LECTURE NOTES ON

NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCTION

&
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
ACHI A. N.
NCE Geo/Econs, (Agbor), B. Sc. (Ed) Econs. (Abraka), M. Ed. [Phil. of
Edu.] (Abraka), PGD Comp. Sci (Benin), P. hD. [Phil. of Edu.]
(Nsukka) in-view

MNIM, RT(TRCN), MCIPM, MNES, AIBD, CBDA, MADEASON, MPEAN, SAC-USA, ATS-

USA

SECTION A
NATIONAL POLICY
ON
EDUCATION

Chapter One
NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
The need for a national policy on education came about as a result of the
National Curriculum Conference held between September 8 and 12, 1969 in Lagos
and was organized by the Nigerian Educational Research Council (NERC) now Nigeria
Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC). It was attended by a crosssection of Nigerians. The conference was a culmination of expressions of general
dissatisfaction with the existing education system which had become irrelevant to
national needs, aspirations and goals. The report of the conference was compiled by
Adeniji Adaralegbe, the Rapporteur-General and editor-in-Chief of the conference in a
book titled, A Philosophy for Nigerian Education.
After the National Curriculum Conference, a seminar of expert drawn from a
wide range of interest groups within Nigeria was convened by the Federal Military
Government in June, 1973. The seminar, which included voluntary agencies and
external bodies, deliberated on what a national policy on education for an
independent and sovereign Nigeria should be under the Chairmanship of Late Simeon
Adebo and organized by Chief Y. Eke who was the then Federal Commissioner for
Education. The recommendations of the 1969 National Curriculum Conference and
the position of the government on future educational development as contained in
the second National Development Plan (1970 1974) were considered during the
process of writing the reports of the seminar.
The outcome of the seminar was a draft document which, after due comments
were received from the states and other interest groups, led to the final document,
the National Policy on Education, first published in 1977.
Since the publication of the first edition in 1977, the 2 nd and 3rd editions were
published in 1981 and 1998 respectively in keeping with the dynamics of social
change and the demands on education. This 4 th edition was necessitated by some
policy innovations and changes, and the need to update the 3rd edition (1998)
accordingly. These innovations and changes include:
(a) The lifting of the suspension order on Open and Distance Learning Programme
by Government,
(b) revitalization and expansion of the National Mathematical Centre (NMC);
(c) establishment of Teachers Registration Council (TRC);
(d) introduction of information and Communication Technology (ICT) into the
school curriculum as a second official language;
(e) prescription of French Language in the primary and secondary schools,
curriculum as second official language;
(f) prescription of minimum number of subject to taken by SSCE candidates;
(g) the integration of basic education in the programme of Quaranic schools, to
ensure equal opportunity and effective implementation of UBE;
(g) repositioning science, technical and vocational education in the scheme of
national educational for optimum performance; and
(h) general contextual change to reflect the state of professional practice in
education, among others.
Governments intention was that the far-reaching provisions set out in all sections of
the policy should transform all aspects of the nations life over time. To this end,
Government set up a National Educational Policy implementation Committee to
3

translate the Policy into workable blue prints that would guide the bodies whose duty
it would be to implement the policy. The Committee was also to develop monitoring
system
for
educational
plan
as
it
evolved.

PHILOSOPHY AND GOALS OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

1. A nations policy on education is governments way of realizing that part of the
national goals which can achieve, using education as a tool. No policy on education,
however, can be formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and goals
of
the
nation.
2. The OVERALL PHILOSOPHY OF NIGERIA is to:
(a) live in unity and harmony as one indivisible, indissoluble, democratic and
sovereign nation founded on the principal of freedom, equally and justice;
(b) Promote inter-African solidarity and world peace through understanding.
3 The FIVE MAIN NATIONAL GOALS OF NIGERIA, which have been endorsed as
the necessary foundation for the National Policy on education, are the building of:(a) a free and, democratic society;
(b) a just egalitarian society;
(c) a united, strong and self-reliant nations;
(d) a great and dynamic economy;
(e) a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens.
4. In Nigerias philosophy of Education, we BELIEVE that:(a)
education is an instrument for national development, and the interaction of
persons and ideas are all aspects of education;
(b) education fosters the worth development of the individual, for each
individuals sake, and for general development of the society
(c)
the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around;
(d) the acquisition of appropriate skills and competencies as equipment for the
individual to live in and contribute to the development of the society.
5. Nigeria's Philosophy of education therefore is BASED on:(a) the development of the individual into a' sound and effective citizen
(b) the full integration of the individual into the community; and the provision of
equal access' to educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at the
primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside the formal
school system.
6. For the philosophy to be in harmony with Nigeria's national goals, education has to
be geared towards self realization, better human relationship, individual and
national efficiency, effective citizenship, national consciousness, national unity as
well as towards social, cultural, economic, political, scientific and technological
progress.
7. The NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL GOALS, which derive from the philosophy, are
therefore:
(a)
the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity;
(b) the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of
the individual and the Nigerian society;
(c)
the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around; and
(d) the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical
and social abilities and competencies as equipment for the individual to live
in and contribute to the development of the society.
4

8. In consequence, the quality of instruction at all levels has to be oriented towards

inculcating the following VALUES;
(a) respect for the worth and dignity of the individual;
(b) faith in mans ability to make rational decisions;
(c) moral and spiritual principle in inter-personal and human relations
(d) shared responsibility for the common good of society;
(e) promotion of the physical, emotional and psychological development of all
children;
(f) acquisition of competencies necessary for self-reliance.
9. In order to realize fully the potentials of the contributions of education to the
achievement of these goals and values, all other agencies will operate in concert
with education. To that end, Government shall take various MEASURES TO
IMPLEMENT THE POLICY; Accordingly:(a) education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans
because education is the most important instrument of charge; any
fundamental change in the intellectual and social outlook of any society has to
be preceded by education;
(b) life-long education shall be the basis of the nations educational policy;
(c) education and training facilities shall continue to be expanded in response to
social needs and made progressively accessible to afford the individual a far
more diversified and flexible choice;
(d) educational activities shall be centered on the leaner for maximum selfdevelopment and self-fulfillment;
(e) Universal Basic education in a variety of forms; depending on needs and
possibilities, shall be provided for all citizens;
(f) Efforts shall be made to relate education to overall community needs;
(g) Educational assessment and evaluation shall be liberalized by their being
based in part on continuous assessment of the progress of the individual;
(h) Modern education techniques shall be increasingly used and improved upon at
all levels of the education system;
(i) The education system shall be structured to develop the practice of selflearning. Government shall in this regard continue to encourage the
establishment of Young Readers Clubs in schools
(j) At any stage of the education process after junior secondary education, an
individual shall be able to choose between continuing full-time studies,
combining work with study, or embanking on full-time employment work with
study, or embarking on full-time employment without excluding prospect of
resuming studies later on;
(k) Opportunity shall continue to be made for made for religious instruction; no
child will be forced to accept any religious instruction which is contrary to the
wishes of his or her parents; and
(l) Physical and health education shall be emphasized at all levels of the
education system.
10. The importance of language:- Government appreciates the importance of
language as a means of promoting social interaction and national cohesion;
preserving cultures. Thus every child shall learn the language of the immediate
environment. Furthermore, in the interest of national unity it is expedient that
every child shall require to learn one of the three Nigeria languages: Hausa, Igbo
Yoruba.
(a) For smooth interaction with our neighbours, it is desirable for every Nigeria
to speak French. Accordingly, French shall be compulsory in primary and
Junior Secondary Schools but Non-Vocational Elective at the senior
Secondary School.
5

