JICAs Assistance Strategy

on Water Supply and Sanitation

May 2012

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Preface
The U.N. General Assembly declared in 2010 that access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
was a basic human right. However, 780 million people around the world lack access to safe drinking
water, and as many as 2.5 billion lack access to improved sanitation facilities.
As one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the international community has been striving
to reduce by 2015, the proportion of people lacking such access by half.
Today, with only three years remaining, the target of improving access to basic sanitation appears to be
out of reach, while considerable progress on the access to safe drinking water has been made, thus the
world will meet the drinking water target but miss the sanitation one.
Safe drinking water and basic sanitation facilities are essential for people to be alive and maintain their
healthy lives. As a member of the international community, JICA must make continuous efforts to
accelerate improvement of the stagnant situation.
Meanwhile, vast population growth in developing countries has caused a dramatic increase in the
demand for water that could result in its global shortage, given the limited availability of water
resources. In such a case, impoverished people in developing countries would be the first to be
adversely affected. Now, the issue of how to allocate limited water resources under sound water
resources management cannot be avoided as a prerequisite for discussions about improving water
supply and sanitation situations. Although the water resources management is a highly difficult task
that involves various conflicting sectors in terms of water usage such as agriculture and energy, JICA
must lead developing countries to accomplish it in close cooperation with other members of the
international community.
This paper describes why (rationale and objectives), in what (priorities), and how (approaches and
matters requiring attention) JICA will provide assistance regarding the important issue of water and
sanitation that faces enormous challenges. I hope that this paper will help promote better mutual
understanding among the various institutions involved in the issue, and contribute to further strengthen
the efforts being made by the international community toward the significant challenges.

May 29, 2012

Hiroto Arakawa
Senior Vice President
Japan International Cooperation Agency

I.

Significance and objectives of cooperation in the area of water

and sanitation1

Water is essential for human life. In addition to safe drinking water, water directly and indirectly
supports human existence as a necessity for food production and various economic activities to
maintain the lives of people. In reality, however, many people in the developing countries are facing
the problem of water shortages. Despite significant progress made on the access to safe drinking water,
which is one of the targets in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), millions of people are still
forced to depend on contaminated drinking water, which, in combination with the sluggish
improvement of the access to basic sanitation described later, contributes to an outbreak of contagious
diseases and high mortality rates. Many poor populations, particularly in developing countries, are
further threatened by problems originating from water, such as flooding and lack of food.
Not only humans need water. The natural environment and ecosystems surrounding people also need
water. The deterioration of the natural environment due to inadequate water ultimately affects the
existence of human lives.
The water resources available to humans, however, are not unlimited. Although the Earth is called the
blue planet, fresh water comprises 2.5% of all water on the globe, a majority of which is ice in the
polar regions, leaving a mere 0.01% of river and lake waters that are relatively easily available.
However, the demand for water continues to grow. It has been reported that by year 2030, available
water resources will be 40% short of the global demand for water.2 The problems with water scarcity
are rapidly becoming more serious amid growing populations, particularly in developing countries.
Many developing countries are facing the extremely difficult issue of how to allocate limited water
resources for the survival of their people, for national economic development, and for the preservation
of the natural environment.

Figure 1: In 2030, water resources will be 40% short of the demand for water.
Source: The 2030 Water Resources Group Charting Our Water Future

The term sanitation in this article means appropriate management of human waste as generally used by the
international community.
The 2030 Water Resources Group Charting Our Water Future (2009)
http://www.mckinsey.com/App_Media/Reports/Water/Charting_Our_Water_Future_Exec%20Summary_001.pdf

Meanwhile, the problems of sanitation are closely related to water. One of the major causes of infant
mortality in developing countries is diarrhea. Diarrhea in many cases is caused by infection with
pathogenic bacteria discharged from feces, which makes it extremely important to build sanitation
facilities (latrines or toilets) to isolate human excreta from the living environment. Infection routes can
be cut off by combining the physical isolation of feces with such hygienic practices as washing ones
hands with water after defecation. In other words, a mutually complementary relationship exists
between improved sanitation that is necessary to prevent the contamination of underground and
surface water with pathogens, and keep the water safe to drink, and water that is vital in such hygienic
behaviors as washing ones hands. This makes it extremely important to improve water supply and
sanitation simultaneously, in order to reduce water-related diseases. The improvement of access to
basic sanitation included in the MDGs has been nevertheless delayed, for which the whole
international community is responsible.
Japan has experience in steadily developing water supply and sewerage systems to build a highly
sanitary society, while overcoming floods and droughts during postwar economic growth. On the other
hand, Japan is a major water-consuming country that also imports large quantities of water in the form
of agricultural products (called virtual water or water used for agricultural production) from
developing countries. This makes Japan responsible for taking part in solving their water and
sanitation problems. JICA will thus promote assistance in the area of water and sanitation from the
following perspectives.

Figure 2: Japan as a major importer of indirect (virtual) water

Source: Water Footprint Network

(1) Water resources management and the efficient use of water

The appropriate management of water resources is essential in the situation where available water
resources are very limited against the growing demand for water. This refers to a need for
coordinating water allocation to competitive demands of different sectors while preserving the
water environment. Avoiding this coordination would apparently increase the disorderly use of
water, resulting in another case of environmental destruction like "the tragedy of the Aral Sea."
Effectively using limited water resources to improve sanitary conditions through stable water
supply, and reducing poverty by simultaneously maintaining stable food production and
promoting industrial development, while protecting the water environment and responding
appropriately to water-related disasters, are extremely difficult and complex tasks for developing
countries that require mobilization of the knowledge and resources of the international
community. In this context, JICA will actively support the developing counties efforts to tackle
the tasks.
2

One of the most important factors in these daunting challenges is to improve the efficiency of
water use. This means using limited water as effectively as possible, such as reducing water leaks
from water supply networks, promoting water-saving irrigation, and reusing treated wastewater.
Since Japans experience and technologies can be best applied in many cases to such activities,
JICA will provide active assistance making good use of them
(2) Improvement of access to safe water and sanitary facilities
The access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation facilities is indispensable for human
existence and included in the MDGs as one of the major development goals of the international
community. Moreover, the access to water and sanitation was declared a human right at the U.N.
General Assembly held in July 2010.
In 2010, however, 780 million people around the world were still lacking access to safe drinking
water and 2.5 billion out of the world population of 6.9 billion did not have access to basic
sanitation facilities. As a member of the international community, JICA will be working to
accelerate the progress towards improving the situation.
(3) Reduction of water-related disasters
While human life relies on water, water also brings down disasters. Floods and droughts cause
widespread loss of peoples lives and properties. An increase in heavy rains and droughts caused
by climate change results in increasing water-related disasters, thereby posing a major obstacle to
the sustainable socioeconomic development of developing countries. Building disaster-resistant
societies is necessary for preventing the precious fruits of socioeconomic development from
being lost to natural disasters. JICA will maximize the use of Japans experience and technologies
in flood control and water use coordination for droughts as accumulated over the past several
centuries in its assistance to developing countries.
The regular practice of hydrological and meteorological observations that has become the basis of
water resources management as described in paragraph (1) contributes to appropriate measures
against water-related disasters.

