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Understanding Dog Aggression:

Epidemiological Aspects
ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF VETERINARY BEHAVIOR CLINICAL APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH SEPTEMBER 2015
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Canine Review

Understanding dog aggression: Epidemiologic aspects

In memoriam, Rudy de Meester (1953-2012)
Gina Polo a, b, *, Nstor Caldern a, c, Suzanne Clothier d, Rita de Casssia Maria Garcia a, e
a

Technical Institute of Education and Animal Control, So Paulo, Brazil

Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of So Paulo, So Paulo,
Brazil
c
Department of Veterinary Medicine, Colombian Institute of Homeopathy, Bogot, Colombia
d
Elemental Animal Inc., St Johnsville, New York
e
Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paran, Curitiba, Brazil
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 8 June 2015
Received in revised form
6 September 2015
Accepted 9 September 2015
Available online 18 September 2015

According to the World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organization, dog aggression
is a major public health problem that affects millions of people worldwide. The many consequences of
this problem involve physical and psychological trauma to victims, worker disabilities, transmission of
diseases, welfare problems for the aggressive dogs and even their abandonment, euthanasia, or violent
death. The main objectives of this article were to review epidemiologic considerations regarding the
aggression of dogs; to compile perspectives of people working within the eld of applied ethology,
governmental workers, physicians, psychologists, veterinarians, animal control ofcers, public health
teachers, and dog trainers; as well as to assist the development of technical materials, public policies,
training, and educational programs with emphasis on the prevention of dog aggression. In different
countries, there are different epidemiologic factors and attitudes toward dog aggression, suggesting that
scientic evidence and cultural considerations need to be considered when establishing local or global
prevention standards for dog aggression. We conclude that there are many unresolved issues surrounding companion animal aggression, internationally. Further collaborative investigation is required to
improve canine aggression preventive programs.
2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
aggression
dogs
preventive programs
public health

Background
Dog bites are a signicant risk to public safety (Kravetz and
Federman, 2002) that inict considerable physical and emotional
damage on victims (AVMA, 2001) but are underreported (Voelker,
1997; Clarke and Fraser, 2013). Several studies show that aggressiveness is the most frequent behavior pathology in dogs (Voith,
1985; Knol, 1987; Wright and Nesselrote, 1987; Landsberg, 1991;
Patroneck et al., 1996; Salman et al., 1998; Overall and Love, 2001;
Hsu and Serpell, 2003; Bamberger and Houpt, 2006; Yalcin and
Batmaz, 2007; Fatj et al., 2007; Chvez, 2014), and aggressive
behavior is one of the main reasons why dogs are given away,
* Address for reprint requests and correspondence: Gina Polo, Department of
Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health. University of So Paulo, So
Paulo, Brazil. Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87. CEP 05508 270, Tel: 55 11
3091 1393; Fax: 55 11 30917928.
E-mail address: gina@vps.fmvz.usp.br (G. Polo).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2015.09.003
1558-7878/ 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

abandoned, or euthanized (Patroneck et al., 1996; Salman et al.,

1998; Soares et al, 2010; Gonzlez et al., 2011; Alves et al., 2013).
Local dog aggression incidences reported per year vary considerably by location: 0.00004 bites per 1000 inhabitants in Australia
(Ozanne-Smith et al., 2001); 0.19 bites per 1000 inhabitants in
Canada (Clarke and Fraser, 2013); 1 bite per 1000 inhabitants in
Barcelona, Spain (Knobel et al., 1997); 1.48 bites per 1000 inhabitants in Belgrade, Serbia (Marijana et al., 2008); 2.42 bites per
1000 inhabitants in Campinas, So Paulo, Brazil (Rodrigues et al.,
2013); 3.1 bites per 1000 inhabitants in Minas Gerais, Brazil
(Oliveira et al., 2012); 3.2 bites per 1000 inhabitants in Paran,
Brazil (Carvalho et al., 2002); 7.1 bites per 1000 inhabitants in Bahia,
Brazil (Mascarenhas et al., 2012); 8.3 bites per 1000 inhabitants in
the Netherlands (Cornelissen and Hopster, 2010); 14.1 bites per
1000 inhabitants in the United States of America (Gilchrist et al.,
2008; CDC, 2010; WHO, 2013); and 22 bites per 1000 children
under the age of 15 years in Belgium (De Keuster et al., 2006). Of the

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G. Polo et al. / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 10 (2015) 525e534