The national policy on education has introduced the 6-3-3-4 System of education. By
implication it recommends six years of primary education, three years of junior
secondary and three years of senior secondary education in Nigeria. Below is a brief
examination of the components of this educational system as enshrined in the 2004
edition of the policy.
BASIC EDUCATION
Basic education shall be of 9-year duration comprising 6 years of primary education
and 3 years of junior secondary education. It shall be free and compulsory. It shall
also include adult and non-formal education programmes at primary and junior
secondary education levels for the adults and out-of-school youths.
The specific goals of basic education shall be the same as the goals of the levels of
education to which it applies (i.e. primary education, junior secondary education and
adult and non-formal education)
Primary Education
Primary education as referred to in this document is the education given in
institutions for children aged 6 to 11 plus. Since the rest of the education system is
built upon it, the primary level is the key to the success or failure of the whole
system. The duration shall be six years.
a. The Goals of Primary Education are:
a. inculcate permanent literacy and numeracy, and ability to communicate
effectively;
b. lay a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking;
c. give citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and
contribution to the life of the society;
d. mould the character and develop sound attitude and morals in the child;
e. develop in the 'child the ability to adapt to the child's changing environment;
f. give the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable
the child function effectively in the society within the limits of the child's
capacity; .
g. provide the child with basic tools for further educational advancement,
including preparation for trades and crafts of the locality
In pursuance of the goals above:(a) Primary education shall be tuition free, universal and compulsory.
(b) Curriculum for primary education shall include:
i) Languages:
(a) Language of the environment
(b) English
(c) French
(d) Arabic
(ii)
Mathematics
(iii) Science
(iv) Physical and Health Education
(v) Religious Knowledge
(vi) Agriculture/Home Economics
(vii) Social Studies and Citizenship Education
(viii) Cultural & Creative Arts (Drawing, Handicraft, Music and Cultural
Activities)
(ix) Computer Education
(c) The following educational services shall be provided:(i)
School library;
(ii)
Basic health scheme;
(iii)
Counselling;
(iv)
Educational resource centre;
6

(v)
specialist teachers of particular subjects such as Mathematics,
Science, Physical Education, Language Arts (in relation to English French,
Sign Language and Nigerian Languages), Librarian, Music, Fine Art and
Home Economics.
(d) Teaching shall be by practical, exploratory and experimental methods.
(e) The medium of instruction in the primary school shall be the language of the
environment for the first three years. During this period, English shall be taught as
a subject.
(f) From the fourth year, English shall progressively be used as a medium of
instruction and the language of immediate environment and French shall be
taught as subjects.
(g) For effective teaching and learning, the teacher-pupil ratio shall be 1:35
(h) Advancement from one class to another shall be based on continuous assessment;
(i) The Primary School Leaving Certificate shall be based only on continuous
assessment and shall be issued locally by the head teacher of the school.
(j)With a view to correcting the imbalance between different parts of the country, with
reference to the availability of educational facilities and the number of pupils
receiving formal education and girls education.(i) State governments shall ensure the integration of formal basic education
curriculum into Koranic and Islamiya schools;
(ii) special efforts shall be made by all appropriate agencies to encourage parents to
send their daughters to school.
(K) Everything possible shall be done to discourage the incidence of dropping out at
the primary level of education. However, if this occurs, provision shall be made in
the context of adult and non-formal education to enable such early leavers to
continue with their education,
(L) Government welcomes the contributions of voluntary agencies, communities and
private individuals in the .establishment and management of primary schools
alongside those provided by the state and local governments as long as they
meet the minimum standards laid down by the Federal Government.
(m) In recognition of the prominent role of Information and Communication
Technology in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning
in the modem world there is urgent need to integrate Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) into education in Nigeria.
Government shall therefore provide basic infrastructure and training for the
realisation of this goal at the primary school level.
SECONDARY EDUCATION
Secondary education is the education children receive after primary education and
before the tertiary stage.
The broad goals of secondary education shall be to prepare the individual for:(a) useful living within the society; and
(b) higher education
In specific term, secondary education shall:(a) provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of a
higher-level, irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background;
(b) offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities
and future roles;
(c) provide trained manpower in the applied .science, technology and commerce
at sub-professional grades
(d) develop and promote Nigerian languages, art and culture in the context of
world's cultural heritage;
(e) inspire students with a desire for self improvement and achievement of
excellence;
(f) foster National unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity;
7