II.

Focuses of JICAs cooperation in the area of water and

sanitation

[Summary]
Key Issues

Issue / Problems

Activity Policy

An appropriate understanding of water

resources availability is important, because it
is a basis of complex but necessary water
resource management, including
coordination of water allocation among the
water using sectors, conservation of water
environment, and preparations for
water-related disasters.

JICA will support the formulation of reliable

water resources management plans reflecting
estimated availability of current water
resources and its future change based on
both terrestrial and satellite observation data,
in addition to enhancement of the
observation systems that become the basis of
water resources management.

(2) Improvement of
Stable water supply service must be
access to water supply in provided to growing city dwellers due to the
urban areas
concentration of population in urban areas.
There are huge needs for support in
expanding water supply networks through
facility development and strengthening the
operational capacity of water supply utilities.

JICA will promote the expansion of water

supply services by developing facilities
through financial cooperation and
enhancing the technical, operational and
managerial capacities of water supply
utilities through technical cooperation
simultaneously, while taking into account the
mobilization of private-sector funds.

(3) Contribution to
reduction of
non-revenue water
(NRW) and
improvement of
water/energy use
efficiency

A high NRW ratio causes a financial decline

of water supply utilities and impedes stable
water supply services. It is also a problem in
view of wasting water itself and the energy
used for water purification and distribution.

JICA will continue to assist the reduction of

NRW through the following, in view of a
more efficient use of water and energy in
addition to improving the financial status of
water supply utilities.
Renewal of pipelines through financial
cooperation
Strengthening of water-leakage
prevention and improvement of tariff
collection through technical cooperation

(4) Sustainable rural

water supply

Access rate to safe drinking water in rural

areas of Sub-Saharan Africa is extremely
low.

JICA will ensure sustainable rural water

supply combining the construction of water
supply facilities through Grant Aid and the
strengthening of operation and maintenance
systems through technical cooperation, in
addition to confirming the probability of
securing water sources through the
formulation of water supply plans as
necessary, primarily in Sub-Saharan Africa.

(5) Promotion of
Improved sanitation

Progress towards improved access to basic

sanitation facilities is extremely delayed in
Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

JICA will promote improved hygiene

practices and gradually increase support to
construct latrines using social marketing and
other methods primarily in Sub-Saharan
Africa through technical cooperation.

(6) Integration of
structural and
non-structural measures
and promotion of
community-based
disaster prevention in
water-related disasters

In order to prevent flood damage, relying

solely on structural measures is no longer
possible as conventional flood prediction is
becoming increasingly uncertain due to
changes in the amounts and patterns of
rainfall caused by climate change.

JICA will take approaches that integrate

structural and non-structural measures that
include appropriate land use planning,
development of flood forecasting and
warning systems, and preparation of hazard
maps through financial and technical
cooperation. In such efforts, support for
community-based disaster management that
emphasizes mutual protection and
self-protection will be enhanced.

(1) Reliable water

resources management
based on real
observation data

[Main Discussions]
Problems concerning water and sanitation include various issues within the framework of water
resources management such as the water usage (household water, agricultural water, industrial water,
hydropower generation), flood control, preservation of the water environment, and improvement of
sanitation and hygiene. The variety of issues involves a large number of stakeholders covering
different levels of different sectors.
JICA alone is nowhere near capable of meeting all of such diverse and extensive needs of developing
countries. It will, therefore, focus on issues for which it is able to most effectively support solutions
based on its broad expertise or make effective use of Japans experience and technologies. JICA
will also focus on the improvement of sanitation that most requires the assistance of the international
community due to its stagnant progress towards the MDG target, and provide solutions in order to
fulfill the responsibility of development partners. The issues of high priorities are as follows:
(1) Reliable water resources management based on real observation data
The limited availability of water resources for serving the growing demand for water requires
complex water resources management that involves balanced water allocation among the
different sectors and users (e.g., households, agriculture, industry, energy) on the one hand and
preservation of the water environment on the other, along with preparations for water-related
disasters.
The availability of water resources in each river basin (indicating seasonal changes) is the basis of
any water resources management. The accuracy of water resources availability increases through
calculations based on real hydrological and meteorological observation data (rainfall and stream
flow, etc.). Unreliable water resources availability leads to inadequate water resources
management plans with undefined coordination of water allocation.
Many developing countries lack an adequate system of hydrological and meteorological
observation, making it difficult for them to formulate appropriate water resources management
plans. For the last 30 years, JICA has assisted in the estimation of water resources availability on
the basis of the collection and analysis of hydro-meteorological data, and the formulation of
master plans for water resource development and management based on such data.3 These are
highly recognized as reliable plans based on real data, and various departments of the recipient
governments as well as other development partners have utilized the organized data.

Completed projects include the following: 1, -National water resources study, Malaysia (1979-1982), 2, The study on
national water master plan, Kenya (1990-1992), 3, The study on national water resources master plan, Nigeria
(1992-1995), 4, The study on national water resources master plan, Zambia (1993-1995), 5, Master plan study on water
resources management, the Philippines (1997-1998), 6, The aftercare study on the national water master plan, Kenya
(1997-1998), 7, The study on integrated water resources development and management master plan, Macedonia
(1998-1999), 8, Master plan study on integrated water resources management, Cote d'Ivoire (2000-2001), 9, The study on
nationwide water resources development and management, Vietnam (2001-2003), and 10, The study on Integrated Water
Management, Bulgaria (2006-2008).

