General Biology 122 Portfolio

Semester 2

Steffie Pierre
The Evolution of populations
Evolutionary changes confined to only a single gene pool is referred to as
microevolution. Macroevolution on the other hand refers to evolutionary changes
above the specie level, e.g. the appearance of feathers during the evolution of birds
from one group of dinosaurs.

Population is defined as a localized group of individuals that are cable of

interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Isolation of certain population maybe
experienced, where one is cut off from the other either via a natural
processes/disaster or through human activity. When this occurs the members of
the population generally mate with one another inside the population rather than
with other members of another population and as a result, the gene pool is
narrowed. Gene pool is defined as the aggregation of genes within a population at
any one time. A gene is defined as a section of DNA that codes for a particular
function.

Mutation and sexual recombination’s produces the variation that

makes evolution possible.
 Mutation brings about the formation of new genes and alleles, through the
addition, subtraction, elimination or substitution of amino acid bases within
the DNA molecule. Only a simple change in the base of a gene can cause great
changes in the phenotype of an individual, these changes can causes diseases
such as sickle-cell anemia, or even change the color coat of a fury animal.

 In a sexually reproducing population, sexual recombination is far more

important than mutation. Sexual recombination rearranged alleles that have
already been in a gene pool through out generation to give a new
combination of alleles within every generation. Mutation and sexual
recombination go hand in hand because, in order for there to be a new
arrangement of alleles there needs to be some for of change within the gene
of that specie.


The Origin of Species
Speciation is at the focal point of evolution and includes the isolation of populations
within and environment. The appearance of new species is the source of biological
diversity. As it has been noted in the reviewed chapter above that the biological species
concept defines specie as an individual in a population that has the ability to interbreed
with another individual and produce a fertile offspring, but are unable to produce viable,
fertile offspring with other members of other populations.

There are many biological factors that keep species from reproducing, these factors
are known as barriers: there are

1. Prezygotic Barriers – this is before the zygote of formed, this impedes mating
between the species or hinders the fertilization of ova if members of different
species attempt to mate.

2. If a sperm from a species does overcome the prezygotic barriers and

fertilization does occur via mating of two different species there are
Postzygotic Barriers that come into practice. Postzygotic refers to after the
zygote is formed. This most times prevents the hybrid zygote from
developing into a viable fertile offspring.

To list of few identify what the Prezygotic barriers would be:

I. Habitat isolation – Two species different habitats within the same area and
may encounter each other rarely.

II. Temporal isolation – Species that breed during different time of the day,
different seasons and different years cannot mix their gametes.

III. Behavioral isolation – Courtship rituals that attract mates and other
behaviors unique to specie are effective reproduction barriers even between
closely related species.

IV. Mechanical isolation – Morphological differences can prevent specie mating,

e.g. even closely related plants will have flowers with different appearances
that attract different pollinators.

V. Gametic isolation – Sperm of certain specie may not be able to fertilize the
egg of another specie. There are also many other mechanisms that result in
this type of isolation. Sperms may not be able to survive in the reproduction
track of females of other specie or biochemical mechanisms may prevent the
sperm form penetrating the membrane surrounding the other species egg.
 Postzygotic Barriers:

I. The genes of different parent specie may interact and impair the hybrid’s
development. Some creatures may occasionally produce an
offspring/hybridize. But that organisms will not complete development
and those that do are very frail.

II. Some hybrids may be vigorous but they can still be sterile. Take in
account a mule, it a cross between a donkey and a horse both mating
partners are fertile and fully developed and are closely related that they
are able to suppress prezygotic and produce and offspring, but that
individual is sterile, therefore the mule becomes in one way or another
isolated from the population.

III. Some most time in plants specie the 1st generation hybrids are viable and
fertile but when they mate with one another or with the parent offspring
the 2nd generation is feeble or sterile.

Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation

There are two types: Allopatric and Sympatric speciation.

Allopatric (‘’other country’’) speciation; the gene flow within a population is

interrupted when there is a geographically isolation, that causes that population to
be divided into subpopulations. Take into account a lake, which water has subsided
due to natural reasons, this will result in smaller lakes that then becomes home to
separated populations. Geographic barriers are only able to keep populations apart
when the members of that population are unable to cross such barriers. Animals
such as birds’ mountain lions are able to cross rivers, valleys and cannons, plants
are also known to override barriers because their pollen is transported by the wind.

