The second category is used for connection, termination and management
control.
X.25 is connection oriented and supports both switched virtual circuits (SVCs) and
Permanent ones (PVCs).
A switched virtual circuit is created when on computer sends a packet to the
network asking to make a call to a remote computer. Once established, packets
can be sent over the connection, always arriving in order.
RS-232, V-serie
A permanent virtual circuit is used the same way as switched one, but it is set up
in advance by agreement between the customer and the carrier. It is always
present, and no call set up is required to use it.
X.25 specifies protocols to handle resizing of messages and up to 4096 channels may be
multiplexed at the PLP level.
X.25 drawbacks:
1 It has a low 64Kbps data rate.
2 It has extensive flow control and error control at both the data link layer and the
network layer, which will create large overhead and slow down transmissions
3 Originally it is designed not for Internet and it has its own network layer. Internet
must deliver its datagram to X.25 for encapsulation in the X.25 packet. This doubles
the overhead.
Other alternatives for X.25 networks:
1 Leasing of T-1 or T-3 lines form public service providers.
1 Payment for the lines is not according to the usage (can be very costly)
2 The services provided by T1 and T3 lines assume fixed rate data all the time.
1 Bursty data requires bandwidth on demand.
In the 1980s, the X.25 networks were largely replaced by frame relay networks.
Triple X protocols: They are used to connect a dumb terminal to an X.25 network.
Lecture 40
Front end processors
Remote intelligent controller will be at the distant or far end of a communication circuit and
control 4 to 32 terminals. It is used to reduce transmission costs between terminals and the
host computer, and to reduce the processing on the host.
A central site intelligent controller is connected directly to a single port on the front end
processor, and can handle up to 32 outgoing lines. It reduces the processing on the FEP, and
increases the number of lines available.
Lecture 41
Multiplexers
10.3 Multiplexers
Multiplexer: A device that combines data traffic from several low speed communication
circuits onto a single high speed circuit.
Advantages:
1 They are robust. Failure of one channel does not affect other sub channels
Disadvantages:
2 Production costs are high because of analog components.
3 Total capacity is limited to 2400 bps due to large wasted bandwidth in the guard
bands.
4 They usually require a conditioned line
5 Most multiplexers do not allow mixing of bit rates of the sub-channels.
6 They are inflexible. If the sub-channel capacity has to be changed, hardware
modifications are required.
2.Time Division Multiplexers(TDM):
1 They can be used if all channels are point to point.
2 Line capacity utilization is better than FDMs. They generally allow faster bit rates
and potentially more channels than FDM at less cost.
3 They permit mixing of bit rates of the sub-cahnnels.
4 Classical TDMs (or dumb TDM):
1 They assign each terminal a dedicated portion of the transmission capacity of
the shared line.
2 Dumb TDMs send idle (masking) bits when a channel becomes inactive,
they waste a lot of potential capacity when the duty cycles are low.
3 They should be used if the duty cycles (time sent filling time slots with
actual data) of the data channels to be multiplexed are relatively high. A high
duty cycle means that the channel is actually carrying bits most of the time.
5 Statistical TDMs (or smart TDMs) :
1 A time division multiplexer (TDM) that dynamically allocates
communication circuit time to each of the various attached terminals,
according to whether a terminal is active or inactive at a particular moment.
Buffering and queuing functions are also included.
2 Whenever usage statistics show low duty cycles as the normal mode of
utilization for most of the channels to be multiplexed, a statistical
multiplexer system is usually a good choice. These devices send only data
bits (no idle bits), so they can appear to have a higher total bit rate than the
actual rate if high percentage of idle bits are coming from the terminals.
6 Bit interleaved multiplexer: Each time slot is one bit long.
1 Totally transparent to the terminals.
7 Byte interleaved multiplexer: Each time slot is one byte long.
1 The start-stop bits of the characters are stripped during multiplexing and
again reinserted after demultiplexing.
Fast packet multiplexer is an advanced form of statistical time division multiplexer (STDM)
that combines voice, video and data transmission. It typically supports high data transmission
rates (1 to 2 Mbps). The major difference is that fast packet multiplexers can determine which
transmissions are more important, such as voice transmissions.
To achieve greater packet transmission speed, fast packet multiplexers remove
repetitive characters from data transmissions and gaps from digitized voice transmissions.