[Case] Nigerias nationwide water resource management Project for Formulating the Basic Plan for
Development
Nigeria has a growing need for the development of water resources in terms of irrigation, supply of drinking
water, energy development, and others areas due to the nation's population and economic growth. In addition,
droughts in the northern part of the country are becoming increasingly serious. Under such situations,
appropriate management and development of scarce water resources, while preventing over exploitation, is
becoming an urgent issue. In response to this, the Nigerian government established the Nigeria Integrated
Water Resources Management Commission (NIWRMC) in 2008.
JICA launched this project in 2011, aiming to establish a
sustainable system of water resources management through
capacity development of NIWRMC and revision of the
previous master plan developed in 1995,
This project plans to estimate water resources potential based
on observation data, predict future water balance between the
supply and demand, and then work out plans for nationwide
water resources management and development, including
adaptation to climate change and human resource development.
In addition, basin management plans will be developed
targeting two important basins as pilots, with technical
assistance being provided for consensus-building among the
stakeholders.
Lake Chad Basin

Niger North Basin

Niger Central Basin

Upper Benue Basin

Lower Benue Basin

Western Littoral Basin

Niger South Basin

Eastern Littoral Basin

Pilot basins
North Niger basin (basin of an international river, the Niger)
West Littoral basin

Appropriate prediction of future water resources availability becomes an increasingly important factor
in water resources management as such resources are expected to be affected by large changes in
rainfall patterns associated with global climate change that is likely to aggravate floods and droughts.
Amid such a situation, Japan has pioneered the building of water cycle models based on combined
satellite and terrestrial observation data. Through leading the Global Earth Observation System of
Systems (GEOSS), Japan has made efforts so that as many developing countries as possible can reap
the benefits of the models. The models make it possible to estimate water resources availability and
predict its future change based on satellite data, even in areas where adequate terrestrial observation
data are not available.
JICA will therefore support through technical cooperation the strengthening of observation systems
and the formulation of reliable water resources management plans with precise estimation of current
and future availability of water resources based on real observation data.
[Terminology] Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS)
At the G8 Evian Summit held in June 2003, former
Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi proposed to hold a
minister-level conference that would formulate an
integration plan of Earth observation. In response, the
second Earth Observation Summit held in Tokyo in April
2004 adopted the framework document for GEOSS.
GEOSS is a general term for frameworks in which
various Earth observation data (satellite, terrestrial, and
marine) are integrated and decision aid tools are
provided, involving the participation of more than 60
countries. In addition to collecting, sharing, and
compiling observation data, GEOSS also seeks to
develop various models based on the data to assist in
Prepared by Dr. Toshio Koike, the University
decision-making regarding measures against disasters,
of Tokyo
water resources management, climate change mitigation
and adaptation measures, etc.

While JICA has proposed cross-sectoral efforts that extend beyond the authority of the implementing
institutions in its past national water resources master plans, the actual coordination of inter-sectoral
interests in water usage (e.g., sectors of household water supply, agriculture, industry and energy) is a
highly difficult issue. In order for JICA to contribute to this most important and difficult process, it
will support establishing a forum where the stakeholders can share estimations of current and future
water resources availabilities provided by JICA and discuss how to manage water resources based on
uniform grounds. Promoting the participation of relevant organizations and generation of mutual trust
among them through such a forum will be the first step towards appropriate water resources
management.
While the necessity of such cross-sectoral management of water resources has been argued as
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) since the 1990s, recent trends in the international
community focus on the Water, Energy, and Food Security Nexus, which marks significant progress
from conventional IWRM.4 This is an approach to promote coordination between the water, energy
and agricultural sectors that have the closest mutual relationship and all are essential for human
security. This approach has also been referred to from the perspective of green growth, and JICA will
take it into account in water and sanitation interventions. The Water and Energy approach is
described in detail in Section (3), Reduction of non-revenue water: contribution to more efficient use
of water and energy.

[Terminology] Integrated approach to water, energy, and food security

Water, energy, and food are factors indispensable for human security. Since these sectors have the closest
mutual relationships, and since water resources are expected to become substantially short against growing
water demand in the future, an approach that only concerns one sector most likely to adversely affect the
others and consequently impede human security. Bonn 2011 Nexus Conference on Water, Energy, and Food
Security organized by the U.N. was held in November 2011 as
a contribution to the Rio +20 because the approach is indispensable
for achieving green growth. The relationships between the three sectors
are described as follows:
(1) Water and energy: Water is used in various power
plants and in the process of mining and refining
fossil fuels that become sources of energy. Energy is
crucial in water and wastewater treatments and
water distribution.
(2) Water and food: Food production consumes the
most water through irrigation (approximately 70%
of available water resources).
(3) Food and energy: The agricultural sector consumes
a large amount of energy (approximately 30% of
total energy demand) for the use of agricultural
machinery, fertilizer production, irrigation,
Source: SEI Understanding the Nexus
transportation of products, etc.

(2) Improved access to water supply in urban areas

The world population, that exceeded seven billion in 2011 continues to grow, and is expected to
reach nine billion by 2050.5 Most of this population growth is taking place in developing
countries where, in most cases, leads to increased urban populations. In 2010, urban populations
comprised 50.6% of the world population, and are expected to reach 70% by 2050 (with
considerable urban concentration, particularly in Asia and Africa).6
4

An example is Bonn 2011 Nexus Conference on Water, Energy, and Food Security, led by the UN that was held in
November 2011.
5 US Census Bureau World Population 1950-2050
http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpopgraph.php
UN Habitat State of the Worlds Cities 2010/2011 (2010)

How to provide ever-increasing urban residents with stable water supply services is a major
challenge faced by water supply utilities in developing countries; therefore, there are huge needs
for assistance in expanding water supply networks through the development of physical facilities
and improving the operational capacity of water supply utilities.
In response, JICA provides support for the development of water supply facilities in urban areas
through ODA loans and Grant Aid. In particular, urban water supply projects through ODA loans
in the amount of tens to hundreds of millions dollars have had a major impact, with improved
water supply services reaching more than a million people, which can thus be considered an
important contribution to the international community successfully achieving the MDG safe
drinking water target.
[Case] Major loan-assisted projects for which a loan agreement (L/A) was signed after 2006
Yr of
L/A

Country

Project

Project Overview

Loan
Amount

Increase in
population
receiving water

2006

Bangladesh

Karnaphuli Water Supply

Project

Construction of water intake, treatment,

and distribution facilities in Chittagong

12.2 billion
yen

940,000

2006

India

Kerala Water Supply Project

(II)

32.8 billion
yen

1,820,000

2008

India

Kerala Water Supply Project

(III)

