1.

0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

The power from the sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8 x l0ll MW (Wikipedia
2009). This makes it one of the most promising unconventional energy sources. Solar energy is
available in abundance in most parts of our country throughout the year and, so, the drying of
various agricultural products in open sunlight is an age-old practice. The sun has produced
energy for billions of years and this energy is in form of the suns rays (solar radiation) that reach
the earth. Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy such as heat and electricity.
The angle of insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation) of the sun is different at different locations
on earth because the earth is split into three main regions: polar, temperate and tropical. Since the
earth is a sphere, the middle is more direct to the sun, unlike the other regions. So, the sun would
"give" the heat to the tropics, closer to the equator, faster and later spread to the other regions,
where it takes some time to heat them up. Drying of fruit and vegetables is one of the energy
intensive processes in the food processing industry and a promising method of reducing post
harvest losses. Escalating prices and shortages of conventional fuels have lead to an increased
emphasis on using solar energy as an alternative energy source, especially in developing
countries [1]. The legislation on pollution and sustainable and ecofriendly technologies has
created greater demand for energy efficient drying processes in the food processing industries.
Drying practices for chalk, particularly in Nigeria, are largely traditional, which. In traditional
drying, the produce is spread on an open floor under sun, which has limitations like dust
contamination, spoilage due to rains, insect infestation etc. Moreover, as there is no control over
the drying rate, the chalk may be over dried, resulting in discoloration, loss of writing qualities

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and sometimes even complete damage. The moisture content and the temperature at which chalk
should be dried is always fixed, which is possible only in controlled drying.

1.2 A Brief History of Drying

Large-scale continuous drying of foods began in the 1940s and in 1945, the first conveyor dryer
for foods was manufactured. By 1956, the first continuous dryer for breakfast cereal in the
United States had been manufactured (Aeroglide, 2006) and by the 1950s (Nyrop, 2007), the
development and supply of complete spray dryers, for industrial drying had begun. Alternative
air dispensing and atomization techniques were incorporated in the drying systems in the 60s, a
period which also witnessed the development of flash and fluid bed dryers.
According to Pier (2007), the 70s saw the development of the Regenerating desiccant type air
dryers which were designed largely due to the vulnerability of railway pneumatic systems to
water condensation (which was as a result of the cooling compressed air). Allgemeiner (1955)
stated that, as at 1869, chalk slurries were still being dried using the power of the sun and wind.
However, by 1906, chalk plants construction had begun and had incorporated dryer drums,
screening machines and several other machines which made the drying process faster.
Development of various solar devices for thermal applications such as water heating, space
heating, drying, cooking and power generation, however, began during the last century.
Chalk is a soft white, porous sedimentary rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral
calcite. It is formed under relatively deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of
minute calcite plates (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores (Wikipedia
2009). Relatively, chalk is resistant to erosion and also because it is porous it can hold a large
volume of underground water. Chalk has been quarried since pre-history, serving as a building

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material and marl for fields. For instance, in Southeast England, den holes are a notable example
of ancient chalk pits. The chalk group is a European stratigraphic unit deposited during the late
cretaceous period; it forms the famous white cliffs of Dover in Kent, England. The champagne
region of France is mostly underlain by chalk deposits, which contain artificial caves used for
wine storage (Wikipedia, 2009).
Chalk board, which necessitates the use of chalk as its writing material, could be dated back to
1801 when teachers and schools had no means of presenting information to roomful students all
at once, no means of presentation of concepts and historical overviews for the entire class to
view, grasp and discuss. Supplies of pencils and paper were often in short supply or unaffordable
for making mass copies; hand outs too were a rarity, since the teachers had to hand a set for each
of their students. The expense of material and the individual attention required by such
presentation methods caused small class enrolment and slowed down instructions.
The history of solar energy stretched back into the dim recesses of pre-history, perhaps as far as
the clay tablet era in Mesopotamia when the temple priestesses used polished golden vessels to
ignite the altar fibres. In 1615, Salomon de Caux published a description of a working solar
motor. He used a number of glass lenses mounted in a frame that concentrated the Suns rays
on an air tight metal chamber partially filled with water. The sunlight heated the air, which
expanded and forced the water out as a small fountain (Aden B. Meinel, 1976)
Solar ovens appear in the literature, as described by the English astronomer John Herschel, son
of the famous astronomer Sir William Herschel. John Herschel constructed a simple device for
practical use on his expedition to the Cape of Good Hope in 1837. His oven was simply a black
box that was buried in sand for insulation and had a double layer glass cover that allowed

4
sunlight to enter and prevented heat from escaping. The oven was used by Herschels staff to
cook meat and vegetables for the dinner table of the expedition. (Aden B. Meniel, 1976).
In 1875, Mouchot made a notable advance in the solar collector design by making one in the
form of a truncated cone reflector. The spherical or parabolic mirror arrays of his predecessors
had focused all the light at one small sport in space where the absorber was placed.
The earliest attempts to convert solar energy into other forms revolved around the generation of
low-pressure steam to operate steam engines. According to Wikipedia (2009), solar energy is the
radiant light and heat from the sun that has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using
a range of even-evolving technologies. Solar energy (solar power) technologies can provide
electrical generation by heat engine or photovoltaic means. A partial list of application would
include space heating and cooling through solar architecture, portable water through distillation
and disinfection, daylighting, hot water, thermal energy for cooking and high temperature
process heat for industrial purposes. Solar concentrating technologies such as the parabolic dish,
trough and schettler reflectors can provide processing heat for commercial and industrial
applications. The first commercial system was the solar total energy project (STEP) in
Shenandoah, Georgia, USA, where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process
heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory.
Photovoltaics (PV) has mainly been used to power small and medium sized applications, from
the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array.
On large-scale generation, concentrating solar power (CSP) plants like SEGS have been the
norm, but recently multi-mega watt PV plants are becoming common. Completed in 2007, the
14MW power station in Clark County, Nevada and the 20MW site in Benixama, Spain are
characteristics of the trend toward larger photovoltaic power stations in the US and Europe.