This multiplexing allows both the data and voice to be sent with less capacity on the
multiplexed circuit. The remaining capacity can be used for more data or voice transmissions.
Concentrators
1 Multiplexes several low speed communication circuits onto a single high speed trunk.
2 Concentrators differ from statistical multiplexers
1 The total capacity of the high speed outgoing circuit, in characters per
second, is equal to the total capacity of the incoming low speed circuits.
2 Output capacity of a statistical multiplexer is less than the total capacity of
the incoming circuits.
Communications processor.
The various functions of concentrator with buffering and processing capability will cover all
aspects of communications processing A device which can do the following functions can be
called as communications processor.
1 Receipt of messages
2 Transmission of messages
3 Code conversion
4 Speed conversion
5 Message formatting
6 Buffering
7 Queue management
8 Error checking and control
9 Polling and addressing
10
Message switching and routing
Lecture 42
Protocol converters
dial up X.3 PAD (packet assembler and dissembler) for converting start stop to X.25 is an
example of a protocol converter.
Three communications devices have the primary operational function of interconnecting local
area networks. These devices are bridges, routers and gateways.
1. Bridges: The bridge operates at the data link layer of the OSI model. When LANs are in
close proximity, local bridge is used to interconnect the networks. A local bridge consists of a
processor, memory, and two LAN adapter cards, in which each adapter is connected to a
separate network.
LAN switches: A LAN switch can be considered to represent a multi-port bridge that routes
data on a frame by frame basis. Some switches that operate at the transport layer examining
TCP and UDP port numbers in effect provide load balancing for organizations with popular
web sites
Routers can be used to construct backup communication paths in case a primary path
becomes inoperative.
3. Gateways are hardware devices that connect local area networks to other dissimilar
networks. They do this by translating one network protocol into another, thereby overcoming
both hardware and software incompatibilities. They operate at all layers of the OSI model. A
gateway commonly provides a series of conversions from the physical layer through the
application layer.
Hardware protocol converter boxes convert the communication protocol used by one
computer vender to that required for another computer venders equipment.
Add on circuit boards convert microcomputer protocols to the protocol of the host computer
to which they are transmitting.
Software protocol conversion packages can support almost any terminal or microcomputer. If
an organization has a very large number of terminals or microcomputers to connect to its host
mainframe computer, software protocol conversion may be most cost effective method.
Lecture 43
Communication control devices
Functions of most common communications control devices:
Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART):
1 Start and stop bit insertion and deletion.
2 Bit (clock) synchronization.
3 Character synchronization
4 Parity bit generation and checking per character (BCC (Block check character)
computed by controlling device.
Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitter (USRT)
1 Low bit rate digital phase locked loop clock synchronization
2 Character synchronization
1 Parity generation and checking per character (Block check character computed by
controlling device)
Universal Synchronous/ Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART)
1 Can be programmed to operate as either a UART or a USRT
2 Has all the programmable features of both devices
Bit oriented protocol circuits (BOPs)
1 Opening and closing flag insertion and deletion
2 Zero bit insertion and deletion
3 CRC generation and checking
4 Idle pattern generation
Universal communications control circuits
1 Can be programmed to operate either as a UART, a USRT, or BOP
2 Has all the programmable features of each circuit
Lecture 44
USART
Universal Synchronous/ Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART)
1 It is used to perform the various control functions associated with character oriented
data transmission.
2 The term universal is used since the device can be programmed to operate in both
character oriented transmission modes: asynchronous and synchronous.
3 The specific mode and operating characteristics are selected by writing a predefined
bit pattern into one of the internal control registers of the device.
4 When programmed to operate in the asynchronous mode, the device is normally
referred to as a UART, while in the synchronous mode it is known as a USRT.
Lecture 45
Trends in data communications
Digital subscriber loop (DSL)
1 Digital transmission in subscriber loop (telephone exchange and subscriber)
2 SDSL (Symmetric DSL)
3 HDSL (High speed DSL)
4 ADSL (Asymmetric DSL)
1 Most widely used for connecting home PCs to the Internet.
2 Computer is connected to Internet all the time, without the need for dialing.
3 At the same time, regular dialed telephone service continues to be available.
Optical internet
SONET
SDH
WDM DWDM
3G
GSM CDMA
WCDMA
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