Construction of water intake and

treatment facilities, conduits and water
pipes, drainage basin, drainpipes, etc.
and rehabilitation of existing facilities

2008

India

Hogenakkal Water Supply and

Fluorosis Mitigation Project

Establishment of water transmission

pipes and distribution network, building
of distributing reservoir and pumping
station

17.1 billion
yen

1,730,000

2009

Peru

North Lima Metropolitan Area Construction of water pipeline from

Water Supply and Sewerage
conduit in the North, rehabilitation of
Optimization Project (I)
water supply/sewerage pipes and their
connections to households

5.6 billion
yen

230,000

2009

Thailand

8th Bangkok Water Supply

Improvement Project

Water treatment plant expansion,

reservoir construction, and pump
installation

4.5 billion
yen

1,250,000

2009

Turkey

Ankara Water Supply Project

Construction of water intake facilities on

the Gerede River at a point about 100
km northwest of Ankara, and a
conveyance tunnel to the existing
reservoir

26.8 billion
yen

800,000

2009

Peru

Lima Marginal Areas Sanitary

Improvement Project (II)

Improvement of a water treatment plant

and water supply/sewerage pipes in
residential areas around the Lima
metropolitan area.

9.3 billion
yen

930,000

2009

Morocco

Provincial cities Water Supply

Project

Improvement of water supply facilities

in provincial cities in north-central and
central Morocco (reinforcement and
establishment of water treatment plants,
reinforcement of water pipe facilities)

15.5 billion
yen

620,000

12.7 billion
yen

Meanwhile, JICA has been providing technical assistance to the developing countries in order to
improve the institutional capacity of water supply utilities as well as to develop human resources in the
water sector, in collaboration with local governments in Japan in terms of transferring technologies
and operational expertise that their water operators possess.
[Case] Cooperation with local governments in Japan
(1) Technical training in Japan
With the cooperation of the Waterworks Bureaus of Sapporo , the Tokyo Metropolitan Government,
Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, and other major cities, JICA has implemented group training courses
concerning urban water supply for engineers of the water utilities in developing countries. In the training
courses, the commitment of Japanese water operators to provide safe water to the population together
with high standard of technologies and effective organizational management, among others, are
transferred to the participants.
Among such training, in the course on the Non-Revenue
Water Management conducted by the Waterworks and
Sewerage Bureau of Nagoya, participants learn how to
plan and implement leak detection and preventive
measures against leakage both in the classroom and
through practical training in the field. In 2011, the program
accepted 14 engineers playing central roles in non-revenue
water management at major water supply utilities in ten
countries, including Indonesia and Myanmar.
(2) The Project on Human Resources Development for Water Sector in the Middle Region of Vietnam (in
cooperation with the Yokohama City Waterworks Bureau)
The project ran between 2007 and 2009 in cooperation with
the Yokohama City Waterworks Bureau to improve the water
supply conditions in the urban areas of Thua Thien - Hue
province in central Vietnam. Through technical training on
appropriate water treatment and water distribution
management, the first "safe water (directly drinkable tap
water) was declared in Vietnam in 2009. Since 2010, the
project has expanded to human resource development of 18
water supply companies in the central region, disseminating
knowledge and technologies acquired by the Hue Water
Supply Company to surrounding water companies with the
continuous cooperation of the city of Yokohama.

As beneficiaries of combined facility improvement by Japanese financial assistance and

institutional and human resources reinforcement through JICAs technical cooperation, such water
supply utilities as in Bangkok, Thailand, and in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, have demonstrated
excellent performance.7
JICA will continue working to improve the access to safe drinking water in urban areas of
developing countries. More specifically, JICA will support water utilities in developing countries
to improve not only technical capacities but also managerial ones for business planning and
management8 through technical cooperation and technical assistance associated with financial
cooperation, in addition to expanding water supply networks through ODA loans and Grant Aid,
in order to make them capable of sustainably providing high-quality services (e.g., 24-hour water
7

For instance, Metropolitan Waterworks Authority that is responsible for water supply in Bangkok maintained sound
management with 100% water supply coverage (24-hour water supply) and completely independent finance (no
subsidies) within its service area in 2004. Meanwhile, Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority increased its water supply
coverage rate from 25% to 90% and non-revenue water ratio substantially reduced from 72% to 8% between 1993 and
2006.
As population concentrates more in urban areas, ODA alone could not satisfy the need for development of urban water
supply facilities, and the use of private-sector funds is essential. Financial improvement of water supply utilities enables
the access to various funds for expansion and renewal of facilities.

supply, controlled water quality). In such case, the capacity of not only water utilities but also of
the entire urban water supply sector will be assessed, and support for policy-making or regulatory
agencies in charge of water supply policy and establishing the tariff structure will be combined as
necessary.
[Case] Cooperation for the Chittagong Water supply and Sewerage Authority, Bangladesh
To improve poor water supply conditions in Chittagong
(where water is supplied to only 1.3 million people out of total
population of 2.7 million), the largest commercial and industrial
city in Bangladesh, water treatment plants and water
distribution facilities are being constructed in the Japanese
ODA loan based Karnaphuli Water Supply Project" (to be
completed in 2014). The projects water supply service will be
provided to an additional 0.9 million people, thereby
substantially improving the water supply coverage rate from
48% to 72%.
Meanwhile, a technical cooperation project for Advancing
Non-Revenue Water Reduction Initiative is ongoing in order to lower the Chittagong Water Supply and
Sewerage Authority (CWASA)s high non-revenue water ratio of approximately 30%, as well as to improve
water supply efficiency and enhance tariff collection. The project will ensure the improved business
management of CWASA, and subsequently the appropriate operation and maintenance of facilities constructed
in the ODA loan project.

(3) Reduction of non-revenue water A contribution to improved water and energy

use efficiency
The non-revenue water ratios of Japanese water supply utilities are at the worlds lowest levels,
represented by 3.7% in Tokyo, 8.3% in Yokohama, and 6.7% in Nagoya in 2010.9 Meanwhile, the
non-revenue water ratios of water operators in developing countries are typically dozens in
percentage and quite often exceed 50%.
Non-revenue water rates of cities around the world*

Delhi
Jakarta
Kuala Lumpur
Hanoi
London
Bangkok

Tokyo

Chicago
Paris
Tokyo

3%

(Rate of
leakage)

Source: The years covered are 2003 and 2004.

PSIRU Watertime Reports for Europe and the U.S.
ADB Databook of Southeast Asian Water Utilities for Asia.