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The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. Although the prototype
Selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Erust Werner Von
Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery. Following the
work of Russel Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin
created the Silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286USD/Watt and reached
efficiencies of 4.5-6%
Concentrated sunlight has been used to perform useful tasks since the time of ancient China. A
legend claims that Archimedes used polished shields to concentrate sunlight on the invading
Roman fleet and repel them from Syracuse. Auguste Mouchout used a parabolic trough to
produce steam for the first solar steam engine in 1866 and subsequent developments led to the
use of concentrating solar-powered devices for irrigation, refrigeration and locomotion.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a
large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a
conventional power plant. In all these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated
sunlight and is then used for power generation or energy storage.
Thermal mass systems can store energy in form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for
daily or seasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials
with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-designed systems can
lower peak demand, shift time of use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating goal
requirement. Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glavbers salt are another thermal
storage media. These materials are inexpensive, readily available and can deliver domestically
useful temperatures (approximately 640C). The Dover House (in Dover, Massachusetts) was
the first to use a Glaubers Salt heating system in 1948.

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Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures, using molten salts. Salts are effective storage
mediums because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at
temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The solar too used this method of
energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in it 68m3 storage tanks with an annual storage
efficiency of about 99%.
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity.
With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid. Net metering
programs give these systems credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system
cannot meet demand, effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism.
Pumped-storage hydro-electricity stores energy in form of water pumped when energy is
available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered
when demand is high by releasing the water to run through a hydroelectric power generator.

1.3 Chalk Production Processes

Chalk used in school classrooms comes in slender sticks, approximately .35 of an inch (9 mm) in
diameter and 3.15 inches (80 mm) long. Lessons are often presented to entire classes on
chalkboards (or blackboards, as they were originally called) using sticks of chalk because this
method has proven cheap and easy.
1.3.1 Raw Materials
The main component of chalk is calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a form of limestone. Limestone
deposits develop as coccoliths (minute calcareous plates created by the decomposition of
plankton skeletons) and accumulate to form sedimentary layers. Plankton, a tiny marine
organism, concentrates the calcium found naturally in seawater from .04 percent to 40 percent,

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which is then precipitated when the plankton dies.
1.3.2 The Manufacturing Process
To make chalk, limestone is first quarried, generally by an open pit quarry method. Next, the
limestone must be crushed. Primary crushing, such as in a jaw crusher, breaks down large
boulders; secondary crushing pulverizes smaller chunks into pebbles. The limestone is then wetmilled with water in a ball milla rotating steel drum with steel balls inside to further pulverize
the chalk. This step washes away impurities and leaves a fine powder. The base of pastel chalks
is calcium sulfate (CaSO4), which is derived from gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2O), an evaporite mineral
formed by the deposition of ocean brine; it also occurs disseminated in limestone. Chalk and
dehydrated gypsum thus have similar origins and properties. Pastels also contain clays and oils
for binding, and strong pigments. This mixture produces sticks that write smoothly without
smearing and draw better on paper than on chalkboards. Although great care is taken to eliminate
contaminants when chalk is manufactured, some impurities inherent to the mineral remain. Chief
among these are silica, alumina, iron, phosphorus, and sulfur. In less significant, amounts,
manganese, copper, titanium, sodium oxide, potassium oxide, fluorine, arsenic and strontium
may also occur.
1.3.3 Dehydrating Gypsum
Gypsum, like limestone, is also quarried and pulverized. The major difference in processing
gypsum is that it must be dehydrated to form calcium sulphate, the major component of coloured
chalk. This is done in a kettle, a large combustion chamber in which the gypsum is heated to
between 244 and 253 degrees Fahrenheit (116-121 degrees Celsius). It is allowed to boil until it
has been reduced by twelve to fifteen percent, at which point its water content will have been
reduced from 20.9 percent to between 5 and 6 percent. To further reduce the water, the gypsum

8
is reheated to about 402 degrees Fahrenheit (204 degrees Celsius), at which point it is removed
from the kettle. By now, almost all of the water has evaporated, leaving calcium sulphate.
Ca2SO4 .2H2O + heat = Ca2SO4 .1/2H2O + 11/2H2O
The particles of chalk or calcium sulphate are now conveyed to vibrating screens that sift out the
finer material. The ensuing fine chalk is then washed, dried, packed in bags, and shipped to the
manufacturer. Upon receiving chalk or calcium sulphate, the chalk factory usually grinds the
materials again to render them smooth and uniformly fine.
1.3.4 Making White Classroom Chalk
To make white classroom chalk, the manufacturer adds water to form thick slurry with the
consistency of clay. The slurry is then placed into and extruded from a die an orifice of the
desired long thin shape. Cut into lengths of approximately 24.43 inches (62 cm), the sticks are
next placed on a sheet that contains places for five such sticks. The sheet is then placed in an
oven, where the chalk cures for four days at 1880F (850C). After it has cured, the sticks are cut
into 80 millimeters lengths.
1.4 Types of Chalk Dryer
Having known that the most common type of chalk drying technique is sun drying, various types
of dryer have been built which use electricity as their source of power. Solar technologies that
can be broadly characterized as either passive or active are also being developed, depending on
the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar technologies use photovoltaic
panels, pumps and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar technologies include
selecting materials with favourable thermal properties, designing space that naturally circulate
air, and referencing the position of a building to the sun.

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1.5 Statement of Problem
A lot of work has been done on improvement of drying methods, harnessing solar energy and
solar powered dryers for other processes apart from chalk drying (Ogunremi and Orimolade
2006). Also, research and practical work on the chalk dryer has utilized electricity as its source
of power supply . To the best of our knowledge, little or no research has been done on the use of
solar energy in powering chalk dryers. This project thus extends knowledge by adapting solarpowered dryers for drying chalk instead of food and also using solar energy source for the chalk
dryer instead of electricity.
1.6 Aim and Objectives of the Project
The main aim of this project work is to develop a mechanism of powering of a chalk dryer using
solar energy. The specific objectives are to
(i). design and fabricate a dryer for chalk drying;
(ii). extract energy from the sun, using appropriate devices;
(iii). design a mechanism that will convert the solar energy extracted to heat to dry the chalk;
and
(iv). test the drying equipment for its performance.
1.7 Scope of the project
Although different types of driers exist, for example, driers for food conservation and
preparation, this study is limited to the design of chalk dryer. The energy source is also limited to
solar radiation out of several other sources that may exist. In this study, the box type dryer
among different types will be concentrated on. Locally available materials will be employed in
construction and fabrication.