cases reported in the United States, nearly 885,000 seek medical

care, 30,000 undergo reconstructive procedures, and between
10 and 20 are reported fatalities (Gilchrist et al., 2008; CDC, 2010;
WHO, 2013).
As there are no technical materials available for the development of public policies, training, and educational programs with
emphasis on the prevention of dog and cat aggression in Brazil and
broadly in Latin America, a workshop Understanding Canine and
Feline Aggression was conducted to review information regarding
canine and feline aggression and to help the professionals from
different sectors to improve animal aggression preventive programs in the communities. In this article, we review considerations
regarding dog aggression with emphasis on their epidemiologic
aspects.
Workshop
The workshop Understanding Canine and Feline Aggression
was conducted by the Technical Institute of Education and Animal
Control in So Paulo, Brazil on July 27-30, 2011. Participants were
experts working within the eld of applied ethology, governmental
workers, physicians, psychologists, animal welfare and zoonosis
control center ofcers, veterinarians, public health teachers, and
dog trainers.
In this workshop, 5 animal behavior experts involved in clinical
and educational work at universities reviewed the major problems
concerning the aggression of companion animals and led 5 participatory working groups. The workshop was introduced by representatives of public health organizations who briey reviewed
public health and epidemiology aspects of attacks and bites in Brazil
and worldwide. The rst talks were by Professor Rudy de Meester
from Ghent University in Belgium, Professor Alan Beck from Purdue
University College of Veterinary Medicine in the United States of
America, Professor Xavier Manteca from the Autonomous University of Barcelona in Spain, Professor Ruben Mentzel from Buenos
Aires University in Argentina, and Dr. Nestor Calderon from Technical Institute for Education and Animal Control in Colombia. These
experts highlighted issues concerning the behavior of dogs and cats
with special focus on aggressive behavior, behavioral diagnostic
tests, therapy, and prevention. The workshop had 5 working groups
formed around the development of a prevention program for dog
and cat aggression, public health policies, and legislation.
Development of a prevention program for dog aggression
Programs for the prevention of dog aggression should include
different strategies applied in an interdisciplinary way that
addresses the different groups involved as follows: public health
institutions, veterinary clinics, NGOs, companies, breeders, owners,
and families. These prevention programs must be based on the
management of the risk factors associated with dogs and victims and
must be planned strategically so that people at risk have access to
these programs (Polo et al., 2013; Polo et al., 2015). Dog owners are
most frequently involved in dog aggression (Ozanne-Smith et al.,
2001; Fatjo et al., 2007; Rosado et al., 2009; Mascarenhas et al.,
2012; Rodrigues et al., 2013), as well as adults (Rodrigues
et al., 2013), men (Avner and Baker, 1991; Gerschman et al., 1994;
Ashby, 1996; Flores et al., 1997; Thompson, 1997; Patrick and
ORourke, 1998, Ozanne-Smith et al., 2001; Oliveira et al., 2012;
Carvalho et al., 2002; Rodrigues et al., 2013), children (Jarrett, 1991;
Shewell and Nancarrow, 1997; Gerschman et al., 1994; Ashby, 1996;
Flores et al., 1997; Thompson, 1997; Patrick and ORourke, 1998;
Ozanne-Smith et al., 2001; Carvalho et al., 2002; Oliveira et al.,
2012), and the elderly (Oliveira et al., 2012). The risk of injury to the
head and neck is greater in children than in adults, adding to

increased severity, necessity for medical treatment and death rates

(Fatjo et al., 2007; Kasbekar et al., 2013; WHO, 2013).
The places where there is a higher risk of dog aggression
occurring were predominantly the dog owners home (Flores et al.,
1997; Ozanne-Smith et al., 2001; De Keuster et al., 2006; Kahn et al.,
2004; Cornelissen and Hopster, 2010), and to a lesser extent on the
street (Rodrigues et al., 2013). Aggression incidents occurred mainly
during interaction with the dog (Cornelissen and Hopster, 2010;
Mascarenhas et al., 2012; Rodrigues et al., 2013) or after provocation from children (Avner and Baker, 1991; Patrick and ORourke,
1998). Cornelissen and Hopster (2010) reported that most dog
bites that occurred in public places involve nonowners, adults, men
and were believed by the person bitten to be intentional, involving
no active interaction between the dog and the victim before
the bite.
The prevalence of dog breeds, age, sex, and reproductive status,
needs to be established within the demographic population for
which dog bites are to be investigated. Nonetheless, studies have
shown some broad breed differences for canine aggressiveness
(Borchelt, 1983; Podberscek and Serpell, 1997). Shuler et al. (2008)
reported that terriers, working, herding, and nonsporting breeds
were more likely to bite than sporting breeds, and hounds. Takeuchi
and Mori (2006) demonstrated differences in canine behavioral
predisposition among breeds even when living in different countries, suggesting that the genetic basis of breed-specic temperamental traits is manifested independently of the cultural or regional
identities of the owners. In addition, certain pathologic behaviors
can be more prevalent in some breeds, such as the aggressive
behavior in English cocker spaniels, which mainly affects males and
golden coat specimens (Podberscek and Serpell, 1997). Guy et al.
(2001) included the dogs weight in their evaluations and
concluded that increasing body size was associated with reduced
odds of biting. Moreover, Gonzlez et al. (2011) indicated that
aggressiveness toward people signicantly increased when the dog
size decreased and that breeds classied as potentially dangerous
did not display aggressiveness more often than the others. However, although smaller dogs are more likely to bite, larger dogs are
more apt to produce serious injury or death. With respect to the
source from which the dog was obtained, a high percentage of
aggressive dogs were homebred, acquired from professional
breeders, or from a pet shop (Fatj et al., 2007).
Time and source of acquisition could also be an important factor.
Fatj, et al. (2007) revealed the relation between the age of acquisition and aggressiveness. Most aggressive dogs (65.6%) were
adopted within the socialization period (from 3 to 12 weeks of age),
whereas 17% came into their new household between 12 weeks
and 12 months of age. We lack data on overall age of adoption for
dogs. However, the socialization period is a very broad range with
signicant differences between sectors and multiple neurodevelopmental changes occurring from 3 weeks onward. Pups
obtained before 7 weeks are often lacking bite inhibition, have a
fearful response to novelty, but may have appropriate interspecies
skills. A lack of bite inhibition due to failure to learn this from
siblings and dam or other adults may create one scenario in
aggression, notably one where quite a bit of damage can be done
through an uninhibited bite. These pups might still be social and
not responding from fear. Other pups might have learned bite
inhibition but have relatively impoverished, unenriched, and/or
unsafe environments and thus be poorly prepared by week 7 to
handle novelty. Still other dogs might be environmentally condent
but lacking in appropriate socialization with humans. Each of these
dogs may be predisposed to bite, but each will be coming from a
different causal factor.
Aggressiveness also could be affected by the sex and the
reproductive status of the animal. Aggressor dogs are signicantly