Figures 3: Non-revenue water ratios of cities around the world (Source: Steady Implementation of
Tokyo Waterworks Management Plan 2010)

Survey of financial status of local public enterprises 2010, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

10

Non-revenue water is the amount of water not subject to billing among the total amount input into
the water supply system, including physical loss due to leakage from pipes and distributing
reservoirs as well as unbilled amount due to illegal connections and a lack or malfunction of
water meters. Reducing leakage means meeting the water demand with a smaller amount of water
being supplied, and thus contributes considerably to improved water use efficiency when water
resources are limited. The prevention of illegal connections and increased tariff collection help
improve the financial position of water supply utilities, so as to continue providing stable water
supply services. They also contribute to energy efficiency.
As described earlier, the importance of the nexus approach that combines water and energy has
been emphasized recently in the international arena.
While water is the source of renewable energy through hydropower generation, the water supply
and sewerage industry consumes a large amount of energy. The amount of electric power used by
the Tokyo Waterworks Bureau for water treatment and distribution using pumps, for instance,
comprises 1% of all power consumed in Tokyo.10 Assuming a further concentration of population
in urban areas and the development of water supply networks to meet future demand, energy
consumption will further increase due to the longer distances necessary to transport limited water
resources from the sources, wider areas to distribute water after treatment, and in some cases the
installation of energy intensive desalination plants. Higher energy consumption increases
greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, reducing non-revenue water as much as possible will help
to control energy consumption as well as greenhouse gas emissions.
[Case] Jordan Capacity Development Project for Non-Revenue Water Reduction
The lack of water resources is very serious in Jordan, where desert
covers 75% of the land. Water is not supplied daily, even in the
capital of Amman. Meanwhile, the rate of non-revenue water
exceeded 50% in 2002. Since the reduction of non-revenue water
(particularly leakage) leads to improved water supply and effective
use of limited water resources, JICA launched a technical cooperation
project in 2005 to support the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) in
establishing comprehensive measures against non-revenue water. The
project includes the transfer of leakage detection and repair
technologies through the OJT in Phase 1, and improvement of water
distribution network management in Phase 2 that began in 2008.
The WAJ relies heavily on pumps to draw up groundwater from
valleys and distribute it in undulating land, thereby causing the WAJ
to consume a large amount of electricity (15% of power generated
nationwide). While the high cost of electricity threatens the financial
stability of the WAJ, the JICA project in collaboration with German
GIZ contributes also to the optimization of WAJs energy usage by
reducing non-revenue water and improving pump operation.

As previously noted, the non-revenue water ratios of Japanese water

supply operators are at the worlds lowest levels and said operators are
supported by advanced technologies and expertise in non-revenue
water reduction, particularly measures against water leaks. More
specifically, this includes technologies and experience needed for
detecting leaks, a system for immediate repairs after detection, and a
system for ongoing pipe inspection and systematic renewal of old
pipes. With the cooperation of these Japanese water supply utilities,
JICA has supported a number of water operators in developing
10

Environmental plan of Tokyo Waterworks Bureau 2007-2009

http://www.waterworks.metro.tokyo.jp/water/jigyo/mp_s/data/k_kaisai_19_12.pdf

11

countries. In view of the efficient use of water and energy, JICA will continue to provide support
for reducing non-revenue water through financial assistance (e.g., renewal of water pipes) and
technical cooperation (e.g., improved leakage prevention).
(4) Sustainable rural water supply
While the MDGs target regarding access to safe drinking water was achieved in 2010, 780
million people around the world are still without access to safe water. There are large disparities
between urban and rural areas, and 650 million out of 780 million people (83%) are residents of
rural areas.11 In particular, proportion of the population using improved drinking water source in
rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be extremely low (at 49% compared to the global
rate of 81% for rural areas), and requires the ongoing support of the international community in
order to improve the water supply conditions.
JICA has been mainly assisting in the construction of water supply facilities using groundwater as
the water source (boreholes with pumps) through Grant Aid in Sub-Saharan Africa. In addition,
JICA has been providing assistance to enhance local governments capabilities for implementing
their own construction of water supply facilities, and formulate water supply plans by identifying
aquifers and producing hydrogeological maps, especially for areas where groundwater is difficult
to locate due to the geological structure.
[Case] Assistance to rural water supply sector in Ethiopia
The rate of access to safe drinking water in Ethiopia in 2010 was 44%,
which is significantly lower than the 61% average in Sub-Saharan
Africa. JICA has therefore been providing assistance as described
below, in order to improve the water supply conditions in rural areas
where about 85% of the population resides.
(1) Construction of water supply facilities through Grant Aid
Water supply facilities, mainly boreholes with a hand pump, have been
constructed since 2005 in the Amhara Region, Southern Nations,
Nationalities, and People's Regional State, Afar Region, Tigray
Region, and Oromia Region. In these regions and state, water
supply has reached 370,000 people.
(2) Groundwater development and training of water engineers
through technical cooperation
The Ethiopia Water Technology Center (EWTEC) Project has been
carried out since 1998 in three phases. JICA has assisted in the
training of engineers through training courses on groundwater
development, borehole construction, rural water supply planning,
water supply facility design, and GIS among others at the
EWTEC in Addis Ababa.
The Water Sector Capacity Development Project for the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's
Regional State has also been implemented.
(3) Production of hydrogeological maps for areas where groundwater development is difficult due to
geological structure (Technical cooperation).
The Study on Groundwater Resource Assessment in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin was conducted between 2009
and 2011.

In many countries JICA has also been taking the approach of ensuring the sustainability of water
supply facilities based on the principle of operation and maintenance by users in which the
water committee established by the community itself (after the transfer of water supply facilities
ownership) collects water fees from users and conducts operation/maintenance work. Such an
approach has been highly recognized by recipient countries. In Zambia, JICAs approach has been
adopted in the country's national program.
11

UNICEF/WHO Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 update (2012)

12

[Case] Zambia Sustainable Operation and

Maintenance Project for Rural Water Supply
The project has been implemented by JICA since 2005 in two
phases. In the project, a comprehensive operation and
maintenance system has been established including
dissemination of the principle of operation and maintenance
by users,, building a technical support system of local
governments for community water committees, and
promoting private-sector participation for spare parts supply
chains and pump repair service. The project achieved a
hand-pump functional rate of more than 80% in six pilot
districts in the central region (compared to the national target
of 70%).
As a result, this operation and maintenance mechanism was
formally adopted in the operation and maintenance
component of the Zambian governments National Rural
Water Supply and Sanitation Program. The mechanism has
been disseminated nationwide in the third phase of the project
that began in 2011.