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1.8 Justification of the Project
Literature reveals that over 50% of energy used in the sun drying process is being wasted and
also that materials or things to be dried are subjected to contamination. Hence, this work is set to
develop a system which will efficiently utilize solar radiation from the sun and at the same time
provide enough protection.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the review of works that are germane to this study. It opens with an
examination of drying and the solar energy that is to be used. The latter part of the chapter is a
survey of works done by scholars on solar energy collection, conversion and utilization in
various fields and the chapter ends with a summary of our position on the respective outcomes.
2.1 Solar Energy Drying Systems
In many countries of the world, the use of solar thermal systems in the agricultural area to
conserve vegetables, fruits, coffee and other crops has proved to be relevant, economical and
environmental friendly. Solar heating systems used to dry food and other crops can improve the
quality of the product, while reducing waste products and traditional fuel, thus improving the
quality of life. However, the availability of good information is lacking in many of the countries
where solar food processing systems are most needed. Solar food dryers are available in a range
of sizes and designs and are used for drying various food products. It is found that various types
of driers are available to suit the needs of farmers. Therefore, selection of dryers for a particular
application is largely a decision based on what is available and the types of dryers currently used
widely.
A comprehensive review of the various designs, details of construction and operational
principles of the wide variety of practically realized designs of solar-energy drying systems
reported previously is presented. A systematic approach for the classification of solar-energy
dryers has evolved. Two generic groups of solar-energy dryers can be identified, viz. passive or
natural-circulation solar-energy dryers and active or forced-convection solar-energy dryers.

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Some very recent developments in solar drying technology are highlighted. Open sun drying of
various agricultural produce is the most common application of solar energy. With the objective
of increasing the drying rate and improving quality of the products, natural convection and
forced convection type solar dryers have been developed for various commodities.

2.2 Solar Energy Collection and Conversion

In the invention of Glaser (1973), solar radiation is collected and converted to microwave energy
by a means on a satellite system maintained in outer space. The microwave energy is then
transmitted

to

earth

and

converted

to

electrical

power

for

distribution.

Rom (1975), in his work on solar energy, invented an apparatus for converting solar radiation to
heat energy for heating gaseous stream, such as air, to be used for heating or drying purposes.
The air or other gaseous mixture is flowed through an elongated heating passage defined by
plastic film formed of solar radiation absorbing or opaque (black) material and the film is
inflated by the fluid pressure of the gaseous stream passing through. The heating passage is
surrounded on top by an insulating space, defined by the outer surface of the top portion of the
opaque film and by an outer sheet of clear (solar radiation transparent) plastic film that is inflated
into an expanded position by the gaseous insulating medium therein. Air or another gaseous
mixture is flowed through the heating passage wherein solar radiation absorbed by the film is
converted to thermal energy that is transferred to the gaseous stream.
Coleman (1977) reported a solar energy apparatus for gathering and transmitting solar radiation
to an energy storage area. Wide-angle lens apparatus is used to focus solar radiation on an end of
an optical fiber bundle. The other end of the optical fiber bundle is placed in the energy storage
area and has a radiating device attached thereto to more efficiently remove the solar energy from
the optical fibre bundle. The other end of the optical fibre bundle is placed in the energy storage

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area and has a radiating device attached thereto to more efficiently remove the solar energy from
the optical fibre bundles. A heat sink is advantageously utilized as a storage means for the solar
energy thus gathered and transmitted.
Also, Keyes (1978) presents a self-contained apparatus for collecting, storing and transmitting
solar heat which includes an elongated rectangular insulated housing in which a quantity of heat
retaining material is confined and a collector on the horizontal and vertical faces of the housing,
which has only one layer of glass for each face through which solar heat may pass and be
collected upon a heat-collecting surface. A conditioning pump is provided within the apparatus
to circulate conditioning air through both the collector and the heat retaining material within the
housing, so that heat is transferred from the collector to the heat retaining material. Specially
designed and positioned ducts connect the collector to the interior of the housing in a manner
such that air interchange between the collector and the interior of the housing is prevented except
during operation of the conditioning pump. Both the collector and the interior of the housing are
provided with appropriately positioned baffles to expose the conditioning air to all of the heat
retaining material. Utility pump means are also provided in the apparatus for withdrawing heat
from the heat retaining material and circulating it through a remote building structure.
Hunt (1982) in his studies on energy collection and conversion, presented an apparatus for
collecting radiant energy and converting same to alternate energy form includes a housing
having an interior space and a radiation transparent window allowing, for example, solar
radiation to be received in the interior space of the housing. Means are provided for passing a
stream of fluid past the said window and for injecting radiation absorbent particles in the fluid
stream. The particles absorb the radiation and, because of their very large surface area, quickly
release the heat to the surrounding fluid stream. The fluid stream particle mixture is heated until

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the particles vaporize. The fluid stream is then allowed to expand in, for example, a gas turbine
to produce mechanical energy. In an aspect of the present invention properly-sized particles need
not be vaporized prior to the entrance of the fluid stream into the turbine, as the particles will not
damage the turbine blades.
Constantine et al. (1981), in their studies on utilization of solar energy, presented a process and
system for economic utilization of solar energy. Solar energy was absorbed and converted to
thermal energy by means of, at least, two systems, operating in different temperature ranges, for
circulating a primary fluid heat transfer medium through separate collector sections of a solar
receiver to recover solar heat; and through separate output heat exchangers to supply heat to a
second heat transfer medium functioning as a working medium, with heat storage means being
associated with each system for the purpose of satisfying the heat requirements of the working
fluid and also to prevent cooling down of the collector during the time that little or no solar
radiation is available.
Lenz (1989) provided a solar heat collecting apparatus, which comprises a solar collector panel
rotatably supported about a horizontal and a vertical axis and drive means for rotating the panel
simultaneously about the two axes. The collector panel comprises a battery of individual
collector units, wherein each collector unit comprises an elongated trough member, a concave
reflective surface forming at least a portion of the interior surface of the trough and a fluid
carrying pipe extending longitudinally within the trough member, the longitudinal axis of the
pipe being substantially coincident with the focal line of the concave reflective surface. The pipe
was formed of a material that is substantially transparent to solar radiation. In addition, there was
a linear focusing lens, substantially covering and extending over the concave reflective surface.
The focal line for the linear lens should be substantially coincident also with the longitudinal axis