(g) raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views
and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, appreciate those values
specified under our broad national goals and live as good citizens;
(h) provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural,
industrial, commercial and economic development.
To achieve the stated goals, secondary education shall be of six years duration, given
in two stages a junior secondary school stage and a senior secondary school stage;
each shall be of three years duration.
Junior Secondary School
The junior secondary school shall be both pre-vocational and academic. It shall be
tuition free, universal and compulsory. It shall teach basic subjects which will enable
pupils to acquire 'further knowledge and skills. Every student shall offer
i.
a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 13 subjects:
ii.
all subjects in Group A
iii.
at least one subject each from Groups B & C.
GROUP A. Core
(i)
English
(ii)
French
(iii)
Mathematics
(iv)
Language of environment to be taught as Ll
(v)
One major Nigerian Language other than that of the environment to be
taught as L2*
(vi)
Integrated Science
(vii) Social studies and Citizenship Education
(viii) Introductory Technology
The language of environment shall be taught as LI where it has orthography and
literature. Where it does not have, it shall be taught with emphasis on oraley as L2.
Government welcomes the participation of voluntary agencies, communities and
private individuals in the establishment and management of secondary schools. State
governments shall prescribe conditions to be met by the communities and others
wishing to establish secondary schools.
Government shall regulate the establishment of schools supervise and inspect
schools regularly and ensure that all schools follow approved curricula and conform to
the National policy on Education. The teacher-pupil ratio at this level of education
shall be 1:40.
Certification:(a) The Junior School Certificate (JSC) shall be based on continuous assessment and
examination conducted by state and federal examinations boards.
(b) The Senior School Certificate (SSC) shall be based on continuous assessment and
a national examination.
(c) Tertiary institution shall be required to continuously match their admission
conditions with the practices directed by the Policy.
(d) Nigeria shall use public examination bodies for conducting national examinations
in order to ensure uniform standards at this level.
Transition from secondary education to tertiary education shall be through the
appropriate selection mechanisms.
General
(a)The junior secondary schools shall be planned as neighbourhood schools.
.However, if there are special circumstances which warrant the establishment
of boarding facilities in federal and state schools, such should be provided. It is
essential that everything possible is done to foster a sense of national
belonging in any school.
8

(b)Measures shall be taken to ensure that culture of the nation is kept alive
through art.
(c) Inter-state exchange visits of students shall be encouraged.
(d)Youth clubs, organizations and school societies are important instruments for
character training and shall be positively encouraged.
(e)Co-curricular activities form an essential part of the child's education and
should be actively encouraged.
(f) Government shall provide necessary infrastructure and training for the
integration of ICT in the school system in recognition of the role of ICT In
advancing knowledge and skill in the modem world.
TERTIARY EDUCATION
Tertiary education is the education given after secondary education in universities,
colleges of education, polytechnics, monotechnics including those institutions offering
correspondence courses.
The goals of tertiary education shall be to:(a) contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower
training;
(b) develop and inculcate proper values for the survival of the individual and
society;
(c) develop the intellectual capability of individuals to understand and appreciate
their local and external environments;
(d) acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be
self-reliant and useful members of the society;
(e) promote and encourage scholarship and community service;
(f) forge and cement national unity; and
(g) promote national and international understanding and interaction
Tertiary educational institutions shall pursue these goals through:
(a) teaching;
(b) research and development;
(c) virile staff development programmes;
(d) generation and dissemination of knowledge;
(e) a variety of modes of programmes including full-time, part-time, block-release,
day-release, sandwich, etc;
(f) access to training funds such as those provided by the Industrial Training Fund
(ITF);
(g) Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES);
(h) maintenance of minimum educational standards through appropriate agencies;
(i) inter-institutional co-operation;
(j) dedicated services to the community through extra-mural and extension
services.

All teachers in tertiary institutions shall be required to undergo training in the

methods and techniques of teaching.
To supplement government funding, universities and other tertiary institutions are
encouraged to explore other sources of funding such as endowments, consultancy
services and commercial ventures.
(a) The internal organization and administration of each institution shall be its own
responsibility;
(b) The traditional areas of academic freedom for the institutions are to:
(i) select their students, except where the law prescribes otherwise;
(ii) appoint their staff;
(iii) teach, select areas of research; and
(iv) determine the content of courses.
Government shall continue to respect this freedom as long as these areas are in
consonance with national goals.
University Education
9

University Education shall make optimum contribution to national development by:

a) intensifying and diversifying its programmes for the development of high level
manpower within the context of the needs of the nation;
b) making professional course contents to reflect our national requirements;
c) making all students, as part of a general programme of all-round improvement
in university education, to offer general study courses such as history of ideas,
philosophy of knowledge and nationalism.
University research shall be relevant to the nation's developmental goals. In this
regard, universities shall be encouraged to disseminate their research results to both
government and industries.
University teaching shall seek to inculcate community spirit in the students through
projects and action research.
Voluntary agencies, individuals and groups shall be allowed to establish universities
provided they comply with minimum standards laid down by the Federal Government,
(a) Technically-based professional courses in the universities shall have, as
components, exposure to relevant future working environment.
(b) It is imperative that teachers in professional fields have relevant industrial
and professional experience.
(a)
A greater proportion of expenditure on university education shall be devoted to
Science and Technology.
(b)
Not less than 60% of places shall be allocated to science and science-oriented
courses in the conventional universities and not less than 80% in the
universities of technology.
Teacher Education
(a) Since no education system may rise above the quality of its teachers, teacher
education shall continue to be given major emphasis in all educational
planning and development.
(b) The minimum qualification for entry into the teaching profession shall be the
Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE).
Goals of Teacher Education in the National Policy on education are:
(a) produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for
all levels of-our educational system;
(b) encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers;
(c) help teachers to fit into social life of the community and the society at large
and enhance their commitment to national goals.
(d) provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate
for their assignment and make them adapt to changing situations;
(e) enhance teachers commitment to the teaching profession
All teachers in institutions shall be professionally trained. Teacher education
programmes shall be structured to equip teachers for the effective performance of
their duties. The following institutions, among others, shall give the required
professional training provided they continuously meet the required minimum
standards:
(a) Colleges of Education;
(b) Faculties of Education;
(c) Institutes of Education;
(d) National Teachers' Institute,
(e) Schools of Education in the Polytechnics.
(f) National Institute for Nigerian languages (NINLAN);
(g) National Mathematical Centre (NMC) .
At the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) and degree levels, education
programmes shall continue to be expanded to also cater for the requirements of
technical, business and special education.
10

Teacher education shall continue to take cognizance of changes in methodology in

the curriculum. Teachers shall be regularly exposed to innovations in their profession.
In-service training shall be developed as an integral part of continuing teacher
education and shall also take care of all inadequacies. .
Promotion opportunities shall be created to allow for professional growth at each
level.
Teaching services shall be so planned that teachers can transfer front state to state
without loss of status.
(a) Teaching is a legally recognized profession in Nigeria; in this regard,
Government has' set up the Teachers' Registration Council to control and
regulate, the practice of the profession.
(b) Those already engaged in teaching but not professionally qualified shall be
given a period of time within which to qualify for registration or leave the
professional.
(c) Newly qualified teachers shall serve a period of internship one (1) year for
degree holders and two (2) years for NCE holders.
Effort towards the improvement of quality education at the primary and secondary
levels shall include:(a) appointment of academically and professionally qualified persons as teachers
and head teachers;
(b) regulate in-service training programmes for teachers and head teachers.

