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Peer to Peer
Peer-to-peer systems often implement an abstract overlay network, built at Application Layer, on
top of the native or physical network topology. Such overlays are used for indexing and peer
discovery and make the P2P system independent from the physical network topology. Content is
typically exchanged directly over the underlying Internet Protocol (IP) network. Anonymous
peer-to-peer systems are an exception, and implement extra routing layers to obscure the identity
of the source or destination of queries.
In structured peer-to-peer networks, peers (and, sometimes, resources) are organized following
specific criteria and algorithms, which lead to overlays with specific topologies and properties.
They typically use distributed hash table-based (DHT) indexing, such as in the Chord system
(MIT).
Unstructured peer-to-peer networks do not impose any structure on the overlay networks. Peers
in these networks connect in an ad-hoc fashion. Ideally, unstructured P2P systems would have
absolutely no centralized system, but in practice there are several types of unstructured systems
with various degrees of centralization. Three categories can easily be seen.
In pure peer-to-peer systems the entire network consists solely of equipotent peers. There
is only one routing layer, as there are no preferred nodes with any special infrastructure
function.
Hybrid peer-to-peer systems allow such infrastructure nodes to exist often called super
nodes.
In centralized peer-to-peer systems, a central server is used for indexing functions and to
bootstrap the entire system. Although this has similarities with a structured architecture, the
connections between peers are not determined by any algorithm.
Client/server networks are more suitable for larger networks. A central computer, or 'server',
acts as the storage location for files and applications shared on the network. Usually the server is
a higher than average performance computer. The server also controls the network access of the
other computers which are referred to as the 'client' computers. Typically, teachers and students
in a school will use the client computers for their work and only the network administrator
(usually a designated staff member) will have access rights to the server.
Client/server networks
The clientserver characteristic describes the relationship of cooperating programs in an
application. The server component provides a function or service to one or many clients, which
initiate requests for such services.
Functions such as email exchange, web access and database access, are built on the clientserver
model. Users accessing banking services from their computer use a web browser client to send a
request to a web server at a bank. That program may in turn forward the request to its own
database client program that sends a request to a database server at another bank computer to
retrieve the account information. The balance is returned to the bank database client, which in
turn serves it back to the web browser client displaying the results to the user. The clientserver
model has become one of the central ideas of network computing. Many business applications
being written today use the clientserver model. So do the Internet's main application protocols,
such as HTTP, SMTP, Telnet, and DNS.
The interaction between client and server is often described using sequence diagrams.
The Unified Modeling Language has support for sequence diagrams.
Specific types of clients include web browsers, email clients, and online chat clients.
Specific types of servers include web servers, ftp servers, application servers, database
servers, name servers, mail servers, file servers, print servers, and terminal servers. Most web
services are also types of servers.
Client/Server Networks
Easy to set up
Ideal for networks with less than 10 No limit to the number of computers that
computers
can be supported by the network
Does not require a server
every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network
high degree of interconnection between computers
easy physical connection of computers in a network
inexpensive medium of data transmission
high data transmission rate
The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does
not affect the functioning for other computers.
Addition of new computer to network is easy.
High rate of data transmission is possible.
Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.
Disadvantages
If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
Use of LAN
Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used
are connected to head quarters through WAN. The distance between computers connected to
WAN is larger. Therefore the transmission medium used is normally telephone lines, microwaves
and satellite links.
LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometers. But WAN covers great
distance and operate nationwide or even worldwide.
In LAN, the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with wires and
coaxial cables. In WAN there is no physical connection. Communication is done through
telephone lines and satellite links.
Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is owned by a
single organization. In case of WAN the cost of data transmission is very high because
the transmission medium used is hired either telephone lines or satellite links.
The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The transmission
speed in LAN varies from 0.1 to 100 megabits per second. In case of WAN the speed
ranges from 1800 to 9600 bits per second (bps).
Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because in LAN the
distance covered is negligible.
Network topology:
There are two basic categories of network topologies:
Physical topologies
Logical topologies
The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the
network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections
between the nodes and the cabling. The physical topology of a network is determined by the
capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance
desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
The logical topology, in contrast, is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way
that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the
physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same
as its physical topology. For example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using repeater hubs was
a logical bus topology with a physical star topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring
topology, but is wired a physical star from the Media Access Unit.
Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and
protocols. Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of
equipment such as routers and switches.
The study of network topology recognizes seven basic topologies:
Point-to-point
Bus
Star
Ring
Mesh
Tree
Hybrid
Daisy chain
Bus topology
In bus topology all workstations are connected to a single communication line called bus. In this
type of network topology there is no central node as in star topology. Transmission from any
station travels the length of the bus in both directions and can be received by all workstations.
The advantage of the bus topology is that
The disadvantage of bus topology is that any break in the bus is difficult to identify.
Bus topology
Star topology
In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub with
a point-to-point connection. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be
classified as a star network, but all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one central
device. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as
a signal repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement.
An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary
disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure.