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of the fluid carrying pipe.
Stirbl (1993) describes a system for collecting solar radiation by generating waveform energy,
directing the energy to a pre-determined region of the atmosphere located at a pre-established
distance above a surface of the earth; controlling the energy directed to modulate an index of
refraction of air in the predetermined region of the atmosphere to produce a pre-determined
refraction index pattern in the region; modifying the distribution of solar radiation passing
through a region to thereby concentrate the solar radiation at a pre-determined location on the
surface; and absorbing at the location, a substantial quantity of the concentrated solar radiation to
produce heat energy.
2.3 Solar Energy Applications
Corazizini (1995), in his work on solar energy application, presents a solar-powered window
shade which consists of a venetian blind mounted within an interior of a frame of a window in a
wall of a building. An apparatus was carried by the venetian blind, for converting solar radiation
of sunlight into electrical energy. Also, a mechanism was placed on the venetian blind for
utilizing the electrical energy to open and close it. At sunrise and all through the day, the
venetian blind will remain open to allow sunlight to enter through the window, to help heat up
the building. At sunset and all through the night, the venetian blind remained closed to produce a
thermal barrier, to help retain the heat within the building.
Ampratwum and Dorvlo (1998) develop a solar collector in the form of a prototype solar cabinet
dryer which was evaluated at no load as an air-heating system. The dryer was operated for 28
days from mid-April to the end of May 1996. For the period of operation, the dryer attained an
average temperature of 81.30C with a standard deviation of 8.60C within a 7-h period from 8:00h
to 15:00h. From hourly temperature considerations, it was determined that the rate of solar

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energy absorbed by the dryer ranged from 0.51kWsqm-1 to 0.93kW sqm-1. The peak was reached
at 11:00h and a high solar-energy rate of capture of 0.90kW sqm-1 and over was maintained for
about 6 hours.
Gikuru and Njoroge (2004) develop a small solar dryer with limited sun tracking capabilities and
was tested. The dryer had a mild steel absorber plate and a polyvinyl chloride (pvc) transparent
cover and could be adjusted to track the sun in increments of 150. The performance was tested by
adjusting the angle the dryer made with the horizontal either once, three, five or nine times a day
when either loaded with coffee beans or under no load conditions. The temperature distribution
in the plenum and also the drying rate of parchment coffee were determined. The temperature
inside the plenum chamber could reach a maximum of 70.4 _C and the dryer could lower the
moisture content of coffee beans from 54.8% to below 13% (w.b.) in 2 days as opposed to the 5
7 days required in sun drying. Tracking the sun, though allowing a faster rate of drying, did not
offer a significant advantage in terms of length of drying duration.
Sreekumar et al. (2006) give the development and testing of another type of efficient solar dryer,
particularly meant for drying vegetables and fruit. The dryer has two compartments: one for
collecting solar radiation and producing thermal energy and the other for spreading the product
to be dried. This arrangement was made to absorb maximum solar radiation by the absorber
plate. In this dryer, the product was loaded beneath the absorber plate, which prevented the
problem of discoloration due to irradiation by direct sunlight. Two axial flow fans, provided in
the air inlet, can accelerate the drying rate. The dryer had six perforated trays for loading the
material. The absorber plate of the dryer attained a temperature of 97.20C when it was studied
under no load conditions. The maximum air temperature in the dryer under this condition was
78.10C. The dryer was loaded with 4 kg of bitter gourd having an initial moisture content of

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95%, and the final desired moisture content of 5% was achieved within 6 h without losing the
product colour, while it was 11 h for open sun drying. The collector glazing was inclined at a
particular angle, suitable to the location, for absorption of maximum solar radiation. A detailed
performance analysis was done by three methods, namely annualized cost method, present
worth of annual savings and present worth of cumulative savings. The drying cost for 1 kg of
bitter gourd was calculated as Rs. 17.52, and it was Rs. 41.35, in the case of an electric dryer.
The life span of the solar dryer was assumed to be 20 years. The cumulative present worth of
annual savings over the life of the solar dryer was calculated for bitter gourd drying, and it turned
out be Rs. 31659.26, which was much higher than the capital cost of the dryer (Rs. 6500). The
payback period was calculated as 3.26 years, which was also very small considering the life of
the system (20 years). So, the dryer would dry products free of cost during almost its entire life
span. The quality of the product dried in the solar dryer was competitive with the branded
products available in the market.
Sitompul et al. (2001) are concerned with heterogeneous modeling of deep-bed grain dryers
based on a two-phase model by taking into account coupled heat and mass transfer within grains.
This model also considered axial mass and heat dispersion in the fluid phase. The dynamic twophase equations are solved numerically by finite difference with alternating direction implicit
method algorithm; then applied to simulate humidity and temperature profile of drying gas
across dryers, together with moisture content and temperature of grains. The capabilities of these
models were compared with experimental data obtained from available literature, under drying
conditions such as temperature and absolute humidity of drying gas and moisture content of
grains. The simulation results showed that the dynamic of corn drying within the bed is well
predicted by the two-phase model.

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The recent developments by engineers have unfolded the facts that, the chalk dryer can be
utilized with cost effective power supply. This can be achieved by changing the means of
powering available chalk dryers that are mostly electric to solar-powered. The solar energy is in
abundance and is easier to tap than some other sources of power supply like gas, electricity, biodiesel and some others. Also, the environmental benefits of the solar energy in comparison to
petroleum based fuel and other sources should also be taken into consideration.