G. Polo et al. / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 10 (2015) 525e534

more likely to be males (Shewell and Nancarrow, 1991; Flores et al.,

1997; Gerschman et al., 1994; Ozanne-Smith et al., 2001) with a
history of biting (Rodrigues et al., 2013). Entire/intact male dogs
could have an increased probability of being aggressive than neutered males, and conversely, aggressiveness has been reported
more often in spayed female dogs (Borchelt, 1983; Wright and
Nesselrote, 1987; Wright 1991). Although Guy et al. (2001) indicated that both neutered males and spayed females showed a
positive association with a higher probability of aggression,
Blackshaw (1991) found that entire males and females are more
aggressive than neutered males and spayed females.
Strategies of education
Education is a key to reducing dog bites within a community
(AVMA, 2001). The education strategies must consider the different
target groups that interact directly or indirectly with the animals,
but especially those groups at risk. The list of those to be educated
and those who may educate includes everyone who regularly
comes into contact with the dog owners and potential victims (e.g.,
veterinarians, animal control ofcers, animal behaviorists, dog
trainers, humane society personnel, physicians, nurses, public
health ofcials, and owners).
The dog bite prevention and education program Blue Dog
(http://www.thebluedog.org/en/;
https://www.avma.org)
(De
Keuster et al., 2005, De Keuster et al., 2006, AVMA, 2015) consists
of an interactive video in which children (and their caregivers) are
able to try out their behavioral responses on a virtual dog and so
learn about what could happen with a real one. Validation of the
benecial effects of this program continues, with early studies
showing that the Blue Dog reduces errors made by children
3-6 years of age with respect to their responses to dogs behavior
(De Keuster et al., 2005. Meints and De Keuster, 2009). A pre-postrandomized design in 76 children aged 3.5-6 years found that
children using Blue Dog had greater change in recognition of risky
dog situations than children learning another program such as re
safety (Schwebel et al., 2012). An age-appropriate dog bite safety
program delivered in an elementary school setting can be effective
in producing awareness about preventing dog biteerelated injuries.
The program Prevent A Bite designed for primary school children,
tested in a randomized controlled trial, shows that children aged
7-8 years appreciably increased precautionary behavior around
strange dogs in a short term (Chapman et al., 2000). Similarly,
Spiegel (2000) designed a pilot study to evaluate an elementary
schoolebased dog bite prevention program. This program was
effective at teaching children that neighborhood and family dogs
are most likely to cause dog biteerelated injuries, that they should
never run away from a dog, and that they should never touch a dog
that is sleeping or eating. Wilson et al. (2003) measured the impact
of a brief educational dog safety program on 192 kindergarten
children in which parents beliefs about their childrens behavior
around familiar and strange dogs were investigated. The study
revealed that many children engage in unsafe behaviors around
dogs and that parents are largely unaware of the dangers associated
with such behaviors. The dog safety program resulted in a signicant increase in the ability of children to identify high-risk situations for up to 4 weeks, with the benets being even greater in
those children whose parents were also given information
regarding safe behaviors around dogs. These programs focused on
children, and their parents are relevant because parents routinely
misunderstood risks to safety in dog-child interactions (Reisner
and Shofer, 2008). Morrongiello et al. (2013) examined parents
supervision of and reactions to their children in the vicinity of
an unfamiliar dog. A pretest/posttest intervention/control groupe
randomized design assessed whether exposure to the Blue Dog

527

positively affected parental behaviors. The Blue Dog did not

effectively change parent behavior in this short study, although the
authors note that this could be because of the expectation that
nothing adverse would happen during the study. Regardless, the
results highlight the importance of targeting parent behavior, not
just child behavior, in programs that aim to reduce risk of childhood
dog bites.
The work done by specialists in veterinary behavioral medicine
with communities has also shown positive results in the prevention
of dog bites (AVMA, 2001). Anticipatory guidance based on specic
age- and situation-associated behaviors in both children and dogs
relies on the fact that patterns are predictive, and that recognizing
and anticipating these patterns can prevent dog bites and reduce
risk (Love and Overall, 2001). Kahn et al. (2003) and De Keuster
et al. (2006) demonstrated that we can learn about the behaviors
of the dog and the human before, during, and after a bite and decide
whether the dog exhibited truly pathologic behaviors, or whether
some misunderstanding of normal canine behavior was involved.
Education aimed at improving awareness and responsibility in pet
owners must emphasize an understanding of the basics of the
prevention of aggression such as the socialization period, canine
training, canine behavior, knowledge of the physical, mental, and
environmental needs of dogs, protection against an imminent
attack, and recognition of high-risk situations (animals with pain,
stress, and fear; females nursing or next to their offspring, during
handling, restraint, feeding, or during very close interactions such
as hugs, kisses, or jokes).
The responsible acquisition of a dog helps to prevent future
problems and to avoid the breakdown of the bond between the
family and their dog. Ideally, acquisition of the dog would be with
the assistance or advice from a professional behaviorist. Educational strategies for responsible procurement should be promoted
by suppliers of animals (traders, NGOs, public and private animal
control services, among other sources) with the aim to identify if
the family is ready to receive a dog and be responsible for the same
throughout his life and to understand the familys expectations and
their environment to identify the best prole for the animal to be
acquired. As the degree of socialization is inversely proportional to
the creation of an aggressive animal, the stages of socialization in
the dog must be widely known, and the necessary measures taken
to ensure that during the period of primary socialization (from the
third week to the third month in dogs) the animals have access
to the appropriate number of safe situations, people, and different
species. An enriched puppy protocol must take into account
developmental changes as the cue to introduce or shift activities
and expectations. For example, veterinarians may see neonates and
can help to educate those raising the puppies with guidelines for
what pups need at a certain age. This will be long before pups go
to their new homes or trainers see them in classes. Omissions
during specic periods can be better understood as contributory to
potentially dangerous behavior patterns. The pup who did not
receive human socialization will need support and appropriate
interactions that keep the pup in a state of productive arousal
where positive experiences are possible, where learning occurs, and
neither fear or avoidance nor nonproductive levels of excess arousal
are present.
Surveillance and diagnosis of aggression
The situation in which the bite occurred needs to be documented using validated assessment tools, so that the appropriateness of the situation, the extent to which provocation may have
been involved, the nature of the provocation, and information
about acquisition, household or environment, socialization, the use
of confrontation or positive punishment, dog body postures, and