11

SECTION B

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
OF
EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

12

Chapter Two
AFRICAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
a. Characteristics of Indigenous Education
The following characteristics can be identified with indigenous education.
1. Education is a social and collective responsibility of all the people in the
society, with great importance attached to education;
2. Indigenous education is multivalent in character both in terms of its aims and
the methods employed to achieve them.
3. Education is planned in gradual and progressive steps to enable the individual
conform to the successive stages of physical, mental, and emotional
development.
4. Indigenous education has a heavy stress on informal instruction.
5. There are no distinct categories of professional teachers or full time teachers
for the purpose of general education.
6. Religion ethics and education are inextricably integrated.
7. Instruction is practical and geared towards specific situations.
8. Instruction is impacted through oral communication in the mother tongue.
9. Indigenous education is basically conservative.
Content of Indigenous Education
The content of indigenous education is the reflection of the aims of indigenous
education which is the development of an ideal man who is well integrated into his
society. As a result of this, the development of the intellect is secondary to functional
skills. The content of indigenous education is based on the felt needs of the society.
This reflects the nature of its local industry such as agriculture, trading, fishing,
weaving, carving or pottery. By learning the felt needs of the society, the children are
made to be good members of the society.
The content of indigenous education is based on the environment of the
learner which is relevant to his life and culture. In this regard, the content of
indigenous education provides the learner with skills needed to earn a living, foster
the spirit of appreciation and maintains customs, traditions and cultural heritage.
Conclusively, the content of indigenous education reflects the environment in which
education takes place. The content of indigenous education can best be classified as:
1. The knowledge of physical environment;
2. The working of the social organization of which the learner is a member
3. The tools for pursuing desirable economic activities;
4. Character and morality; and;
5. Aesthetic values.
The five content areas can be reduced to the provision of basic education,
occupational and economic education and special education.
Method of Teaching and Learning
The misconception of equating education with schooling has made some scholars
describe indigenous African education as an informal education. This is not correct.
Indigenous education is both formal and informal. This view is held by Callaway
(1964), Ocitti (1973), Bertels 1975) Read (1975) and Onwuka (1982). The whole
community takes part in different ways in the education of her citizens, hence
indigenous education is described as a joint enterprise. The following Methods of
Teaching are employed in African indigenous education
1. Indoctrination: This is the method by which the learner is filled with particular
idea or beliefs which need no change or verification.

13

2. Reward and punishment: Reward is used to encourage while punishment is

used to discourage the actions of a learner
3. Oral Literature: This is done through speaking to the learner. This can be
through story-telling, riddles, jokes, myths or legends. Oral literature helps to
enrich the knowledge, vocabulary and skill in speaking their mother tongue.
4. Social Ceremonies: These include initiation ceremonies, such as circumcision
or age grade. The learners are participating observers and learned better than
when described to them. Cultural festivals arc also included in this method.
5. Imitation: This is a method where learners try to do what they have seen
others do. This can be done through playing the role of a mother, a farmer, a
hunter, a warrior or a builder.
The following methods of learning are employed in African indigenous education.
1. Observation
2. Participation
3. Intuition
4. Deduction
5. Play
6. Apprenticeship
Stages of the Indigenous Education
Indigenous education in many African societies is based on age grades. It does not
start from birth but from conception.
1. Pregnancy: Indigenous education starts from pregnancy where the mother of the
unborn child has to conform to certain courses of action or order to ensure a desirable
future for the child. The expectant mother is expected to carry out all her domestic
chores but she is forbidden from doing strenuous and violent exertions in order to
ensure easy delivery and good health of both the child and the mother. The pregnant
woman is made to observe many taboos such as expecting her not to eat certain food
so that the child can be physically strong when delivered. The expectant mother uses
series of myrrh to rub here abdomen and the contortions she drinks are meant to
shape the child to a desired size and good health. This is responsible for the proper
care of the pregnant mother, as it is believed that the health of the mother will affect
the child. During this period (pregnancy) the child is a passive agent of education.
2. Infancy: At birth, the child becomes an active agent of education and his
education is given by the mother or and experienced woman in the extended family.
Education at this stage centres on the training of the child to meet his needs such as
food, bodily care, evacuation and sleep. This early training to sleep or elimination is
usually' done by much petting, cooing, singing, rocking and re-assuring appellations
in an effort to soothe and communicate pleasure to the child. The child later leans
that his cry is always responded to by satisfying his hunger, being lured to sleep,
being helped to evacuate or by regarding it as illness.
The naming ceremony is performed within the seventh day to the ninth day
varying from one society to another or depending on whether the child is a female,
twins or male. As the child grows, he is encouraged to make efforts such as walking
or talking. Each time he succeeds, he is rewarded and each time he performs any
antisocial act, he is scolded or reprimanded. Thus, reward and punishment are
effective instruments for education. Weaning of the child occurs at this period, when
he is either able to eat solid food or when the mother is pregnant. The child is weaned
when there is conception based on a belief that the milk of the pregnant mother is
poisonous to the health of the child. There are bases for this belief because at the
early stage of conception, the mother needs a great quantity of blood for the
formation of the foetus but when the child is not weaned the mother may loose, too
much blood. In addition, the milk from the breast is no more rich enough to enable
the child grow well. To avoid malnutrition, a child is weaned at the conception of the
mother. The mother plays the most important role in the education of the child during
14

the infancy period. She uses food as a great weapon in instilling discipline as she can
withhold it to enforce her wishes.
3. Childhood: At the age of about five or six years, the child moves out for the
discovery of other "worlds" beyond her mother. During this period, he masters her
mother tongue which is the means of communication. This makes education easy and
possible. Learning at this stage is mostly through play, imitation and observation. The
males begin their education with their father while the females are attached to the
mother. The boys become more associated with the father's trade or occupation. The
child is taught the things around him such as the names of every tree, animals, fish
and materials in the environment.
4. Adolescent: The adolescent period is characterized by renewed vigour in play and
learning. The most important means of education is oral instruction through folklores,
riddles, proverbs, myths and legends. The education of the boys and girls become
more specialized. They are separated from each other. The education of the girls is to
enable them make a good wife and mother. This is intensified as from the age of six.
At the age of twelve, the girl does the cooking in the house and she is rebuked if the
cooking is not properly performed. The girls also help to contribute to the economic
welfare of the family. The girls can be taught special skill at this stage. For example,
the Yoruba girl is taught the skill in cloth dyeing and the famous "Adire" cloth.
5. Adulthood: Indigenous education is a continuous process from pregnancy to
death. At this stage, the number of teachers are reduced since they are usually one's
elders. The education occurs in specific occasions such as circumcision ceremonies,
death, and initiation to titles or cleansing of the community when one commits
offence .against the spirits of the land. It is a common event for fathers-in-law and
mothers-in-law to educate both brides and grooms about the marriage institution and
how to settle any misunderstanding that may arise