2.4 Solar radiation

Olopade and Sanusi (2008) studied the performance of PV modules under tropical sky
conditions. Two modules were used, each of 0.92m x 0.30m comprising 27 Solar cells. While
one of the modules was positioned flat, the other was tilted at the latitude of the site. The study
was carried out in June 2004, on the roof top (350m above sea level) of the Department of
Physics, University of Ilorin, Ilorin (8.320N, 4.340E), Nigeria. Results and analyses show that,
under very cloudy sky of 0.070 average clearness index (KT), the photovoltaic modules receive
approximately 0.7-kWh/m2 average daily insolation of mainly diffuse radiation. The tilted
module performs better by about 47% than the flat module. This is confirmed by the R-square
values of the linear least square regression analyses between the efficiencies of the modules and
the cloudy sky radiation parameters. The R-square value of the tilted module was 0.996014,
while that of the flat module was 0.617168. However, the diurnal variations of net radiation have
been studied by analysing one year data measured at a tropical station, Osu (7.43 N, 4.58 E),
in Nigeria (Jegede, 1996). The maximum net daytime flux (which occurs around 14h local time)
varies in the course of the year from 382.6136.7Wm -2 in the wet season (April-October) to
480.361.8Wm -2 in the dry season (November-March). The low values (and large fluctuations)
of the hourly means recorded during the wet (monsoon) season are attributed to the important

19
roles that the convective clouds and water vapour play in the atmospheric radiation budget,
which is very pronounced in the tropical areas of West Africa. The daily amplitude of the net
radiation is larger for the dry season (maximum in November) than it is for the wet season
(minimum in July). A lag of about 2 hours is observed between the times when the maxima of
the air temperature and the net radiation courses occur over the area.
2.5 The sun
The sun is a giant nuclear fusion reactor combining hydrogen to form helium, it generates a great
amount of energy. Radiation from the sun catalyzes or directly supplies most of the natural
energy systems on earth. The sun causes the air in the atmosphere to warm up, setting
temperature differentials that generate wind. Major patterns of winds are due to the earth's
rotation about its axis and the day-night cycles of solar heating and subsequent cooling.

Figure 2.5: The Sun and the Earth (Crowther, Richard L., Sustainable Design, Sun-Earth)

20
A great amount of energy is absorbed by the earth's surface itself, as well as by the oceans, plants
and buildings. The energy absorbed by the plants is converted into food energy and from the
oceans, evaporation causes the hydrologic conversion cycle.

2.6 Sun's Apparent Movement

The earth rotates around the sun. This causes the sun to "rise" and "set". The angle of the sun and
its intensity on earth is affected by location of the place on the surface of the earth. The length of
the atmosphere that the solar radiation has to pass through determines the amount of radiation
that reaches the earth's surface. During the day, the sun is directly overhead and radiation travels
through least amount of atmosphere enroute to the earth's surface. As the sun moves closer to the
horizon (sunset), the path of the radiation through the horizon lengthens and the intensity of the
radiation decreases. Also, at a high elevation, the amount of atmosphere that the solar rays have
to travel through is lesser and therefore the energy content is somewhat higher.

Figure 2.6: The tilt of the earth remains constant at 23.47o as it revolves around the Sun.
(The Passive Solar Energy Book by Mazria Edward)
Because of the earth's tilt and rotation, the length of atmosphere that solar radiation passes
through varies with the time of day and month of the year. The path of the earth around the sun is

21
a slight ellipse. As the earth orbits around the sun, it rotates on its axis that extends from the
North pole to the South Pole every 24 hours. The axis is tilted 23.470 from the vertical to the
plane of the earth's orbit around the sun. The solar rays reach the Earth's surface after being
attenuated by the atmosphere. Made up of elementary particles called photons, they are
characterized by a wavelength inversely proportional to their energy - the shorter the wavelength,
the greater the energy. The availability of solar radiation for technological application is
determined, to a large extent, by clearness of the sky. The solar flux is attenuated by a number of
factors before its final reception on earth. Clouds, consisting of water droplets or ice crystals
constitute a major factor, which attenuate the solar flux, mainly by scattering (Fagbenle, 1990).
Depending on the depth and number of layers of the cloud, radiation is scattered either forward
or backward. When the depth is substantial, back-scattering predominates, and thick stratus can
reflect up to 70% incident radiation (Monteith and Unsworth, 1990; Meinel and Meinel, 1976).
Beyond the earth's atmosphere the intensity of sunlight is about 1,350 watts per square meter
(429 British thermal units [Btu] per hour per square foot).

Passage through the atmosphere

depletes the intensity due to absorption by the various gases and vapors in the air and by
scattering from these gases and vapors and from particles of dust and ice also in the air. Thus,
sunlight reaching the earth is a mixture of direct (unscattered) and diffuse (scattered) radiation.
At sea level the intensity is reduced to approximately 1,000 watts/square meter (295 Btu/hour/
square foot) on a bright clear day (Kaplan 1985). The intensity is further reduced on overcast
days. From literatures that have been reviewed (Olopade and Sanusi (2008), Kuku and Salau
(1985)) there is an average value of 700wh/m2solar radiation in Ile-Ife.

22

3.0 Methodology
3.1. Experimental set up
The experimental set up, shown in Plate. 3.1, consists of the solar-aided chalk drier provided
with mirror reflector tilted at 00 and 150 to the dryer (Appendix 1 and 2). Basically, the
developed dryer consists of three parts: the reflectors, top collector and bottom drying chamber.
The top section of the solar dryer was the reflector area. The body of the dryer was made of
65x55x1.6 mm thick ply wood. The reflector used was made with mirrors gently positioned on
plywoods of equal sizes and positioned at 300 to the vertical with each side of 55 cm at the
bottom. All the sidewalls and bottom wall has plywood as insulators. A 4 mm doubled clear
glass which was glued together and allowed to get dried for 24 hours was mounted on the top of
the dryer as a glazing plate. The reflector was designed in a way such that the angl at which it is
to the dryer can be varied for Ile-Ife (latitude 7 0281 ). The height of the absorber region was 65.5
cm and that of the back portion was 80cm when the reflector is tilted at 150.