Sympatric (‘’same country’’) speciation; this takes place in geographically

overlapping populations. The only way in which speciation can occur when the
organisms are always in contact with each other, will include chromosomal changes
and nonrandom mating that reduces the gene flow.
Prokaryote
Domains Bacteria & Archaea

Simple cells – with no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. First organisms on

Earth – at least 3 billion years ago

Distributed globally – including many extremophiles

Nutrition – autotrophs & heterotrophs

All organisms require a source of energy & carbon

 Autotrophs can obtain all their C from CO2

 Heterotrophs require at least one organic nutrient, e.g., glucose

 Phototrophs obtain their energy from the sun

 Chemotrophs obtain their energy from chemical compounds

Bacteria

STRUCTURE: Systematic / phylogenetic relationships among bacteria are based on

genetic data, but structural properties are indispensable for identifying them

Cell wall – unique, peptidoglycan

Peptidoglycan – structural polysaccharides (sugars) cross-linked by peptides

(chains of amino acids). Two biochemical groups of bacteria:

 Gram positive bacteria (outer peptidoglycan layer will stain)

 Gram negative bacteria (inner peptidoglycan layer will not stain)

Pili (singular: pilus) & flagella

Pili = protein filaments that attach bacteria to other cells & substrates

Some prokaryotes have flagella (singular: flagellum)

Used for locomotion. The base of a bacterial flagellum is the only known wheel in
nature.
What is “taxis”?

Motility allows some bacteria to move towards or away from stimuli

 Phototaxis.

 Chemotaxis

 Magnetotaxis

Asexual, through binary fission

Binary fission – Daughter cells are identical copies

Neither mitosis nor meiosis occurs in prokaryotes

No true sexual reproduction, since neither mitosis nor meiosis exist in

prokaryotes

Horizontal transfer of genetic material

Transformation – Uptake of genetic material from the environment

Transduction – Transfer of genetic material between prokaryotes by viruses

Conjugation – Direct transfer of genetic material from one prokaryote to another;

sex pilus connects cells and draws them together; conjugation tube forms

Surviving harsh conditions

Endospore – forms inside a bacterium and then persists through inhospitable

conditions

Bacteria – Impacts on other organisms, including human society

Decomposition – Note Louis Pasteur’s experiments

Photosynthesis – Especially common in cyanobacteria

N-fixation – E.g., root nodules of beans

Symbiosis

Mutualism, commensalism, parasitism

Bioremediation – Breaking down toxic waste

Plant Diversity 1
The ferns are a more complex group of plants than the moss. They have made a
major evolutionary advancement over the moss since the ferns have an effective
transport system of vascular tissue. The term fern, as with the term moss, is a
common name that actually includes four formal taxons or divisions. In all cases, the
plants in this group have vascular tissue, but no seeds or flowers. We will only deal
with the most familiar division, the Pterophyta. This is the division that includes all
of the more recognisable true ferns (most commonly seen within a region). The
other three divisions have few extant genera, do not resemble the ferns and are
briefly outlined in your text.

Fern Morphology and Anatomy:

i. General morphology and growth pattern.

Almost all ferns are larger and more complex plants than mosses. Their growth
pattern is distinctly different, growing more independently and not in the typical
clump growth form of the mosses.

The dominant plant is a diploid, sporophyte plant in the ferns. As we shall see later,
the gametophyte or haploid stage is reduced to a small transitional part of the life
cycle. Ferns range in size from a few tiny forms of about 1 cm to extremely large
tropical tree ferns reaching heights of almost 30 m. Most of the ferns tend to average
about 0.5 to 1 m in height, but this can be misleading because of the growth habit of
the ferns. In most ferns, the majority of the plant grows underground, with only the
leaves appearing above the surface.