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G. Polo et al. / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 10 (2015) 525e534

the behavioral propensities of the dog can be evaluated (CrowellDavis, 2008). The protocols should be used by veterinarians, dog
trainers, and animal control ofcers. The owners should be asked to
describe general dog history, management and dog temperament,
specifying the dog behavior (including body language, facial
expression, geometry of the body, use of space in terms of dog body
lengths) in a number of every-day situations (i.e., its reaction when
meeting a stranger on or off the property, when meeting children,
when handled or restrained, around the food bowl, and in other
situations), where the behavior occurs and the behavior of the dog
and people after the aggression, to best categorize the type and
context of aggression (Crowell-Davis, 2008; Luescher and Reisner,
2008; Clothier, 1996). Video can be used to help elucidate triggers, body language, and handler responses but should be obtained
only when it can be done safely without risk to any person or
animal. Because the development of aggression may be the result of
an underlying physical illness, a behavior problem, or a combination of the 2, a minimum database for all patients presenting
aggressiveness should include review of prior medical records,
behavioral history, behavioral observation, physical examination,
complete blood count, serum chemistry panel, total thyroid level,
urinalysis, and other diagnostic tests as indicated for the dogs age,
behavior, and clinical signs to rule out medical causes of aggressive
behavior, such as pain, infectious disease, occult injury, or neurologic disease (Crowell-Davis, 2008; Luescher and Reisner, 2008).
The visit to the household should be made preferably by a
multidisciplinary team, including a veterinarian. During the visit,
the professional should characterize the aggression evaluating the
factors related to the interaction between the family and the dog,
environmental factors, and factors intrinsic to the dog. The goals are
to characterize the aggression, dening its severity, evaluate the
relationship between the family and the dog, assess the risk of new
attacks and bites, assess the risk of the owner abandoning the animal, assess the need to remove the pet from the household, and
guide the family on the natural behavior of the species concerned
and their needs. The advantages of a house appointment include
the potential for pet and owner to be more relaxed in their home
environment and exhibit more typical behavior, avoidance of
travel-related stress, improved attendance of household members,
the ability to observe interactions with household members and
other pets, the identication of triggers specic to the home environment that would not be noticeable in a clinic setting (Sueda and
Malamed, 2014), and potentially to observe the problematic
behavior and perform behavior modication exercises in the
context in which the behavior normally occurs. The disadvantages
of a house call appointment include greater time allotment because
of travel, potential difculty in performing physical examination
and diagnostic testing, inability to use hospital support or technical
staff, an increased potential for the owner and pet to be distracted
or the appointment interrupted in their home, and potential for
pets behavior to be altered by the strangers presence in their home
which represents a greater danger to behaviorists (Sueda and
Malamed, 2014). To compare how a dog behaves at home versus
other scenarios, the Clothier Functional Assessment Tool is useful in
guiding an interview with an owner (Clothier, 2014). The owner
scales the dogs behavior based on 10-12 specic aspects of functional behaviors (eating, drinking, elimination, social-familiar
human/dog, social-strange human/dog, sleep/rest, play, work/
perform, learn, condence). This scale may be done before a visit to
help identify the areas where the dogs functional behavior reects
conict, stress or an inability to be adaptively responsive, or to have
the environment adapted to the dog to maintain the highest
possible level of functionality.
A great number of aggression batteries have been developed to
prevent human and dog aggression. Box 1 presents dog aggression