Plate 3.1: Solar-aided chalk dryer with the thermocouple

23
Air holes of area 0.125m2 was provided in the front and under the dryer for air flow through the
drying chamber.
The total volume of the drying chamber was 0.197 m3, and it was located underneath the glazing
plate. It consists of two trays to load the material to be dried.
The material used to make the tray was wood and chicken wire. The size of the single tray was
0.5 m2. And the trays were arranged one above the other. The distance between the consecutive
bottom and top of trays was 15cm as shown in Fig 3.1. Four rows of holes, having 5 holes per
row, facilitated the exhaust of warm moist air from the dryer. The diameter of an individual hole
was 5 mm. The individual rows were separated a distance of 6 cm, and the distance between
holes was 4 cm. See template 3 for details.

Reflectors

Tray 1
Air outflow

15cm

Tray 2

Air inflow

Fig 3.1: Side sketch of chalk dryer showing distance between trays

Stand

24

3.2. Experimental procedure

The experiments were conducted in the Solar Laboratory of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife Nigeria (70 281 latitude). The performance of
the system was continuously monitored during the mid periods of the month of March 2010. All
the experiments were conducted from 10:00 am to 3:00 pm. Basically, two types of studies were
carried out on the solar dryer. First was when reflector was tilted at 00 and the other when at 150.
Various measuring devices were used to investigate the effects of the environmental and
operating parameters on the performance of the dryer. The ambient temperature, tray
temperatures in the drying chamber, absorber plate temperature, etc. were monitored using the
thermocouple. The temperature readings were taken every 30 minutes. The relative humidity of
the atmosphere was obtained by using the Sling psychrometer to get the wet and dry bulb
temperature and checking the psychrometric chart. Samples of products in the dryer were
weighed at 1 hr intervals using a a weighing balance (0.001 g). At the end of the drying
process, the moisture content of the sample was determined by comparing the weight of an
already dried sample with a sample that has just been moulded.

3.2.1. Test of the dryer with reflectors at 00 to the dryer

The experiment was conducted for 5 hrs to measure the maximum temperature achieved by the
absorber plate of the dryer and the drying cabinet. The two trays were loaded with chalk having
an initial moisture content on 95%. The total quantity loaded was 8.4kg, 4.2 kg in each tray.
During the study, the outlet holes were kept. The temperatures of the ambient, absorber plate and
dryer trays were recorded every 30 mins during the study period. The weight of the chalk being
dried was recorded every 1 h. Chalk, used for the drying tests, is the most popular blackboard

25
writing materials in Nigeria, especially in rural area institutions. It is manufactured from
Limestone. These are abundantly available in Ogun State. It can also be used in Snail rearing as
it is known to contain calcium which is good for Snail shells. For the drying tests, pieces
weighing 8.4 kg of chalk was loaded in the dryer. The freshly moulded chalk was placed in the
dryer after being allowed to solidify for 30 minutes in the mould.

3.2.2. Test with reflectors tilted at 150 to the dryer

All parameters were monitored as described above except that the reflectors were tilted at 150
(Fig 3.2) for the same number of hrs.

Reflectors

150
Tray 1
15cm
Tray 2

Air inflow

Fig 3.2: Side sketch of chalk dryer showing reflectors tilted at 15 0

Stand

26

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Test of the dryer with reflector tilted at 00
The parameters monitored, such as ambient temperature and temperature in the solar dryer are
shown in Fig. 4.1a the experimental time period was from 10:00 am to 3:00 pm. In this study, the
reflectors were placed directly on the dryer and not tilted throughout the experimental period.
The maximum temperature monitored in the inner wall was 650C, which was at 2:30 pm. The
average relative humidity was 75% which ranges from 80% at 10am to 55% at around 3pm. The
high temperature of the inner wall was due to the coating of a black gloss paint, which has an
absorptivity of 0.91 (Reflective Insulation Manufactures Association April 1999). The maximum
tray temperature in the dryer was monitored as 550C at 2.30 pm.

65
60

Temperature

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
10

10.3

11

11.3 12 .00 12.3

1.3

2.3

Time
Open sun drying temp. against time
Tray 1 temp. against time
Tray 2 temp. against time

Fig. 4.1a. Variation of temperature in the solar dryer and ambient temperature with Time
when reflector is are at 00 to the dryer.

27
Table 4.1. Temperature and mass properties (reflector at 00 to the dryer)
Avg RH =75%
Time
Ambient
temp
32
10am
10.30am 31
11.00am 33
11.30am 32
12 noon 32
12.30pm 34
1.00pm 34
1.30pm 33
2.00pm 34
2.30pm 36
3.00pm 35

Tray 1

Temperature
Tray2
Wall(Tw) Tw -TA

Tray1

45
43
45
46
49
52
55
58
59
58
57

41
40
43
45
47
47
48
50
52
55
54

4.20
4.15
4.13
4.13
4.12
4.10
4.05
4.02
4.00
3.99
3.98

55
54
57
59
61
60
62
60
62
65
63

23
23
24
27
29
26
28
27
28
29
28

Mass of chalk
Tray2
Sundrying
temp
4.20
4.2
4.20
4.18
4.15
4.16
4.13
4.14
4.10
4.14
4.05
4.12
4.03
4.12
4.02
4.10
4.02
4.10
4.00
4.08
4.00
4.06

The temperature reading of the chalk under open sun drying tends to fluctuate within the period
of experiment within a range of 31 to 360C and the peak which is 360C was obtained at 2.30pm.
The fluctuation in temperature could have been as a result of periodic cloud cover on the sun and
wind effects which tend to reduce chalk temperature. A slight difference of tray temperature in
the drier was noticed even though they follow the same pattern. Tray 1 reached its peak
temperature at 2.00pm while Tray 2 reached its peak at2.30pm. This could have been as a result
closeness of tray 1 to the top of the dryer which is the entry point of solar rays than tray2. We
suspect that it takes some little period of time for tray 2 to attain the chamber temperature than
tray 1. It was observed that the temperature rise of the dryer wall above ambient air was in the
range of 23 290C during the study period.
The solar energy required for removal of the moisture content from 8.4 kg of the chalks was
calculated as 2043 kJ/batch. The samples were collected from the different trays to analyze the
uniformity of drying, and it was found that the reduction in moisture content of Tray 1 is slightly
higher than that of tray 2. Drying was very fast in the initial hours of operation, and then it
started to decrease. This might have been because of the evaporation of surface moisture at the

28
beginning of the process. It was known that as the moisture content of the product is reduced,
more energy might be required to evaporate the same amount of moisture from the product. The
result obtained was compared with chalk dried in the open sun. The moisture content of the chalk
was reduced from an initial moisture content of 21.43% to the final value of 17.09% for tray 1,
17.50% for tray 2 and 19% for open sun drying within an effective drying time of 5 hrs as shown
in Fig. 4.1b. The moisture content at the of end of the experiment when the reflectors are placed
at 00 to the dryer was 17.09% for Tray 1and 17.50% for tray 2, but the entire moisture was
removed from the product loaded in the solar dryer in the second day itself. We suspect that the
dryer continued the removal of moisture content during the late periods of the day.