JICA will continue to provide assistance for sustainable rural water supply by combining the
construction of water supply facilities through Grant Aid with the enhancement of operation and
management of the facilities through technical cooperation, upon confirming the probability and
stability of securing water resources through the development of hydrogeological maps and the
formulation of water supply plans by technical cooperation as necessary, in Sub-Saharan Africa.
(5) Promotion of improved sanitation
The international community considers water supply and sanitation to be paired issues that must be
addressed together. This understanding is derived from the mutually complementary relationship
that exists between water supply and sanitation relative to the reduction of diseases.
The mortality rate from preventable infectious diseases is high in developing countries. One of
such disease is diarrhea, which kills 1.5 million children under the age of five every year.12
Because diarrhea in many cases is caused by infection with pathogens discharged from feces that
enter the human mouth through water, food, and peoples fingers, it is extremely important to build
sanitation facilities (latrines or toilets) to isolate feces from the living environment. While this
measure can prevent the pathogens from contaminating water sources such as wells and boreholes,
infection routes can also be eliminated by combining this measure with hygiene practices such as
washing ones hands after defecation, keeping the area around water supply facilities and the
containers used to carry and store water clean, and maintaining proper food hygiene.
In other words, sanitation facilities are essential for keeping water sources safe to drink, while
hygiene practices such as washing ones hands require water, and thus form a mutually
complementary relationship. This makes it extremely important to improve the water supply and
basic sanitation simultaneously in order to reduce diseases, as evidenced by the MDGs target that
sets the improvement of access to both.
In reality, however, the simultaneous activities are far from being implemented. While the MDGs
target for safe drinking water was achieved in 2010, attaining the MDGs target for the access to
basic sanitation is considered totally unlikely (2.5 billion out of the world population of 6.9 billion
lacked access to basic sanitation facilities in 201013), and progress has been seriously delayed,
particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
12
13

WHO/UNICEF Diarrhea: Why children are still dying and what can be done (2009)
UNICEF/WHO Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 update (2012)

13

The reasons for the serious delay in efforts to promote improved sanitation include some of the
factors listed below, and are quite unique to the sanitation sector.
1)

Many developing countries do not have a government department responsible for sanitation,
and that responsibility often becomes unclear when partly covered by the departments
responsible for water, public health, education, and the environment.

2)

The necessity of improved sanitation is more difficult to be understood than that of water,
public health, and education, and publically discussing human waste is a taboo in many
cultures, generally resulting in less political interest.

3)

While water supply is considered a part of public services, the improvement of sanitation
facilities is considered a responsibility of individuals, thereby making it difficult to be
included in the development agenda for both donors and recipient countries.

In response to this situation, the need to accelerate the efforts of the international community has
been emphasized in recent years. In particular, the Japanese government has been leading the
international opinion and played a leading role in the U.N. resolutions for the International Year
of Sanitation 2008 and Sustainable Sanitation: the Five-year Drive to 2015 of December 2010.
Considering the trends in the international community and roles played by the Japanese
government, JICA will also strengthen its efforts for promoting improved sanitation.
In the past, JICA has implemented technical cooperation projects that combined rural water
supply and sanitation improvement in Senegal, Madagascar, Burkina Faso, and Mozambique.
These projects provided educational activities to improve hygiene practices at schools and in
surrounding communities, in addition to enhancing the capacity of water committees for
operating and maintaining water supply facilities. In view of the contribution to MDGs (improved
access to basic sanitation), however, JICA should spread out the outcomes of the projects.
[Case] Madagascar Improvement of Rural Water Supply Management and Hygiene Practices
in Atsimo Andrefana Region
JICA started the project in the southwestern part of
Madagascar in 2008. In addition to the improvement of
water supply management capacities, the project has
supported the promotion of hygiene education. More
specifically, the project emphasizes the training of
regional administrators, health agents, and school
teachers to provide hygiene education, in order to
disseminate good hygiene practices from such personnel
to children and villagers, and thus encourage behavioral
changes. As a result, the behavioral changes have been
confirmed in some villages.

JICA will continue to promote improved hygiene practices particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa,
while gradually expanding technical cooperation to promote the construction of improved latrines
or toilets through social marketing and other approaches. It should be noted that the promotion of
the sanitation facilities lacks sustainability unless improvement in hygiene practices is
accompanied. The first technical cooperation project with this perspective has begun in Senegal.

14

[Case] Senegal Project for Sanitation and Hygiene Improvement in Rural Areas of the
Tambacounda, Kedougou, and Matam Regions
This project began in March 2012. In the project, a regional platform
where stakeholders such as local administration bodies, development
partners and NGOs gather for coordinated activities for improved
sanitation will be established in three regions having high rates of
poverty in the eastern part of Senegal. Educational activities in pilot
villages intended to end open defecation are being conducted in the
project, to be followed by the construction of improved latrines in
villages where open defecation has been eradicated. The achievements
of the project will be disseminated to other villages from the pilots
through the platform, in order to improve access to basic sanitation
facilities throughout the three regions.

(6) Integration of structural and non-structural measures, and promotion of community-based disaster
prevention in water-related disasters
Flood control as a principal action to reduce water-related disasters has conventionally been
envisaged protecting human lives and properties, primarily through structural measures
(hardware) such as the construction of dykes along rivers and coastlines. Changes in the amounts
and patterns of rainfall caused by climate change, however, make conventional flood probabilities
uncertain, and endlessly raising the dykes to deal with assumed increases in the scale and
frequency of floods is no longer possible.
In particular, developing countries which have difficulty of allocating a large amount of budget to
disaster prevention have no alternative but to take an approach of integrating structural and
non-structural (soft) measures, with the hardware used for only strategically protected areas and
facilities of crucial importance, while in other areas prioritizing the protection of human lives by
taking soft measures under allowed flooding. Specific examples of non-structural measures
include regulation and guidance for building a disaster-resilient society through land use planning
to reduce the amount of water that flows into rivers when it rains (e.g., water retention by
preserving forests and farmland in the basin, expansion and maintenance of water storage
function with retarding basins, enhancement of soil infiltration, retention of rain water in urban
areas) and restrictions on living in high-risk areas, the development of flood forecasting and
warning systems, and the production and distribution of hazard maps among residents. JICA has
been actively incorporating non-structural measures into the conventional hardware measures in
ODA loan projects for flood control and river improvement.
It is also important to develop wider public understanding that people must protect their own
lives by themselves. In the conventional assistance in flood control, most aid projects have
focused on strengthening the role of government in protecting people against disasters. JICA has
also been emphasizing the concepts of mutual protection and self-protection through the
implementation of projects to enhance the disaster prevention capacities of local communities in
Kenya and Vietnam.

