ECNG2013

LECTURE 6
Proof Techniques
Direct Proof / Counterexample
Preliminary Definitions
1. (a) An integer, n, is even if, and only if, n equals twice some integer.
i.e if n is an integer, then n is even implies that there is an integer k
such that n= 2k,
and conversely, if n= 2k where k is an integer, then n is even.
(b) An integer, n is odd if, and only if , n equals twice some integer plus 1.
i.e if n is odd then there is an integer k such that n = 2k+1 and
conversely, if n = 2k + 1
where k is an integer, then n is odd.
2. (a) An integer n is prime if, and only if, n > 1 and for all positive integers r
and s if n = r s, then
r 1 or s 1

(b) An integer n is composite if, and only if, n > 1 and for all positive
integers r and s if
n = r s, then r 1 and s 1
3. A real number is rational if, and only if, it can be expressed as a quotient of
two integers with non zero denominator.
i.e if r is rational then there exist integers a and b such that r = a/b and
b 0.
Conversely, if r = a /b where a and b are integers and b is not 0, then r
is rational.
A real number that is not rational is irrational.
4. If n and d are integers, then n is divisible by d if, and only if, n = d k for
some integer k.
Alternatively we say that
n is a multiple of d or
d is a factor of n or
d is a divisor of n or
d divides n written symbolically as d n
2
5. A perfect square is a positive integer that is equal to z for some positive
integer z .

Notation
N : Natural Numbers

Z : Integers
Q : Rational numbers
R : Real numbers

Example(1)
Prove that the sum of two even numbers is even.
Method of Direct Proof
1. Express the statement to be proved in the form , if P(x) then Q(x).
e.g For all integers m and n, if m and n are even then m + n is even.
2. Start proof by assuming that x is a particular but arbitrary value for which
hypothesis P(x) is true.
i.e Suppose that m and n are even integers.
3. Show that the conclusion Q(x) is true using definitions, previously established
results , and the rules of logical inference.
In given example, we need to use the definition of even numbers and prove that for
all integers m and n if m and n are even then m+n is even.
Proof
Suppose m and n are even integers.
m 2r and n 2 s for some integers r and s, from definition of even numbers.
m n 2r 2s 2 (r s ) 2k where k = r+s is an integer since it is the sum of two
integers.
Hence m +n is even from definition of even numbers.
Example (2)
Prove that the sum of two rational numbers is rational.
i.e For all numbers r, s, if r and s are rational then r + s is also rational.
Proof
Suppose r and s are rational numbers.
r ba and s dc for some integers a, b, c, d with b 0 and d 0 from definition of rational numbers.
rs

a
b

c
d

ad bc
bd

p
q

where p and q are integers because sums and products of integers

yield integers.
Also q 0 since b 0 and d 0.

It follows by the definition of a rational number that r + s is rational.

Counter Examples
A common mistake in attempting to prove a universal statement is to show that it is
true for a special case. For example, one might want to say since when m=14 and
n=6 (m and n are both even)then
m + n = 20 is also even, hence statement in earlier example is true.

Suppose we were asked to determine if the following statement is true.

For all real numbers ' a ' and ' b' , if a 2 b 2 then a b.

In examining the above statement, if one can cite one example where the
statement is untrue, then the statement is false since it is a universal statement.

Disproof by counter example

To disprove a statement by counterexample of the form: For all of x, if P(x) then
Q(x), find a value of x for which P(x) is true and Q(x) is false. Such an x is a
counterexample.

In Example,
Let a=1 and b=-1.
a 2 12 1 b 2 ( 1) 2
and so a 2 b 2 .
But a b, since 1 1.
Hence statement is false.

Example 2
Disprove the following statement
For all integers a and b, if a b and b a then a=b
Solution
Let a=2 and b=-2.
Then a b and b a since 2 2 and 2 2 . However , a b since 2 2
Hence the proposed divisibility property is false.