4.25

4.20

Mass (kg)

4.15

4.10

4.05

4.00

3.95
10

10.3

11

11.3 12.00 12.3

1.3

2.3

Time
Mass of Open sun drying against Time
Mass of Chalk in tray1 against time
Mass of Chalk in tray2 against time

Fig. 4.1b. Reduction of moisture content of chalk with Time when reflector is at 00 to the
dryer

29

4.2. Test with reflector tilted at 150 to the dryer

In this experiment, the dryer was loaded with 8.4 kg of freshly cast chalk to study its drying
behaviour. The dryer, with solar radiation when the reflector was tilted at 150 to the dryer,
radiation incident on inner wall of the dryer, ambient temperature and rise in tray temperatures
inside the dryer above the ambient temperature are shown in Fig. 4.2a. The rise in tray
temperature varied from 9 0C to 190C during 10 am to 3pm. The average relative humidity of the
air at the time of experiment was 75%.

55

50

Temperature

45

40

35

30

25
10

10.3

11

11.3 12 .00 12.3

1.3

2.3

Time
Open sun drying temp. against time
Tray 1 temp. against time
Tray 2 temp against time

Fig. 4.2a. Variation of temperature in the solar dryer and Open air sun drying with Time
when reflector is at 150 to the dryer.

30

during the study period. The average relative humidity was 52% which ranges from 70% at 10am
to 43% at around 3pm.The moisture content of the chalk was reduced from an initial moisture
content of 21.43% to the final value of 18.30% for tray 1 and 19.12% for both tray 2 and
ambient, within one day with an effective drying time of 5 hrs as shown in Fig. 4.2b. The solar
energy required for removal of the moisture from 8.4 kg of product was calculated as 2043
kJ/batch. The samples were collected from the different trays to analyze the uniformity of drying,
and it was found that the reduction in moisture in Tray 1 is slightly higher than that of tray 2.
Drying was very fast in the initial hours of operation, and then it started to decrease as also in the
case of 4.1. The result obtained was compared with chalk dried in the open sun and it was
discovered that at the end of the period of experiment, chalks from tray 2 has the same moisture
content as that of the ambient. This could be as a result of low temperature values when
compared to reading with reflectors at 00 or as a result of low relative humidity.

4.22
4.20
4.18

Mass (kg)

4.16
4.14
4.12
4.10
4.08
4.06
4.04
4.02
10

10.3

11

11.3

12

12.3

1.3

2.3

Time
Mass of chalk in open sun drying against Time
Mass of Chalk in Tray 1 against time
Mass of Chalk in Tray 2 against time

Fig. 4.2b. Reduction of moisture content of chalk with Time when reflector is at 150 to the
Dryer

31

Table 4.2. Temperature and mass properties (reflector at 150 to the dryer)
Avg RH =
52%
Time

10am
10.30am
11.00am
11.30am
12 noon
12.30pm
1.00pm
1.30pm
2.00pm
2.30pm
3.00pm

Temperature

Mass of chalk

Ambient
temp

Tray 1

Tray2

Wall

Tw -TA

Tray1

Tray2

29
30
30
32
31
32
30
31
32
33
33

39
40
39
41
42
45
47
49
50
52
50

38
38
38
39
42
43
45
44
43
47
45

39
40
40
42
42
46
50
50
56
58
56

10
10
10
10
9
14
20
19
24
25
13

4.20
4.20
4.15
4.13
4.12
4.10
4.10
4.08
4.06
4.06
4.04

4.20
4.20
4.16
4.14
4.14
4.12
4.12
4.10
4.10
4.08
4.08

Sun
drying
temp
4.2
4.2
4.19
4.17
4.16
4.15
4.13
4.13
4.10
4.10
4.08

On a general note, from the temperature ranges of Experiment 4.1 and 4.2 the temperature
variations shows a better performance of dryer when reflector is tilted at 00 to that at 150. We
suspect that this may be due to intensity of the sun being higher and staying longer at overhead.
For comparison purposes, the experimental data obtained at UNN Enugu state Nigeria for
drying pepper (56.2% reduction in moisture was) at an average of 43% relative humidity and
average temperature of 630C was spread over eight drying days (Ezekoye and Enebe (2006)) ,
whereas the drying duration required for the reduction of 21.43% moisture in the present drier
was only two days of a spread of 11 hrs and open sun drying (24hrs spread over three days) at
Dara chalks, Arubidi Ile-Ife. This could be as a result of the use of glazing plates on three sides
of the dryer at UNN which may generate a high temperature but may tend to lose it more
quickly. These indicates a good performance of the designed drier showing the effect of the use
of insulation materials and reflectors.

32

5. Conclusions
An efficient and economic solar-aided chalk dryer has been developed using locally available
material in Nigeria and characterized. The experiments were conducted for drying chalk. The
product was loaded in the trays inside the dryer. The drying duration of the product was reduced
considerably in comparison with traditional sun drying. Moreover, the chalk could retain its
original colour after the drying process, which helps the writing quality of the chalk. The dryer
can be enlarged for large-scale drying and commercial purposes by increasing the reflector and
collector size. There is no need of carrying the chalks inside during the nights in order to avoid
re-wetting since the dryer is sealed with glass and wood to protect the samples from dew and
rain.