If an entire plant is removed for examination, the morphology appears somewhat

distinct. The underground stem or rhizome produces small adventitious roots
along its length. Periodically, clusters of several leaves or fronds grow up from the
rhizome. As they emerge, the young fronds (fiddleheads) are tightly coiled, but as
they mature, the fiddleheads uncoil into the typical, large mature frond. During dry
periods or winter, the fronds die back but the perennial plant survives, existing on
stored food in the rhizomes.

ii. Anatomy:

The anatomy of the fern is almost as complex as for any of the seed plants. The ferns
possess almost all of the cell and tissue types found in seed plants. They do not use
secondary growth to increase their thickness, but they still possess the cell types
responsible for most secondary growth in `higher' plants.
a) The frond. The frond consists of a stalk or stipe that continues up through the
expanded blade as the rachis. The stipe functions by elevating the blade to enhance
photosynthesis. The blade of the frond serves as the photosynthetic structure for the
entire plant. As we shall see later, it also frequently has a role in reproduction.
Superficially, the blade may have a flat even appearance, but more frequently, it
appears to be finely notched or dissected into a number of smaller leaflets or
pinnae. Internally, the blades are very similar, regardless of the outward
appearance.

In cross section, the blade is seen to be separated into three distinct regions, the
epidermis, the cortex or mesophyll and the veins or vascular bundles. Each of
these regions is composed of one or more tissue and cell types.

The epidermis is a single cell layer made of epidermal tissue and epidermal cells.
These cells, particularly on the lower surface of the blade, may be modified into
specialized guard cells. The unmodified epidermal cells secrete a waxy cuticle on
the outer surface. This is to prevent or minimize transpiration. The upper frond
surface usually has a thicker cuticle than the lower surface since there is less
transpirational pressure on the lower surface, due to shading. The guard cells
function to reduce the water loss from the interior of the frond and yet permit the
required CO2 entry for photosynthesis. If there is sufficient moisture in the frond
and in the atmosphere to allow the guard cells to remain turgid, the space between
them will remain open and gas exchange will freely occur between the inner frond
atmosphere and the outside atmosphere. If however, there is too much
transpiration, the guard cells will loss their turgidity quickly and thus close the
space between the cells. This greatly reduces the gas exchange (water vapour, O 2
and CO2). The entire complex of the paired guard cells, the space between the cells,
and a small space just inside the frond at the site of the guard cells is termed a
stoma (pl. stomata).

The mesophyll consists of a single tissue type, fundamental, and a single cell type,
parenchyma (parenchyma cells with chloroplasts are sometimes termed
chlorenchyma). These cells are the sites of the photosynthesis. They are usually
loosely arranged with ample air space between each cell, but there may be at
compact layer of cells at the upper surface, and several loose layers between this
and the lower epidermis. If there is a distinction between the two layers, the upper
layer is termed the palisade mesophyll and the lower layers the spongy mesophyll.

The vascular bundle is the most complex region of the fronds. The tissues and cells
found in this region are, at least from a vegetative perspective, the most important
evolutionary advancement of the ferns over the mosses. This is the region
responsible for the transport of minerals and water from the underground portions
of the plants to the photosynthetic tissue. The vascular tissue also transports the
major product of photosynthesis, glucose, from the fronds to the rest of the plant.
This region has permitted the plants to grow much larger and to exploit a far greater
portion of their environment.

The vascular bundles are made of vascular tissue but unlike the other two regions,
this tissue is further separated into two sub-tissue types, xylem and phloem. The
cells of these sub-tissues are localized into groups where the phloem usually forms a
ring around the xylem.
Fern Reproduction:

Ferns are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction, but sexual reproduction
is far more prevalent and effective than asexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction in the ferns is sometimes referred to simply as premonition.

As the rhizomes grow and branch underground, they periodically send up clusters
of fronds. If the rhizomes should subsequently break or somehow be separated
between two such clusters, the effect would be to have produced two individuals.
This type of reproduction is more prevalent with ferns growing in drier conditions.

As with the mosses, the sexual reproduction is intimately associated with the life
cycle of the plants. The first major difference between the mosses and the ferns is
that the dominant generation in the life cycle of the ferns is the sporophyte
generation. To complete a life cycle, the mature diploid fern sporophyte plants
must produce haploid spores. In most instances, the spores are produced on the
underside of the fronds. The haploid spores (meiospores) are produced in
sporangia which in turn are grouped into clusters termed sori (sing.-sorus). The
position of the sori varies, but in all instances they are on the underside of the
fronds. A few ferns produce fronds which have no function other than to produce
spores. These fertile fronds are produced later in the growing season and arise
from the centre of the cluster of vegetative fronds.