tests that are at least partially validated or in the process of

validation.
Many scientists are actually looking for other parameters to use
in the diagnosis of canine aggression as the detection of specic
neurotransmitters in cerebrospinal uid or blood that permit direct
therapeutic interventions tailored to individual neurobiological
needs. As an example, Amat et al. (2009) indicate that aggressive
English cocker spaniels have lower serum serotonin than do
aggressive dogs of other breeds that could explain why they seem to
be more likely to show impulsive aggression when compared to
other breeds. Another methods are the use of medical imaging
where serotonin receptors, serotonin transporters, dopamine
transporters, and other functions can be shown by scans, often
combined with perfusion (Vermeire et al., 2011; Peremans, et al.,
2002) and neuroimaging of serotonin 2A receptors as a valid
biomarker for canine behavioral disorders (Vermeire et al., 2011).
Treatment and rehabilitation program for aggressors
The information collected through the diagnosis records should
help determine the risk that the animal represents to the family
and the community and to decide on the treatment of the biting
animal. General treatment recommendations for human-directed
canine aggression must include client education, avoidance of
situations that trigger aggressive behavior, communication,
positive reinforcement training, response substitution, consistent
positive and predictable interactions, desensitizationecounter
conditioning (DCC), avoidance of positive punishment, appropriate
use of negative punishment, anxiolytics such as pheromones
(Gaultier and Peageat, 2003; Tod et al., 2005; Mills et al., 2006;
Levine et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2010), physical activity (Cottam and
Dodman, 2009; Cottam and Dodman, 2013), dietary supplements
(Dodman et al., 1996; Araujo et al., 2010; Dodman et al., 2013),
pharmaceutical therapy, acupuncture, music therapy, aromatherapy (Wells, 2006), homeopathy (Cracknell and Mills, 2008;
DePorter et al., 2012), grooming (McGreevy et al., 2005), herbal
preparations (Fugh-Berman and Ernst, 2001), castration (Neilson
et al., 1997), and ovariohysterectomy (OFarrell and Peachey, 1990;
Kim et al., 2006).
The rst step of a rehabilitation program is the modication of
the environment and dog-human relationship. This consists of
creating a safe environment for the dog and the other living creatures, and creating an emotionally stimulating but not stressful
environment. It is important to identify the stressors and avoid the
triggers. However, if the trigger is difcult to avoid, aggression often
worsens because the dog practices the unwanted behavior. Identifying the dynamics between handler and dog that may be
contributory to the behavior is also relevant. For example, a handler
with a habit of physically guiding the dog and reaching into the
dogs space will have a negative and possibly triggering effect on a
dog who is physically sensitive to touch and who resents being
physically guided. Teaching the handler to work cooperatively with
the dog without the use of physical guidance would be the key to
eliminating this trigger. The Relationship Assessment Tool is a rapid
assessment tool that helps dene the dynamics that are contributing to the relationship, and which are possibly causing or at least
exacerbating conict (Clothier, 2014).
The second step consists of the treatment of underlying physical
causes such as pain, sensorial disabilities, neurologic causes, hormonal causes, or interference with drugs. The third step is implementing the behavioral modication program. A good behavioral
modication program consists of 2 different groups of exercises.
The rst set are foundation exercises that aim to amplify the
owners general control by improving the dogs focus on and
responsiveness to the owner and to increase the dogs skill set by

Box 1
Tests to assess the temperament and aggressiveness partially validated or in the process of validation
Test
Campbell test for
puppy selection
Behavioral testing of dogs
in animal shelters to predict
problem behavior