15

Chapter Three
GREEK EDUCATION
EDUCATION IN SPARTA
0 7: The education of a Spartan child begins at birth and it is usually a state affair,
with the parents playing just minimal role at the early years of the child's Life.
Weakness is not acceptable on the part of any child, hence. when a child is born, it
was taken to the elders council for proper scrutiny to ensure that it is healthy and had
the potentials of being a sturdy child. If the child is discovered to be a weakling or
sickly, he/she was taken to the cold mountains to die, or given to the helots.
However, if the child was certified healthy, it was given back to the mother to nurse
for the first seven years.
7- 18: At the age of seven the child is handed over to the state who takes charge of
its education. At-this stage, the child (especially the boys) no longer lives with the
parents, he is put in a boarding house where he receives military training together
with other boys of his age. This stage lasts for eleven years. Each of the boarding
houses was placed under the leadership / supervision of one of the boys who had
proved to be reliable, brave and resourceful. The boys received their military training
from another young boy who had finished his own "training usually between tY.6 ages
of 20--30. The training at this stage is usually tough and somewhat harsh. This
training persisted until the boys attained the age of eighteen when they graduate to
the rank of cadets (Ephebi)
18 20: At the graduation ceremony, they were given severe flogging at the alter of
Artemis and the boy that received the most flogging without flinching was given a
price. At this stage the boys became qualified to live in military barracks where they
were no longer subjected to 'the harsh treatments they got at the boarding houses
(Camps). Here they were given training in military/war tactics and manouvres. This
period which is a period of national service to the country lasts for two years. At this
stage the boys were made to spy on the helots and also help to guard the state
20 30: At the age of 20. when the boys haw' completed their national service they
had attained the status of manhood and were then compelled-to marry, Though,
married, they were 'not allowed to live with their wives until they have completed
their ten year military service to the state. After this they could then live with their
wives and start their families and that is when they were said to have become full
citizens. However, they, were still expected to be ready at all times to answer to, the
nation's 'call at, any time the need arose. Therefore they .were expected to always
maintain their fitness through regular exercises until they became old.
Reading and writing did not form part of the educational curriculum given to
the Spartan Children.' Other-subjects that do not include much physical exercises
such as poetry, architecture, arts, aesthetics were looked down upon by them as
courses for weaklings which were not worthy of soldiers.
The Spartan girls were equally trained to be very patriotic to their state.'
Though they were not made to live in the camps, they were subjected to some of the
training given to the boys such as wrestling, running, playing ball, throwing the
javelins, casting the discus and general gymnastics. These were meant to make them
healthy, strong and prepared for child-bearing.
The Spartans believed that strong children (which were very important to them)
would be produced by healthy and strong women, hence the emphasis on physical
16

training for the girls. The Spartan women were not given opportunity for any
sentimentality, they were equally made to rank their state first above any other
person or thing, hence they were expected to love the state more than their
husbands or children, to the extent that rather than mourn they rejoiced when their
husbands or sons died in the process of defending their State.
Merits of the Spartan Education System
1. It bred men and women who were very patriotic. Such patriotism could reduce
if not eliminate some social vices which would have been Inimical to the
success of the society; because everybody was committed to working towards
the best interest of the state.
2. It emphasized the education of the women more than the other Greek States.
3. It helped to breed children, who were healthy and physically strong,
4. The state-provided education for 'every citizen, this helps both the children and
families to have opportunities to acquire education.
5. The idea of boarding and -prefectortal systems practiced today may be
attributed to those of the
ancient Sparta.
6. Physical education for boys and girls as practiced in our schools today has its
origin in Sparta.
7. The scout movement and other similar voluntary organizations found in our
schools today are said to have their roots in the expeditionary and camping life
of the Spartan youths.
8. The public spirit and loyalty to the state which was developed by Spartan
education has given rise to the singing of National Anthem and the recitation of
National Pledges in modern educational systems.
Demerits of the Spartan System of Education
1. The Spartan system of education was too punitive in nature.
2. Children were not given opportunity to express themselves and their God given
unique talents.
3. The importance of the home was de-emphasized for the children, especially the
boys who never spend considerable part of their lives at home except when
they are old.
4. Less emphasis was placed on the affective domain of the children, therefore,
their education cannot be said to be an all round one.
5. There was no effort made to develop Literacy and numeracy skills of the
children.
6. The Spartan education had a narrow content because it concentrated mainly on
military training.
7. The children are not trained to appreciate aesthetics or the beauty of nature