The sori produced on the vegetative fronds may have a protective flap of tissue
covering them while the spores are maturing. This flap or indusium is to prevent
excess water loss. It folds out of the way once the spores are mature and covered
with a water proof coat. The sporangia consist of a short stalk, a jacket of cells and
an inner core of sporogenous tissue. The jacket, besides being covered with thin-
walled transparent cells, has a band of thick-walled cells, the annulus, extending
almost completely around the periphery. At the end of the annulus are several thin
walled lip cells. The sporogenous tissue contains sporocytes (spore mother cells)
which divide by meiosis to produce morphologically identical meiospores. Since all
spores are the same size and shape, the ferns are termed homosporous.

Sori

The mature spores are ejected from the sporangium when the annulus expands
suddenly, tearing the jacket at the lip cells. The spores are flung out from under the
fronds to be picked up by wind currents and dispersed. Although tremendous
numbers of spores are produced by each fern, the requirements for damp shaded
environments greatly limit the number of spores that actually survive and produce
gametophyte plants.

Upon germination, the spores produce a delicate, tiny, haploid gametophyte

generation. The plant of this generation, termed a prothallus, is independent of the
sporophyte plant. The prothallus is usually heart-shaped and except in the centre, is
only 1 to 2 cells thick. It produces thread-like rhizoids that penetrate into the
substrate. The majority of the cells are photosynthetic and there is no vascular
tissue, no epidermis, no cuticle and no stomata. The delicate nature of the
prothallus makes it extremely susceptible to desiccation and one of the weakest
links in the life cycle of the ferns. Most fern gametophytes are monoecious and
produce male gametangia (antheridia) and female gametangia (archegonia) on the
same plant about 40 days after germination. The archegonia are produced near the
notch of the prothallus. The venter is imbedded in the gametophyte tissue while the
4 rows of neck cells extended below the prothallus. A single egg cell is produced in
each archegonium, The antheridia are scattered over the underside of the
prothallus. Three jacket cells surround the sperm producing cells. The actual sperm
cells are multiflagellate. Hormonal control of the timing of gamete maturation
prevents both egg and sperm cells on the same prothallus from maturing at the
same time, thus favouring cross-fertilization.
SEEDED PLANTS

Morphology and Anatomy of Flowering Plants:

To deal with all the vegetative diversity of the angiosperms would be far more than
this course warrants. All of the unique features that allow different plants to exist in
some of the more diverse or difficult environments will be omitted. Instead, we will
examine some of the more universal features, which provide the base of the
angiosperm structure.

Each plant is made up of four separate organs, three of which are found in all
vascular plants, the roots, stems and leaves. The fourth organ, the flower, is
unique to this group and will be discussed with the section on reproduction.

Before beginning this section, one further separation of the angiosperms must be
made. The flowering plants or Division Magnoliophyta is further divided into class
Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledonae) commonly referred to as "Dicots", and class
Liliopsida (Monocotyledonae) commonly referred to as "Monocots". The dicots
are represented by: the majority of the woody angiosperms such as the oak, apple,
elm and cherry trees; the shrubs such as the lilac, spirea and dogwood; and the
herbaceous plants such as potato, dandelion, and daisy. The monocots are made up
of such plants as the lilies, orchids, bamboo, corn, grasses and reeds. While there are
few absolute characteristics to separate these two classes, the majority fit into the
following table.

Comparison of Dicot and Monocot Characteristics

Dicotyledons
2 seed leaves (cotyledons)
flower parts in 4's or 5's
vascular bundle in stem in a
ring
secondary growth present
taproot system
net leaf venation
leaf usually with petiole
Monocotyledons
1 seed leaf
flower parts in 3's
vascular bundle scattered
secondary growth absent
fibrous root system
parallel leaf venation
leaf with sheath
Anatomy:

The vegetative anatomy of the flowering plants, allowing for some variation, is
remarkably consistent form one plant to another. The cell and tissue types are
almost identical to the ferns. These are outside protoderm, bulk ground meristem
and the area that will develop into vascular tissue, the procambium. These
embryonic tissues or primary meristems will in turn differentiate into three basic
tissue systems. These tissue systems are, outer or dermal system, the vascular
tissue system and the remainder of the plant or the ground (fundamental) tissue
system. Each of the plant organs has these tissue systems arranged in a particular
fashion and comprised of a particular group of cells. The cells and the arrangement
depend on the different functions of the organs to the plant as a whole.

a) The leaf:

The epidermis is similar to that of the ferns. The tissue that makes it up is
epidermal and the cell type is also termed epidermal. The same modifications of
cuticle and guard cells exist for the same reasons.