5.1 Recommendations
-The mirror can be replaced with stainless steel to avoid the risk of breakage and maintenance.
-The chalk dryer can be made single tray equipment or each tray should be used individually i.e.
one at a time, to maximize its operating efficiency for chalk drying.

33
Notes
1. Interview with Mr Adaranijo of Dara chalk
2. Interview with Mr Aderemi Awojobi, on solar powered dryers
3. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
4. Reflective Insulation Manufacturers Association (RIMA)

34
References
Glaser E. P. (1973) Method and apparatus for converting solar radiation to electrical power
United states Patent 19.
Rom F. E. (1975) Method and apparatus for converting solar radiation to heat energy
United states Patent.
Coleman R. F. (1977) Solar Energy Apparatus United states Patent.
Keyes J. H.( 1978) Method and apparatus for collecting, storing and transmitting solar heat.
united states patent.
Hunt A. J. (1982) Radiant energy collection and conversion apparatus and method
united states Patent.
Constantine D. M., Arlington, Albert G. L., Walter L. and Guetlhuber F. (1981). Method and
apparatus for utilizing solar energy United states Patent, 4,265,223.
Lenz E. (1989) Apparatus and method for extracting focused solar radiant energy, united states
patent.
Stirbl R. C. (1993) Method and apparatus for generating atmospheric solar energy concentrator,
united states patent.
Corazzini W.( 1995) Development of a solar powered window shade, united states patent.
Ampratwum B. D. and Dorvlo A. S.S. (1998) Evaluation of a solar cabinet Dryer as an airheating system. Journal of Applied energy, Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 63-71.
Gikuru M. and Njoroge K. S. (2004) Performance of a solar dryer with limited sun tracking
capability, Journal of Food Engineering, 74 (2006), pp. 247252.
Sitompul J. P., Istadi, Widiasa I.N. (2001) Drying Technology, Volume 19, Issue 2 ,
pages 269 280
Wikipedia free encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.com
Ezekoye B.A. and Enebe O.M.(2006) Development and performance evaluation of modified
integrated passive solar Grain Dryer, The Pacific Jour. of Science and Technology, vol.
7, No. 2, November.
Sreekumar A., Manikantan P.E, Vijayakumar K.P. (2006), Performance of indirect solar cabinet
dryer Journal of Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 13881395.
Ndukwe I. C. (1998) Measurement of solar energy radiation at Okigwe using silicon solar cell,
Department of Physics, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.

35
Olopade M.A. and Sanusi Y.K. Solar Radiation Characteristics and the performance of
Photovoltaic (PV) Modules in a Tropical Station, Journal of Sci. Res. Dev., 2008, Vol.
11, 100 109.
Wengert and Oliveira Improvements in solar dry kiln design U.S. department of agriculture
forest service 1996.
www.azom.com, Retrieved on 26th of May, 2009
Duffie J. A. and Beckman W. A. (1991). Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Second
Edition, pp 296 - 301. Wiley-Interscience, New York.
Kuku T.A. and Salau A.A.M. (1985) Field performance of a polycrystalline silicon module,
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, OAU, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Ogunremi A.R. and Orimolade A.P. (2006) Design, construction and evaluation of a solar ice
block making machine Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.
William Becker, www.williamgbecker.com/MakeSolarOven.html
Monteith, J.L. and M.H. Unsworth, 1990, Principles of Envirionmental Physics, 2nd Ed.,
Edward Arnold, New York (p 53-54)
Meinel A.B. and Meinel M.P., Applied Solar Energy: An Introduction, Addison-Wesley, 1976,
650 pp.
RIMA (1999), Radiant Barriers and Radiant Control Coatings, Reflective Insulation.
Manufacturers Association, April 1999, p.25.

36
APPENDIX I
Table of Relative humidity, Temperature and mass (reflector at 00 to the dryer)
Time

Open(TA) Tray
1
32
45
10am
43
10.30am 31
45
11.00am 33
46
11.30am 32
49
12 noon 32
52
12.30pm 34
55
1.00pm 34
33
58
1.30pm
59
2.00pm 34
58
2.30pm 36
57
3.00pm 35

Temperature
Tray2 Wall(Tw) Tw TA
41
55
23
40
54
23
43
57
24
45
59
27
47
61
29
47
60
26
48
62
28
50
60
27
52
62
28
55
65
29
54
63
28

Mass of chalk
Avg RH =75%
Tray1 Tray2 Open Rel. Humidity
4.20
4.15
4.13
4.13
4.12
4.10
4.05
4.02
4.00
3.99
3.98

4.20
4.20
4.15
4.13
4.10
4.05
4.03
4.02
4.02
4.00
4.00

4.2
4.18
4.16
4.14
4.14
4.12
4.12
4.10
4.10
4.08
4.06

80
78
72
73
74
73
73
73
73
68
55

37
Table of Relative humidity, Temperature and mass (reflector at 150 to the dryer)
Time

Open

10am
10.30am
11.00am
11.30am
12 noon
12.30pm
1.00pm
1.30pm
2.00pm
2.30pm
3.00pm

29
30
30
32
31
32
30
31
32
33
33

Tray
1
39
40
39
41
42
45
47
49
50
52
50

Temperature
Tray2 Wall
38
38
38
39
42
43
45
44
43
47
45

39
40
40
42
42
46
50
50
56
58
56

Tw -TA

Mass of chalk
Tray1 Tray2 Open

Avg RH = 52%
Rel. Humidity

10
10
10
10
9
14
20
19
24
25
13

4.20
4.20
4.15
4.13
4.12
4.10
4.10
4.08
4.06
4.06
4.04

70
65
55
54
52
52
52
45
45
43
43

4.20
4.20
4.16
4.14
4.14
4.12
4.12
4.10
4.10
4.08
4.08

4.2
4.2
4.19
4.17
4.16
4.15
4.13
4.13
4.10
4.10
4.08

38

Appendix II

Template 1: Solar-aided dryer (Reflector is at 00)

39

Template 2: Solar-aided dryer (Reflectors tilted at 150)

40

Template 3: Solar-aided dryer when loaded with chalk

41

Template 4: The Thermocouple

42

Template 5: Psychrometric chart

43

Template 6: Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer

44

Template 7: Drying Tray

45

Template 8: Weighing Scale