17

Chapter Four
ISLAMIC EDUCATION
The Islamic religion far preceded the Christian religion for hundreds of years in
Nigeria. It was the first foreign culture to come in contact with and influence the
indigenous cultures in Nigeria especially, in the northern parts of Nigeria. Islam was
introduced into West Africa in the 8 th century and by the 11th century, it had been
accepted by Umme Jilmi, the ruler of old Kanem empire. Before this time, the north of
Africa had been islamised. Kanem empire established diplomatic relations with the
Moslem countries in North Africa, so much so that by the 13 th century, Kanem empire
had become a centre of Islamic studies attracting famous Islamic Scholars from Mali.
By the 13th century also, Islamic religion had spread over all the northern parts of
Nigeria. Kano and Katsina had become great centres of Islamic learning.
At this period, Islamic religion was practiced in the urban areas only. Although, it had
converts in these areas, traditional religions were also still practiced. However, those
that got converted were taught reading and writing in Arabic so that they could read
the Koran thus giving birth to literacy education in Nigeria. On the other hand, the
pastoralists who never came in contact with Islamic religion kept on practicing their
indigenous religions.
However, at about 1775, a leading Fulani Usman Dan Fodio, felt that Islam as
being practiced then was not pure, therefore, wanted reforms that would purely toe
the lines of Islamic law. In 1804, he declared the Jihad (Holy War) against the Hausa
Kings who were the rulers over the various empires in the northern parts of Nigeria.
By 1809, the territory of all Hausa state was under Fulani control. The influence of
Islamic religion later spread to some parts of Western Nigeria. lIorin and Ibadan
became great-centres for Islamic studies as a result of this influence. Wherever the
Moslems conquered, they encouraged educating the converts irrespective of sex. In
other words, men and women were encouraged to learn. In fact, this period witnessed
very high literary resurgence.
Those that continued their education by furthering their learning in the Islamic
learning centres, went back to their towns or villages establishing their own Koranic
or Madrasahs Schools.
Contributions of Islam to Scholarship and World Civilization
1. It was Islam that revived the human pursuit of Islamic Educaiioti in Nigeria science
and through the Arabs the modern world achieved light and power through
science.
2. The Muslims introduced the Arabic numerals in the"field of mathematics.
3. The Arabs discovered many substances in the field of chemistry such as potash,
silver nitrate, nitric acid, sulphuric acid etc.
4. They made a lot of advances in geometry, they invented algebra, developed
trigonometric concepts such as sine, tangent and contangent.
5. They made great advances in the field of medicine such that many of their
methods of treatment are still in use today. It was reported that at the time when
medical practice was forbidden in Europe because they expected people to be
cured through religious practices (rites), the Arabs had a real science of medicine.
6. Arabic as a language helped in the understanding of the early history and
civilization of West Africa.
18

7. The Muslims established universities and institutions of higher learning in many

cities like Baghdad, Timbuktu, Cairo, Cordova etc, many centuries before
universities started emerging from the western world.
8. The Muslim Arabs invented the pendulum and advanced the world's knowledge of
optics in the field of physics.'"
9. They made a lot of contributions in the field of art and architecture as exemplified
ill their construction of mosques, palaces.' etc.
THE EARLY KORANIC SCHOOLS
Basic features/Characteristics
The proprietors of the Koranic schools were the teachers in the schools. Initially
known as "Urnma", but presently they are referred to as "Malam". The schools were
situated in their private residence, his veranda, the mosque or under a tree.
The main textbooks used for teaching are the volumes of the Koran and other
Islamic books. The schools are open to Moslem children only.
There are no rigid rules, which the schools must conform to. For example, the
period for resumption varies from one Koranic school to another. Although,
generally, the schools start at 8.00 a.m. The school week starts on Saturday
and ends on Wednesday. Thursday is for preparation against the worship that
normally comes up on Fridays.
The schools run either a two-session-a-day system, in which case lessons end
at 4.00pm or a three-session-a-day-system and the school closes at 9.00pm.
For that of two sessions, the first session starts at 8.00am and terminates at
1O.00 a.m. While the second session (i.e. afternoon session) starts at 2.00pm
and ends at 4.00pm. The 3 rd session starts at 7.30pm and ends at 9.00pm. The
same streams of students run all the sessions.
Fees are paid either in cash or kind.
There is a very close bond between teacher and pupils. The teacher visits
pupils when they are sick and even treats them, while pupils 'assist the
teachers with certain tasks particularly those concerning-the arrangement or
preaching venues.
Stages of Islamic Education
The Islamic education given to the children is in three stages:
Stage One (Makaranta Allo)
The First Stage is called Makaranta Allo which is equivalent to the
primary school stage. The major aims at this stage are (1) To assist the child to
memorize the first two parts or verses of the Koran and (2) To be able to read and
write in Arabic.
Any child above three years can register for this stage. They sit around the
teacher in groups of 20-40. This first stage is covered in three stages also. At the end
of the third stage, the pupils perform their 'Wolimat' which is an elaborate graduation
ceremony. The first step is for the pupils to memorize short chapters of the Koran. The
teacher recites the verse to be memorized and the children repeat after him. This is
done several times until he is sure that the children have mastered the correct
pronunciation. The children are then left alone to keep on repeating the verse until
they have memorized it. The verse is then linked to the one memorized earlier, they
then recite the whole. Through this process children master whole chapters of the
19

Koran. The children are expected to master one or two of the sixty parts (esus) the
Koran has been divided into.
Having mastered the stage above, the pupils move on to the next stage which
is that of learning the Arabic alphabets which are twenty-six in number. The twentysix alphabets-are divided into three sets of 10, 10 and 6. The-children are expected to
master the first set before moving on to the second and eventually the last set of 6.
The 26 alphabets are consonants. Having learnt recognizing and pronouncing them,
they are taught how to write them on their slates. The teachers write 'on the boards
while the children reproduce them on their slate. This lasts between 6-36 weeks
depending on the students' rate of learning.
The third stage which lasts for 6-18 months is when the students are taught
the formation of syllables by supplying the vowels (which are four) at the appropriate
positions. By the time the children have become proficient in this, it is assumed that
they have acquired reading skills, therefore, they are expected to read the first two
parts of the Koran that they memorized earlier in the first stage when they had not
known how to read and write.
The "Wolimat" or graduation ceremony is performed at the end of the stage
just described. It is an important ceremony. The graduand, elegantly dressed and in
company of equally well dressed friends, move from the house-of one relation to
another reciting what his teacher wrote on his slate. This is to prove that he has
actually acquired reading skills. He is given presents in each of the houses visited. At
the end, a ram or cow is slaughtered in the teacher's house to celebrate. The teacher
is equally given alot of presents by the graduand and his family. The presents range
from goatskin prayer mat to a well-embroidered "agbada"
Stage Two (Makaranta Ilmi)
This stage is called Makaranta Ilmi which is equivalent to the secondary
school stage. The curriculum is wider and deeper than that of the first stage. The
students at this stage are often instructed by more than one Mallam because the
Mallams must be experts if they are to effectively teach the children. The children go
to their teachers just like in the first stage.
The children are expected to know the meanings of the verses in the Koran at
this stage. The teacher, using translations and repetition method, teach the children
first of all; the meanings of the two chapters which they had memorised in the "first
stage. They later progress to the other chapters. At this stage, the children are also
exposed to other writings such as the Hadith, Islamic law, grammatical infections,
syntax, algebra, logic, rhetoric, versification and arithmetic etc. This stage affords the
children the opportunity of identifying the areas they would be able to specialize in.
At the end, of this stage, the students shall have already mastered the Arabic
language and are quite proficient in it.
The Third Stage: This is the equivalence of university education. Having
chosen the area they wish to specialize, the children can now proceed to foreign
Islamic learning centres such as Fez, Timbuktu or other learning centres that abound
in Nigeria such as Kano, llorin and lbadan for specialist training. On the other hand,
they might continue learning under local specialists. At the end of their training,
depending on their area of specialisation, they are given license to practice either as
an Imam (preacher), Alkali (judge) or Mallam (Teacher).
Merits of Early Koranic Schools