The mesophyll, made of fundamental tissue and chlorenchyma cells, is usually

more frequently organized into distinct palisade and spongy layers than is found in
the ferns.

The vascular bundles are similar to those of the ferns, but three new cell types
appear in the vascular tissue of the flowering plants. In the ferns, the xylem was
made of conducting elements called tracheids, while in the flowering plants there is
also another type of conducting unit termed the vessel. Vessels begin their
development in a similar fashion to the tracheids, but at maturity, they lose their
end walls. This forms a continuous tube so the water and minerals do not have to
travel in a zig-zag fashion but rather can travel straight through the leaf. These tubes
of vessels are continuous with the vessels in the stems and roots and provide a more
rapid and efficient route of transport.

The phloem of the flowering plants is organized in a similar fashion to the vessels of
the xylem. Instead of sieve cells, the phloem contains sieve tube elements or cells.
The difference between these and the sieve cells is again because of the perforation
of the end walls and not a solid end plate with sieve units on the lateral walls. The
sieve tubes are anucleate at maturity but they still contain a living functional
cytoplasm. The control of the activity of this cytoplasm is brought about by a group
of connected adjacent cells termed companion cells. These tiny, elongate cells
direct the sieve tube activity through plasmodesmatal connections. The flowering
plants do not have the sieve cells. Vascular bundles of the leaves are usually
surrounded by a special, single cell layer termed a bundle sheath. The parenchyma
cells of this sheath are responsible for transferring large amounts of glucose that has
been produced in the leaf mesophyll, to the phloem.

b) The stem:

The dicotyledons present one anatomical pattern while the other is found in the
monocotyledons. The monocotyledons stems have only three regions, an
epidermis, cortex and vascular bundles scattered throughout the cortex. The
dicots have four regions. The epidermis, cortex, a ring of vascular bundles and a
central pith.

The epidermis is different from that of the ferns since it now must protect the stem
from the hazards of an above ground environment. Also, the stems of these plant are
frequently photosynthetic so guard cells are also required.

The cortex varies according to the plants and the environment. Plants in drier
regions often have many sclerenchyma cells in their cortex, while those of more
moderate areas have parenchyme (chlorenchyma) and collenchyma. Collenchyma
cells are living, strengthening cells which have increased cellulose fibres in the
walls. These cells are usually found at the outer surface of the stems, frequently in
the corners.

The pattern of organization of the vascular bundles of the dicots is a ring. The
vascular tissue is again subdivided into xylem and phloem and these two subtissues
have the same cell types as in the leaves of the flowering plants. The xylem of the
vascular bundles always is located on the inside of the phloem, but the phloem
never rings the xylem as in the fern rhizome vascular bundles. The scattered
bundles of the vascular tissue of the monocots has proportionately more vessels
than that of the dicots.

Dicot Stem
 Monocot stem

The pith, found only in the dicots, comprises the central region of the stem and is
made up of parenchyma cells. These cells, rich in leucoplasts, are adapted to
store the products of photosynthesis and water.

c) The roots. Roots have the least cell and tissue differentiation of all the organs.
They function in absorption, storage, transport and anchoring. The absorption
properties are found only in the extreme tips of the roots and root branches. After
approximately 10 - 20mm from the tip, the root tissues mature and water and
minerals can no longer be absorbed. The root epidermis develops a cuticle to
prevent loss of the water already absorbed and to reduce the affect of harmful
soil organisms.

At the extreme tip of the roots is a layer or cap of constantly replaced dead cells.
This root cap protects the root as it grows through the soils in search of sufficient
water and minerals. Behind the root cap is a zone where water is absorbed. To
facilitate this process, many of the epidermal cells in this region develop
projections out from their outer walls termed root hairs. The root hairs are lost
after the area of absorbtion in replaced by more mature tissues. The outer region
of the roots is again the epidermis