Authors and year of

publication
Campbell, 1972
Van der Borg, Netto and
Planta, 1991

Netto and Planta, 1997

Sternberg, 2004

Ethotest

Lucidi et al., 2005

Behavioral test of aggression for adult

dogs

Schoening and Bradshaw,

2006

Socially acceptable behavior test as a

measure of aggression in dogs vs.
nonfamiliar humans

Planta and De Meester,

2007

CARAT assessment tool

Clothier, 2007

Behavioral evaluation and demographic

information in the assessment of
aggressiveness in shelter dogs

Bollen and Horowitz, 2007

Aggressive behavior in adopted dogs

that passed a temperament test

Christensen, Scarlett,
Campagna, Houpt, 2007

Temperament test of Low Saxony

Schalke, Ott, von gaertner,

Hackbarth, Mittman, 2008

Match-up II. Rehoming behavior test

Guyer et al., 2011

This test is carried on to score a puppy based on 5 distinctive criteria: social attraction, social domination, facility to follow, response to
obligation, and acceptance to be lifted.
This test was developed for 4 problem-related behavioral characteristics, namely aggression, fear, obedience, and separation anxiety, as well
as a category of miscellaneous problem-related behaviors. A range of stimuli is used, including humans, animals, and visual and acoustic
stimuli from objects. To validate the results from 81 dogs tested, and the opinions of the staff of the animal shelters about these dogs, they
were compared with the experiences of the new owners of the animals.
This is a test for adult dogs that takes 45 minutes for 43 stimuli. The reliability of this test has been examined by a retest after 6 months. It was
validated by comparing their results with those from a questionnaire lled out by the owners. It is standardized and gives 12% false positives.
This test is developed for use in dog shelters, especially in those where a lot of ghting dogs are present, and safety for the adopting family is
the primary focus. The evaluation process comprised 9 components, each of which consisted of observing the dogs reaction to a specic
situation. The test is mostly performed inside a testing room, and there are only 2 persons involved. It takes about 20 minutes for 1 dog.
The model is able to select dogs capable of creating a special bond with humans and able to work anywhere and with any human partner or
team. It has been validated after 1 year of observation. The aims of the Ethotest are to prevent aggressive animals from entering animalassisted activity and/or therapy programs; to select dogs with the right aptitude and specially to restrict selection to dogs that offer
consistent responses; to include both male and female purebreds or mix breeds older than 1 year of age, and to identify animals able to work
with different partners.
The test takes 40 test elements (10 in home; 30 arena). The subtests were developed and examined for their possibility to nd or looking for
individual tolerance levels for becoming stressed, frightened, or frustrated, individual behavior patterns when tolerance levels are exceeded
and absence or presence of aggressive communication/attack. This test is applied daily in several states of Germany. The impact of the test on
the prevalence of aggression in daily life, however, seems to be subject of a lot of discussion.
This validate test allows to evaluate aggression in adult dogs, but present ndings indicate that probably those that behave aggressively in
the absence of fear remain undetected. The test has 16 subtests, is performed outdoors, takes about 12 minutes and is also developed for
detecting fear in adult dogs. When looking for the predictability of the test, the agreement between the occurrence of aggressive biting
behavior in and after the test is 81.8 %. The specicity of the test is 84.2%, and the sensitivity is 69.4 %.
CARAT is an assessment tool that was developed to several guide dog schools and with individual trainers and breeders, CARAT is proving
itself to be a powerful model of understanding the ethology of the individual. CARAT creates a detailed prole of the individual dog as a
unique combination of many traits working together to inuence, exacerbate, mitigate, and enhance each other. Behavior is scored
according to how productive, functional, or adaptive it may be, with a full understanding that what may be productive, functional, or
adaptive in one context may not be in another context. In CARAT, the components are rated on a 9-point scale ranging from 4 to 4. The
scale is laid out on a left to right basis. The right positive shift is a tendency toward activation, irritation, excitability, and/or aggression; and
the left negative shift is a tendency toward inhibition, passive, or avoidant behavior. The midpoint 0 is functional, highly adaptable to a
multitude of situations, has greater tolerance to a wide range of inuences and stimuli.
Behavioral evaluations of 2017 shelter dogs were used for identifying dogs with aggressive tendencies and for predicting postadoption
behavior problems. Associations between failure of the behavioral evaluation and demographic factors (age, breed, and sex) and the dogs
behavioral history were evaluated. The tests classify dogs as aggressive or not aggressive based on their demographic factors and behavior
evaluation outcomes. The results were compared retrospectively to the dogs known behavioral histories, which were obtained at intake to
the shelter. This allowed estimation of the sensitivity, specicity, and accuracy of the classication tests. With demographic information and
behavioral history, behavioral evaluations can help to improve decisions regarding the disposition of shelter dogs.
This test used a modied test of Sternberg, (2004). The objective is to evaluate the percentage of dogs passing a standardized temperament
test in an animal shelter will exhibit aggressive behaviors after adoption. Owners of 67 dogs temperament tested and subsequently adopted
from one shelter were interviewed by telephone within 13 months of adoption. It was found that 40.9% of dogs exhibited lunging, growling,
snapping, and/or biting after adoption. The results indicated that there are certain types of aggressive tendencies (territorial, predatory, and
intraspecic aggression) that are not reliably exhibited during temperament testing using this particular evaluation process.
This test analyzed for breed predisposition for excessively aggressive signaling or aggressive behavior in inappropriate situations,
differences in behavior between breeds, and factors differentiating biting from nonbiting dogs. The test consisted of a veterinary
examination; a learning test; situations of dog-human, dog-environment, and dog-dog contact; and obedience. To be able to recognize and
assess aggressive behavior in dogs, the examiner must have a thorough knowledge of canine body language and of the biology of aggressive
behavior as well as the causes of and therapy for aggressive behavior in dogs.
The Match-Up II Rehoming Program consists of 5 parts: behavioral history, behavior evaluation, personality scores, shelter behavior, and a
behavioral triage, to get a comprehensive view of a dogs individual needs. The program is designed to help shelters learn about the
personality and needs of every dog so that behavioral interventions can be implemented and successful matches can be made. The program
includes a standardized behavior evaluation that can be conducted in 15-20 minutes.

G. Polo et al. / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 10 (2015) 525e534

Behavioral testing for aggression in the

domestic dog
Assess-a-pet for use in dog shelters

Description

(continued on next page)

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G. Polo et al. / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 10 (2015) 525e534

Valsecchi, Barnard,
Stefanini, Normando, 2011

Bennett, Litster, Weng,

Walker, Luescher. 2012

Weiss, Miller, MohanGibbons, Vela, 2012

Temperament test(TT) for shelter

dogs that addressed the topics of
inter- and intra-raters agreements,
test-retest reliability, and validity

SAFER test dog behavior assessment

to predict aggression in dogs

Meet you match program: Canineality, puppy-ality, and Feline-ality

(continued )

This study was the rst attempt to carry out a validation of a TT for shelter dogs that addressed the topics of inter- and intra-raters
agreements, test-retest reliability, and validity. The TT consisted of 22 subtests. Each dog is approached and handled by an unfamiliar person
and made to interact with a same- and an opposite-gender conspecic. Dogs are tested twice in the shelter and once in their new homes
4 months after adoption to evaluate consistency in behavioral assessment. Playfulness, trainability, problem solving abilities, food
possessiveness, and reactivity to sudden stimuli are also evaluated.
The SAFER test focuses on learned behaviors, sensitivities, and problem solving. This test provides shelter staff with the ability to evaluate a
dogs behavior accurately and efciently improving the chances that the adopted dog will remain in his new home. The SAFER test uses
standard grades.
Canine-ality adoption program strives to match adopters with the best possible dog for them. The assessment evaluates each dogs
friendliness, playfulness, energy level, and others. Adopters take surveys, which are used to match them with adoptable dogs based on
preferences. The assessment places dogs in 1 of 3 color-coded categories followed by placement in 1 of 3 canine-ality descriptions. These
codes help adopters meet the right dog for them on the basis of their personal preferences and lifestyle. Feline-ality is also a shelter assess
adoptable cats to predict how theyll behave in a new environment. Cats are categorized as 1 of 9 feline-alities, and these categories are used
to place cats with the best possible adopter on the basis of their personal preferences. Through the feline-ality assessment, cats are placed in
1 of 3 color-coded categories and assigned to a descriptive category further describing the cats personality.