20

1. Islamic education pre-dated Western education for hundreds of years. It

encouraged the converts to learn. The beginning of literacy education in
Nigeria is traceable to the Koranic schools.
2. The system was able to produce very good scholars who were able to write
books on the Islamic religion. This not, only ensured the survival of the religion
during proselytisation of the Christian missionaries, it also ensured the
documentation of facts.
3. The early Koranic schools stimulated the pursuit, acquisition and dissemination
of knowledge.
4. Even though the Koranic teachers had limited knowledge, it was enough for
them to bring the peasantry and the learned Muslim communities together.
They did this through the teaching and the propagation of the Islamic religion.
5. It, encouraged good school-community relationship especially in the area of the
teacher being concerned with the children's welfare such as visiting and
treating sick children.
6. Discipline was highly emphasised, this ensured the development of desirable
moral attitudes in the learners.
7. It also introduced some Arabic words into Nigerian languages particularly,
Hausa, Yoruba, Kanuri and Fulani languages. For example such words as 'Alafia'
and barika' commonly use in Yoruba language had their origins in Arabic.
8. Islamic education also brought Arabic architecture which is reflected in the
designs of mosque buildings and Islamic places all over Nigeria. "
9. It laid the foundation for sharia laws that are being used in some parts of
Nigeria today.
10.It was economically rewarding as those who had it were employed in
government offices.
11.It was cheap and within the reach of everybody irrespective of social status.
Demerits of Islamic Education
1. Knowledge was limited to Arabic reading and writing. They lacked knowledge in
other areas of learning.
2. Learning was done through the rote learning technique which not the best
method of learning from all empirical studies.
3. Oftentimes' the teachers were not very qualified. Particularly at the secondary
stage of learning.
4. The grammar method of learning the 'Arabic grammar was not the best
method as students only mernorised the grammatical rules.
5. They lacked central control hence the proprietors who were eventually the
teachers determined the operation of the schools, drew up their own scheme
and could declare a holiday if any religious activity happened to take him away
from home.
6. The Islamic religion almost completely wiped out their indigenous cultures
perhaps leaving only their languages which were also influenced.

21

Chapter Five
CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY/WESTERN EDUCATION
Introduction
Christian Missionary education is synonymous with the history of western
education in Nigeria. One of the most remarkable developments of education in
Western Europe during the second half of the 19th century was the crystallization of
the National System of Education Known as formal education in identifiable features.
The British influence has been most original and tremendous. It was under the British
colonial adventure that the Christian missionary introduced formal education which
was institutionalized in Nigeria in 1843 and supervised by them the Christian
missionaries as the sole producer. Before now the Islamic culture had pervaded the
northern part and some parts of western Nigeria, all the other parts continued with
their indigenous cultures because the Islamic influence never got in contact with
them. This state of affairs did not however, remain like that for long. By the turn of
the 15th century, the Portuguese Merchants had started exploring the coasts of West
Africa. (Itedjere, 2005). The question then arises - what led the Portuguese to this
venture? The Muslims in the northern part of Africa had conquered the whole of the
Iberian peninsula but the Christians had fought back. By the 13 th century, the powers
of the Muslims were confined to the small emirate of Granada. In the process of
fighting back, a number of Christian kingdoms sprang up, amongst them Aragon,
Castile and Portugal. Castile and Portugal already, possessed trade interests in North
Africa which in turn was already trading with West Africa. But North Africa prevented
Portugal from trading with West Africa.
By the end of the 13th century, the house of Aviz, the ruling dynasty in Portugal felt
that the war against Islam should be extended to North Africa. By the-time Ceuta was
captured in 1415, the young son of the Portuguese king Prince Henry, was appointed
as the governor of that place. He spearheaded the exploration of the coasts of West
Africa. In other words, the Portuguese came to West Africa because: 1. They wanted to have direct trade links with West Africa instead of through the
Muslims in North Africa.
2. They wanted to convert West Africans to Christianity so that they would have
Christian allies that would assist them in their onslaught against the Islamic
religion. '
Their coming led to the initial attempt at introducing western education in Nigeria.

Initial attempt at Introducing Missionary Education

Although the Portuguese merchants had traded with other areas such as
Senegal and the Gold Coast (now Ghana) in the early part of the 15th century, they
did not arrive in Nigeria till about 1472. After settling in Lagos they later extended
their activities to Brass, Warri and Benin.
Since commerce was their major aim of coming, they felt that elements of
reading and writing should be taught to the natives in order to make them good
trading partners. They also felt that the natives had to be Christianised. They wrote to
their king in Portugal requesting him to send missionaries. The king obliged them. The
Roman Catholic faith was dominant in Portugal at that time. So the missionaries that
came were Catholics.
The missionaries built schools in the palaces of the rulers of Lagos, Benin and
Brass who had been converted to Christianity. They taught reading and writing to the
sons of the converted kings and chiefs.
22

However, this first attempt was brought to an abrupt end when the Portuguese
merchants decided capturing and selling the natives as slaves to Europe and the
Americas. They were later joined in this nefarious trade by the French, English, Dutch
and a host of others. This activity devastated the whole of West Africa. There was no
more peace anywhere. This actually ended this first attempt at introducing western
education. For nearly 300 years, Nigeria was in a vacuum in terms of western
Education.