15

[Case]The Study on Integrated Flood Management

for Nyando River Basin in the Republic of Kenya
Located in the western part of Kenya, the basin of Nyando
River that flows into Lake Victoria suffers from floods almost
every year. In order to reduce such flood damage, JICA
conducted a study between 2006 and 2009. The study
developed a comprehensive flood control plan that included
measures for preventing, responding to, and reducing flood
damage, and introduced community-based disaster prevention
measures that entail the establishment of a community flood
control committees, construction and maintenance of such
facilities as embankments and evacuation roads with the
participation of communities, evacuation drills, and disaster
prevention education.
Based on the positive results of the project, the Kenyan
government recognized the importance and effectiveness of
community-led flood control, and then launched a nationwide
rolling-out of the flood control model to promote
community-based disaster prevention. In order to support this
movement, JICA initiated a project on Capacity
Development for Effective Flood Management in Flood Prone
Areas in 2011.

JICA will actively promote these approaches through financial and technical cooperation. Especially
for community-based disaster prevention, JICA intends to make maximum use of the long experience
of local communities in Japan that have organized flood prevention bodies to monitor flood levels and
mobilize residents for preventive work against a breach of embankments.

16

III. JICAs approaches to water and sanitation challenges

This section describes the methodology and key points (approaches) for dealing with the challenges of
the water and sanitation sectors explained in Section II. In other words, the following approaches are
taken to ensure sustainability and effectiveness of projects, and create synergy in line with Japans
ODA policies.
(1) Capacity development in view of the entire sector14
JICA can provide assistance in various scopes by combining technical cooperation, ODA loan and
Grant Aid. In the urban water supply sector, in particular, there are diverse possible ways of
intervention, from facility development through ODA loans worth tens of millions of dollars and
enhancement of the technical and financial capabilities of water supply utilities through technical
assistance associated with the loans, to the development of laws and regulations related to water
supply through the dispatch of expert advisors. Consequently, the capacity of the entire sector
must first be understood in order to identify the areas requiring improvement or strengthening.
More specifically, the capacity includes technical and management capabilities of individual
water supply utilities, and the sectors enabling environment, such as the legal system, technical
standards, tariff policy, and financing mechanism. JICA applies a method of capacity assessment
to project planning for this purpose. Through this method, the capacities of urban water supply
sectors in different countries and cities are assessed based on the same indicators and are used for
project planning, making them easy to compare and reference, thus facilitating the application of
good practices in one city to other cities.
[Case] Handbook for capacity assessment of urban water supply sectors and water supply
utilities in developing countries
Produced in 2010, the Handbook presents five practical tools for understanding the capacity and performance
of the entire water supply sector. Each tool consists of a series of questionnaires and indicators.
Tool 1: List of operational indicators of a water supply utility
Tool 2: Checklist for the water supply sector (to understand the enabling environment)
Tool 3: Form to fill in general information about the water supply utility
Tool 4: Basic checklist for the water supply utility
Tool 5: Detailed checklist for the water supply utility
These tools are combined according to the purpose of assessment.
To understand the entire water supply sector: Tool 1 and Tool 2
To learn an overview of the target water supply utility: Tool 3 and
Tool 4
To learn the details of the target water supply utility: Tool 1 and
Tool 5

The development of water supply facilities through financial assistance and the improvement of
operation/management capacities through technical cooperation are also combined for the rural
water supply sector. In such case, it is also essential to understand the capacity of the entire sector,
including applicable laws and regulations, technical standards, the funding mechanism at the
central government level, technical support system at the local government level, possibility of
private-sector participation, and the management capacity of communities.
14

Capacity Development Handbook (JICA, March 2004) defines that Capacity Development as the process in which the
capacity of a developing county to cope with issues improves as a whole, including multiple levels of individuals,
organizations, communities, etc.

17

Concerning water resources management, the capacities pertaining to the related sectors must be
understood, as it involves various sectors such as agriculture in addition to the water and
sanitation sectors.
(2) Cooperation with the private sector
Population growth in urban areas causes a continuous increase in demand for water supply and
wastewater treatment in developing countries. Since vast amount of funds are required for the
development of these facilities, many developing countries seek the investment of the
private-sector in the form of public-private partnership (PPP), in addition to their own funds and
those of development partners such as ODA. Moreover, many water utilities utilize to some
extent the private sectors technologies and expertise for efficient business operation and facility
management.
When carrying out facility development through financial assistance, JICA is also required to
examine (in a stage before M/P or F/S) the possibility of mobilizing private sector funds for part
of the facility development, and utilize technologies and expertise of the private sector for
subsequent operation and management of the facilities. In such case, considering that the
Japanese government is supporting the entry of Japanese private companies in the global water
business market under its new growth strategy, JICA seeks collaboration with Japanese
companies by conducting feasibility studies on water infrastructure development by PPP, after
examining the possibility of entering a local market based on a companys technological
advantages.

[Case] Water Supply Improvement Plan for Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
The project started in 2012 as technical cooperation for a development study. The study will propose a water
distribution system that leads to efficient water supply through improved water distribution management,
taking into account the application of advanced technologies and experience of Japanese private companies
and water operators under local governments, in addition to the development of new water sources, aiming to
expand the water supply network in Ho Chi Minh Citythe largest city in Vietnam (where the current water
supply service covers only 76% of the total population).

To meet the huge demand for the expansion and renewal of facilities for water supply and
wastewater treatment in the city, however, the mobilization of local private-sector funds such as
local commercial banks will be considered in addition to partnerships with Japanese private
companies.
The Philippines Water Revolving Fund which finances the investment fund for local water
supply is taken as a representative example.