Star topology
Ring topology
In ring topology each station is attached nearby stations on a point to point basis so that the entire
system is in the form of a ring. In this topology data is transmitted in one direction only. Thus the
data packets circulate along the ring in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The
advantage of this topology is that any signal transmitted on the network passes through all the
LAN stations. The disadvantage of ring network is that the breakdown of any one station on the
ring can disable the entire system.
Ring topology
You can see the encapsulation process with the OSI model below.
OSI model
Basic Elements of a Communication System
To connect your system to a network, it must have some software and hardware support. Each
and every computer is not capable of being the member of a network, unless it fulfills the
minimum requirements to be a part of the network.
In general, when you speak to a friend, you are the sender and your friend is the receiver. The
communication channel that is carrying your voice from mouth to his ears in the air. If you speak
in English and your friend understands Punjabi only, then you need a third person to convert
your sentences or language into Punjabi and his sentences into English so that it could be
understood by you. All these problems also exist in networks.
The main elements of a communication system are:
1. Sender: It is the computer that is the source of the message or information. It transmits data
on the Network for a particular node or a group of nodes, actually who creates the message to be
transmitted.
2. Receiver: It is the computer on the network that receives the data sent by the sender. The
receivers may be a few meters away from the sender or it can be thousands of miles away,
actually who receives the message.
3. Communication Channel or Medium: It is the medium on which the message is carried
from sender to the receiver's computer. There are many types of communication channels
available in today's life. You can use twisted pair, coaxial or fiber cables in wired mode or you
can use radio waves, microwaves or Bluetooth technologies to transmit in wireless mode. Each
of these media has its own data carrying capacities, speed of transfer and other physical
attributes.
4. Operating System: - To be part of the network, you must have an operating system installed
on your computer which supports networking features. Generally network operating systems like
Windows 2007, XP, UNIX, Linux, and Mac and so on.
5. Network Devices: - These are the devices that are used to increase the performance of the
transmission. There are many types of network devices being used in this nuclear age.
Simplex transmission is like a one-way street where traffic moves in only one direction. Simplex
mode is a one-way-only transmission, which means that data can flow only in one direction from
the sending device to the receiving device.
Simplex
Half-duplex transmission is like the center lane on some three-lane roads. It is a single lane in
which traffic can move in one direction or the other, but not in both directions at the same time.
Half-duplex mode limits data transmission because each device must take turns using the line.
Therefore, data can flow from A to B and from B to A, but not at the same time.
Half duplex
Full-duplex transmission is like a major highway with two lanes of traffic, each lane
accommodating traffic going in opposite directions. Full-duplex mode accommodates two-way
simultaneous transmission, which means that both sides can send and receive at the same time.
In full-duplex mode, data can flow from A to B and B to A at the same time.
Full duplex
Internetworking Tools:
Interconnecting two or more networks to form a single network is called internetworking, and
the resulting network is called internetwork. Therefore, a WAN of multiple LANs is an
internetwork.
There are three commonly used internetworking tools are.
Bridge
Routers
Gateways
Bridge: Bridge is termed as a network device which is helpful in filtering the data load of the
traffic by dividing it into segments or packets. They are used to lower the load of traffic on the
LAN and other networks. Bridges are passive devices, because there is no interaction between
bridged and the paths of bridging. Bridges operate on the physical and data link layer of the OSI
model.
Bridge
For example, Bridges maybe used to connect two networks, one of which uses fiber-optic
communication medium and the other uses coaxial cable; or one of which uses Ethernet
technology and the other uses Token Ring technology.
Router: Routers operate at the Network layer of the OSI model. Therefore, routers do not care
what topologies or access-level protocols the interconnected network segments use. Since routers
use the bottom three layers of the OSI model. Router is a device that forwards
data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly
two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP network. Routers are located at gateways, the places
where two or more networks connect.
Router
Gateways:
Gateways operate at the top three layers of the OSI model. They are the most sophisticated
internetworking tools and are used for interconnecting dissimilar networks, which use different
communication protocols.
Gateway
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the Internet,
a node or stopping point node or a host (end-point) node. Both the computers of Internet users
and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes, while the nodes that connect the
networks in between are gateways. For example, the computers that control traffic between
company networks or the computers used by internet service providers (ISPs) to connect users to
the internet are gateway nodes.
Wireless Networks:
Wireless network is a network set up by using radio signal frequency to communicate among
computers and other network devices. Sometimes its also referred to as Wi-Fi
network or WLAN. This network is getting popular nowadays due to easy to setup feature and
no cabling involved. You can connect computers anywhere in your home without the need for
wires.
Here is simple explanation of how it works, let say you have 2 computers each equipped with
wireless adapter and you have set up wireless router. When the computer sends out the data, the
binary data will be encoded to radio frequency and transmitted via wireless router. The receiving
computer will then decode the signal back to binary data.
The two main components are wireless router or access point and wireless clients.
If you have not set up any wired network, then just get a wireless router and attach it to cable
or DSL modem. You then set up wireless client by adding wireless card to each computer and
form a simple wireless network. You can also cable connect computer directly to router if there
are switch ports available.
Wireless Network
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What is a computer Network? How is it useful?
2. Identify the basic elements of a communication system and the purpose of each.
3. Differentiate among simplex, half duplex and full duplex modes of data transmission.