530

offering alternative ways to respond to stimuli. The goal is to have

the dog respond reliably to the cues or stimuli in a relaxed and
trustful way. The pathway to success consists of some simple rules
as follows: start training in a neutral environment, reward only for
relaxed responses once the dog has a basic understanding of the
behavior itself, use positive reinforcement to establish a classically
conditioned positive emotional response to both the cue and the
performance of the behavior, and add a bridge signal or conditioned
reinforcer (clicker, whistle) to improve reinforcement clarity that
can be used in future exercises. Different exercises are attention,
relaxation, classical obedience, deferential behavior, correct play,
impulsivity control, and frustration control. The Protocol for
Relaxation is an effective protocol useful for helping dogs shift into
relaxation (Overall, 1997, 2013).
In situations where the dog is uncertain as to the most appropriate behavioral response, basic behaviors can provide the dog
with clarity and safety if the behaviors have been trained previously
and practiced using in a clear and consistent manner and are
associated with positive feelings. Therefore, during this learning
process, focus and calmness are the most important and no verbal
or physical punishment is applied. For the relaxation training, a
specic cue is used so that a conditioned feeling of relaxation is
coupled to the cue. The use of conditioned safety cues can be
considered also as well.
The second set of exercises is the stimulus-specic reaction
modication exercises that center on DCC training. Typical methodology has both classical and operant conditioning components,
although variations may focus heavily on one element over the
other. The rst step of the training is to identify the reason for the
problem behavior, the cues, and the triggers that create the reaction
and that will intensify it. This requires thoughtful research through
observation into what the individual dog smells, sees, hears, and
feels, and how that sensory input stimulates the dog. If we cannot
identify the triggers, we will never succeed in our modication
program. The down-stay relaxation tasks can serve as the foundation for stimulus-specic DCC. The triggering stimulus becomes a
new distraction added to the protocol. Each stimulus category requires development of a hierarchical list with the stimulus
composition least likely to arouse the dog at the bottom, and the
stimulus composition most likely to trigger arousal at the top and
gradually increase the stimulus intensity while assuring that the
dog stays relaxed. As an alternative for the classical counter conditioning with conditioned relaxation, we can use the techniques
developed by Suzanne Clothier to monitor arousal via volitional
posture changes in a reactive dog, and where spontaneous relaxation is rewarded (Clothier, 2012).
The fourth and last step is the medical support with psychopharmaceuticals. Often the animals rehabilitation can be supported by some nutraceuticals and changes to the diet.
Psychopharmaceuticals are only needed when there is a dysregulation of brain activity and emotional balance. Most of the time they
are used as an alternative or substitute for a good rehabilitation
training, which they are not. This makes the situation often more
dangerous because subtle reactions and changes in body language,
necessary element in the prevention of aggressive biting behavior,
are masked. In other cases, the multiple side effects of the drugs are
negative for the owners compliance. A nutraceutical is generally
dened as a food product that provides health and medical benets
by affecting physiology and that is available in forms not packaged
or marked as food. Nutraceuticals can be herbal, isolated from nutrients, derivatives of food products, manufactured as dietary supplements. The nutraceuticals that have been investigated for effects
in veterinary behavioral medicine are alpha-casozepine (Zylkene),
L-theanine (Anxitane), Harmonease, and Calmex (VetPlus), which
contains a combination of L-theanine, L-tryptophan, an array of

G. Polo et al. / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 10 (2015) 525e534

B vitamins and Piper methysticum (Overall, 2013). Medications

should always be used in conjunction with behavior modication.
Because these medications are used extra-label to treat aggressive
behavior, owners must be informed of the potential risks involved.
Blackshaw (1991) reported a 75% success rate of 36 dominance
aggression cases directed toward family members treated with
proper restraint of the dog, obedience training practiced each day
for 10 minutes, male castration, and synthetic progestins. For territorial aggression, the success rate was 94% using obedience
training, restraint, and castration. For predatory aggression, restraint only or restraint with obedience training, castration, or
progestins was used successfully in 93% of cases (Blackshaw, 1991).
The importance of owner compliance in following treatment is
recognized in all aspects of veterinary medicine. However, in veterinary behavioral medicine, where most of the treatment is conducted by the owners themselves after the consultation, owner
compliance is fundamental to the successful outcome of the case
(Casey and Bradshaw, 2008). Therefore, to improve compliance,
veterinary behaviorists should carefully explain the importance of
these behavior modication techniques to owners.
Legislation
Many authors recommend preventive measures, including strict
controls of high-risk breeds (Thompson, 1997), constraining measures such as leashing (Podberscek and Blackshaw, 1990;
Thompson, 1997), dog training (Podberscek and Blackshaw, 1990;
Bandow, 1996), education for dog owners, and families
(Podberscek and Blackshaw, 1990; Sacks et al., 1996; Bandow, 1996;
Patrick and ORourke, 1998), and enforcement of regulations
(Ashby, 1996). Bandow (1996) specically recommends that all dogs
should be socialized to accept children, that young children should
never be left alone with a dog, and that owners be encouraged to
inhibit biting behavior. Hutson et al., (1997) and Oswald (1991)
reported 2 legislative interventions as effective. The rst was a
police policy change from bite-and-hold to the less injurious
nd-and-bark for law enforcement involving dog teams operating
in Los Angeles County that resulted in a decrease in the number of
dog bite cases presented to a jail ward emergency department
(Hutson et al., 1997). The second, a pretest or posttest evaluation
design, examined the effects of a potentially dangerous dog program in limiting the opportunity for these dogs to repeat biting
behavior (Oswald, 1991).
For the prevention of canine aggression, many countries have
laws prohibiting or restricting the movement of certain dog breeds:
United Kingdom (United Kingdom, 1991), Singapore (Singapore,
1991), Poland (Poland, 1997), Ireland (Ireland, 1998), Puerto Rico
(Puerto Rico, 1998), Malta (Malta, 1998), Ukraine (Ukraine, 1998),
Brazil (Brazil), Finland (Petolog, 2014), France (France, 1999), Germany (Germany, 2001), Spain (Espaa, 2002), Colombia (Colombia,
2002), Malaysia (Malaysia, 2002), Romania (Romania, 2002), New
Zealand (New Zealand, 2003), Bermuda Islands (Bermuda, 2003),
Italy (Petolog, 2014), Israel (Petolog, 2014), Turkey (Turkey, 2004),
Norway (Norway, 2004), Belgium (Belgium, 2005), Portugal
(Portugal, 2005), Ecuador (Ecuador, 2009), Australia (Australia,
2010), Switzerland (Petolog, 2014), Venezuela (Venezuela, 2010),
Denmark (Denmark, 2010), Russia (Petolog, 2014), and Belarus
(Petolog, 2014). Schalke et al., (2008) found that breed classication
that prohibits keeping and breeding 1 category of dogs as a matter
of principle and allows dogs in other categories to be outside private property but only if certain requirements (on a leash and
wearing a muzzle) are met, cannot be justied. However, the
Australian experience suggests that well-publicized strengthening
of dog regulations can signicantly reduce dog bites to young
children (Ozzane-Smith et al., 2001). Cornelissen and Hopster