[Case] The Philippines Water Revolving Fund

A loan of 24.8 billion yen (around 200 million dollars) was provided in 2008 as funding for the Environment
development project. This loan is intended to provide domestic private-sector companies and local
governments with medium- and long-term funds necessary to develop water supply and sewerage facilities
through the Development Bank of the Philippines. As public finance alone including ODA is insufficient to
meet the vast financial demand, a joint financing scheme was developed to mobilize private-sector funds
using public funds as leverage. (The USAID and Local Government Unit Guarantee Corporation (LGUGC) of
the Philippines jointly provide guarantees for private financial institutions that participate in joint financing.)
Moreover, the Philippines Water Revolving Fund was established to reserve repayments from borrowers in
order to provide loans for new facility development as a mechanism of continuously supplying money.

18

Even if the supply side of funding has been established, financing will not be granted to water
utilities without improved business management. For this reason, JICA will be actively
supporting the water supply utilities capacity development with technical cooperation and
technical assistance associated with financial assistance.
JICA will also seek cooperation with the corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities and BOP
(Base of the Pyramid) business of Japanese private companies, particularly for the water supply
and wastewater treatment in impoverished areas around cities and in rural areas. Any Japanese
company showing interest will be provided with the necessary information about the feasibility
study on BOP business conducted by JICA.
(3) Participation in sector programs and coordination with other development partners
While many development partners support developing countries to meet the huge demands in
improving water supply and sanitation, coordination between development partners under the
policy and ownership of the developing countrys government is of crucial importance in
effectively generating and maximizing the outcomes of the supports. More specifically, regarding
the sectors of urban water supply, rural water supply, sanitation and water resources, JICA will
actively comply with the policy of the partner countrys government or participate in sector
programs in coordination with other development partners. The role of each development partner
is expected to be defined, so as to maximize the technical or knowledgeable advantages of the
respective partners.

[Case] Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program in Zambia

In November 2007, the Zambian government established the National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation
Programme (NRWSSP), and set the goal of raising the rates of access to safe drinking water and sanitation
facilities to 75% and 60%, respectively.
In response, donors such as JICA, UNICEF, Germany, Denmark, the African Development Bank, and Ireland
have aligned the program under a comprehensive coordination and division of roles, in which each donor is
assigned to each component, including water supply, sanitation, capacity development, and operation and
maintenance, in addition to the Area Based Programme that assigns each donor to a designated area.

Meanwhile, JICA will also actively seek coordination with other development partners at the
individual project level, in order to ensure sustainability and disseminate the impacts of the
project. One possible way is to collaborate with a development partner that supports the policy
level, in order to ensure the sustainability of field level activities by appropriate policy settings.
Another possibility is collaboration at the field level by setting the target areas next to one another,
in order to ensure the geographical expansion of impacts, and by sharing the responsibilities for
initial pilot activities and subsequent rolling-out activities among the development partners.

19

[Case] Cooperation with German Society for International Cooperation (GIZ)

To promote coordination in the water and sanitation sectors in Sub-Saharan Africa, JICA and GIZ signed a
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in February 2011. Based on this MOU, collaborative activities have
been conducted in Zambia (where the rural water supply operation and maintenance mechanism developed by
JICA is being promoted in the area covered by GIZ), in Uganda (where a sanitation pilot project is being
jointly implemented), and in Tanzania (where groundwater monitoring is being jointly implemented). The
progress is to be reviewed every two years, and a joint review meeting is expected to be held in September
2012.

20

[Reference] Water and sanitation sector investment between 2008 and 2010 by sub-sector, region, and
scheme
Upper row: the number of projects / lower row: amount of funds (million dollars)
Field

Scheme

Asia

Americas

Africa

Technical
cooperation

83
42.8
10
81.9
7
1050.1
100
1174.7
18
7.5
3
9.7
0
0.0
21
17.2
37
16.1
1
0.1
2
144.5
40
160.7
57
22.5
2
40.8
1
74.9
60
138.2
6
0.5
0
0.0
0
0.0
6
0.5
201
89.5
16
132.4
10
1269.4
227
1491.3

41
13.9
6
45.0
1
55.5
48
114.4
8
8.3
1
8.6
0
0.0
9
17.0
17
5.2
1
2.9
0
0.0
18
8.1
20
5.9
0
0.0
0
0.0
20
5.9
6
2.3
0
0.0
0
0.0
6
2.3
92
35.6
8
56.5
1
55.5
101
147.7

47
17.6
8
80.7
0
0.0
55
98.3
42
33.2
23
163.9
0
0.0
65
197.1
24
8.6
0
0.0
0
0.0
24
8.6
15
2.7
1
4.8
0
0.0
16
7.5
13
13.2
2
17.6
0
0.0
15
30.8
141
75.3
34
267.0
0
0.0
175
342.3

Grant aid
Urban water
supply
ODA loan
Total
Technical
cooperation
Grant aid
Rural water
supply
ODA loan
Total
Technical
cooperation
Water
resources
management

Grant aid
ODA loan
Total
Technical
cooperation
Grant aid

Flood
control
ODA loan
Total
Technical
cooperation
Grant aid
Sanitation
ODA loan
Total
Technical
cooperation
Grant aid
Total
ODA loan
Total

21

Middle
European
45
7.8
4
46.4
5
1608.2
54
1662.5
4
0.1
1
3.4
0
0.0
5
3.5
54
12.0
1
10.0
0
0.0
55
22.0
16
2.2
1
5.9
0
0.0
17
8.0
3
0.1
0
0.0
0
0.0
3
0.1
122
22.2
7
65.7
5
1608.2
134
1696.1

Oceania

Other

Total

14
0.8
2
7.2
0
0.0
16
8.0
1
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.0
1
0.0
5
0.2
0
0.0
0
0.0
5
0.2
5
0.9
0
0.0
0
0.0
5
0.9
1
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.0
1
0.0
26
1.9
2
7.2
0
0.0
28
9.1

16
1.4
0
0.0
0
0.0
16
1.4
2
0.1
0
0.0
0
0.0
2
0.1
8
0.8
0
0.0
0
0.0
8
0.8
9
0.8
0
0.0
0
0.0
9
0.8
1
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.0
1
0.0
36
3.2
0
0.0
0
0.0
36
3.2

246
84.3
30
261.2
13
2713.8
289
3059.2
75
49.2
28
185.6
0
0.0
103
234.8
145
43.0
3
13.0
2
144.5
150
200.5
122
35.0
4
51.5
1
74.9
127
161.4
30
16.1
2
17.6
0
0.0
32
33.7
618
227.7
67
528.7
16
2933.2
701
3689.6

Japan International Cooperation Agency

Nibancho Center Building 5-25,
Niban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
102-8012, Japan
URL: http://www.jica.go.jp