531

reported the evaluation of a breed-specic legislation commissioned by the Netherlands Government. Any legislation must take
into account the fact that there are situations in which aggressive
behavior is justied, such as when a dog is protecting its self, its
owner, offspring or home from harm, or when the dog has reason to
fear a person or animal who has harmed him in the past. Although
the evidence does not sustain the view that a given breed is a
uniquely dangerous breed, and breed-specic laws aimed to control
a given breed have not been demonstrated by authorities to be
justied by the attack record for that breed, many insurance companies refuse to insure homeowners who own certain breeds of
dog, claiming that some breeds are inherently more dangerous than
others. This practice affects families in the United States, who are
being forced to choose between home ownership and their pets
(Cunningham, 2005).
Euthanasia of the dog is an extreme measure and should be
taken only when: the dog has attacked a person without justication and has caused serious physical injury or death, and when a
qualied behaviorist who has personally evaluated the dog determines that the dog poses a substantial risk of repeating such
behavior and that no other remedy will make the dog suitable to
live safely with people. Euthanasia of healthy companion animals is
prohibited in some states of Brazil (Mato Grosso do Sul, 2005; Rio
de Janeiro, 2006; So Paulo, 2008; Rio Grande do Sul, 2009;
Pernambuco, 2010; Gois, 2012; Paran, 2012; Amazonas, 2013),
and in some countries, veterinarians face the hard decision of
routing aggressive animals in public animal control institutions for
euthanasia. In public institutions, euthanasia or permanent
connement is only recommended when: the dog is very
dangerous and has caused severe damage to a human, when other
treatments such as restraint and obedience were beyond the capacity of the shelter staff, or when all other measures had failed.
Strategies for the information system
Decentralized-network databases at state and national level
containing information of dogs and their owners may be considered. Information on the origin of the animal and the use by the
owner of public or private animal services must be also collected. In
the United States of America, the creation of such data bases is met
with claims of extreme concerns about privacy and achievable
outcomes, states rights issues, and cost that would be needed to
track animals for any dog system (Hannah, 2002). Unless municipalities in the United States of America enact and enforce specic
legislation, then micro chipping, registration with breed clubs, and
registration of chip number will remain voluntary. However, unenforced or voluntary registration and identication programs will
not provide the necessary data to track trends in dog bites or to
implement any database bite prevention program (Overall, 2010).
In one study of dog bites, in one US county, only 312 of 636 (49%)
biting dogs were licensed (Shuler et al., 2008), and unlicensed dogs
have historically been over-represented in the dog bite statistics
(Gershman et al., 1994), again suggesting that owners attitudes
pertaining to responsible dog ownership and behavior are key to
preventing dog bites.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank ITEC, CRMV SP, HSI, and WSPA
for their support. Special thanks goes to Professor Rudy de Meester
by initiating and supporting the construction of this study and his
inspiration for the publication of this work. Thanks to the international instructors: Prof. Alan Beck, Prof. Ruben Mentzel, Prof.
Xavier Manteca and to the national instructors: Alexandre Rossi,
Ceres Faraco, Maria de Lourdes Reichmann, Mauro Lantzman,

532

G. Polo et al. / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 10 (2015) 525e534

Noemia Paranhos, Tereza Omoto, Vania Tuglio; rapporteurs: Evelyn

Nestori, Oswaldo Baquero, Eduardo Oliveira, Karime Scarpelli,
Cristina Magnabosco, Flavia Wolff, Vania Nunes and all other
participant involved.
Author contribution
The idea for the study was conceived by Rita de Cassia Maria
Garcia and Nstor Caldern. The article was written by Gina Polo
with contributions from all authors. All authors equally discussed
the content and contributed to the understanding.
Ethical considerations
This was a desk study using peer-reviewed literature and data in
the public domain and therefore did not require ethics approval.
Conict of interest
The authors declare no conict of interests.
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