The Second Attempt

Background History of the 2nd Attempt
By the turn of the 18th century, some whites in Europe, particularly in Britain,
began to see the evil, injustice and man's inhumanity to man in the slave trade. This
period was also characterised by the springing up of several religious bodies such as
the Baptist Missionary Society (1798), the London Missionary Society (1798), the
Church Missionary Society and a host of others. These religious bodies revolutionised
the people's attitude towards religion and morality. It was this revolution that led to
the formation of the anti-slave-trade movement. The religious bodies vigorously
campaigned against this ugly trade.
In 1772, Lord Mansfield, the Lord Justice of England, passed a judgement
ending slavery. This resulted in many slaves becoming-free in England. In 1807, an
Act of Parliament made it illegal for any British subject to engage in the African slave
trade and in 1833 another act was passed abolishing slave trade throughout the
British Empire. Denmark (1808), United States (1813), Sweden and the Netherlands
(1814) had also passed similar laws- making-slave-trade illegal: All these acts
resulted in the freedom of so many slaves. To solve the problems of the large
population of freed slaves. The British government established Sierra-Leone for her
freed slaves. The first batch of freed slaves arrived there in May 1787. The
government of United States of America assisting the American Colonisation Society;
also took the same step and established Liberia in 1821.
However, Britain was unable to secure the abolition of slavery throughout the
Americas. She was also unable to stop slave-trade in the coasts of West Africa.
European traders as well as American slave traders (all hiding under the American
flag) and the rulers and chiefs of the towns, emirates and kingdoms in Nigeria still
carried on with the slave trade. For instance, Lagos, under King Kosoko who drove
Akintoye from the throne in 1845 with the assistance of Brazilian slave traders, was a
major port for slave trade. Infact the rulers and chiefs never wanted slave trade to
end.
So, the British anti-slave-trade movements then argued that agriculture,
industry and legitimate trade must be fostered and developed so that there would be
a final end to slave trade. They felt that this could, be achieved if they established
model communities in West Africa so that they could demonstrate to the natives good
methods of agriculture, industry and government.
But paramount to these anti-slave-trade movements was the urgent' need to
convert the natives to Christianity. The industrial revolution had already started in
Europe at this time also. Palm oil was in great demand and British trade in palm oil
was already flourishing. So they felt it was necessary to find out what the country and
the people were like, what useful commodities were produced and what improvement
in methods of production could be made. The British also wanted to ascertain the
social and 'political conditions under which the missionaries and 'traders would work.

23

The abolitionists equally felt that the wrong done to West Africans by the
European slave traders should be corrected. They argued that the West Africans had
seen only the worst sides of European civilisation particularly its acquisitive and
destructive aspects. So they felt that by going to West Africa the natives would be
given the opportunity to acquire its moral and material benefits. In other words, they
wanted to spread the positive aspects of western civilisation rather than the negative
and destructive sides.
It was in response to these proposals that the British government sent an
expedition to Nigeria in 1841 under Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, the parliamentary
leader of the anti-slave trade movement. They were 146 in that expedition. Out of
this number, two were members of the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.) and one
was a liberated slave, a Yoruba - Samuel Ajayi Crowther (Crowther had been
liberated as a slave on the high seas. He was settled in Sierra Leone. He had this
education in Sierra Leone and later in England). Coinciding with the efforts of these
anti-slave trade movements was the call by the Yoruba emigrants from Sierra Leone.
Most of these emigrants were slaves who had been freed and settled in Sierra Leone.
They had been exposed to Christianity and education as they had come in contact
with C.M.S. and the Wesleyans in Sierra Leone. Most of them were also of Yoruba
decent who were able to trace their roots. Majority of them settled in Badagry and
Abeokuta, having had a foretaste of education and Christianity, they invited
missionary bodies in Sierra Leone to come to Nigeria to help Christianise their kith
and kin and to also assist them in providing education for their children. In response
to this call, the Wesleyan Methodists Missionary Society led by Thomas Birch Freeman
arrived in Badagry in 1842. He was accompanied by Mr. arid Mrs William de Graft
from Gold Coast. As soon as they arrived, they established a mission there and
because the emigrants needed assistance in the area of education a school was also
immediately begun under the supervision of De Graft.
In 1843, the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.) arrived, but was to study the
situation. In 1845, they came and established a mission also in Badagry. The Southern
Baptist Convention joined in the establishment of schools in 1853 in Ijaiye, then later
at Ogbomosho. The Roman Catholic Mission joined the race in 1862 establishing a
stronghold in Lagos. In the East the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland led by
Rev. Hope Waddell started serious missionary and literacy activities in Calabar in
1846.
The C.M. S. later established schools at Onitsha, Iddah, Gbede, Akassa and
Bonny. However, the activities of the missionaries were limited to southern Nigeria
because the Muslims in northern Nigeria did not like western education since they
saw it as an instrument of conversion to Christianity.
The Early Missionary Schools
All the missions came purposely to plant Christianity. It was not easy for them
to convert the adult population. They felt it would be easier to convert the children.
They realised too that the task would be easier if they did do through literacy
education. Hence they established schools alongside the churches.
The Methodists established the first known primary school in Nigeria at
Badagry. It was known as 'Nursery of the Infant Church'. It was managed by Mr. & Mrs.
de Graft. The 50 pupils in the school were children of Sierra Leone emigrants. They
taught the 4Rs-reading, writing, arithmetic and religious education but with religious
education as the principal subject.
They also taught grammar and spelling. All these subjects were taught so as to
enable the students read and translate the Bible and other religious tracts. They also
24

hoped that the learning of these subjects would equally enable the students to
express themselves orally and also in writing. For the students to be familiar with the
home background of the missions, they were taught the History and Geography of
Britain.
They also paid attention to the teaching of agriculture and the teaching of
domestic science to the girls. Love for manual labour was fostered not only in the
students but also in the natives. For instance, monetary awards were sometimes
given to farmers after talking to them on agriculture. There was much emphasis on
agriculture because they wanted the children to be able to use their hands after
leaving school However, all subjects were taught and explained from the Bible's point
of-view. The arithmetic taught was to produce clerks and messengers for the various
governmental offices and commercial houses. By this time, the British officials were
already in firm control of parts of Nigeria. So there were governmental offices that
needed workers. The British traders also had shops and needed workers. It was to
satisfy the demands of these sets of Europeans that arithmetic was taught in the
early schools
Tuition was free. Any child willing to learn was willingly admitted. Most of the
missions preferred the boarding system. This was because they felt that their homes
were barbaric and would have barbaric influence on them. The textbooks, pencils,
clothes and money needed in the schools were sent from the home missions.
The children themselves were proud of the opportunity they had. They saw
themselves as superior to their counterparts who were-not in school. They imitated
and preferred the Whitmans ways. The missionaries encouraged this.
Obstacles Encountered by the Early Schools
It was not all smooth sailing for the early schools. Not everybody accepted education
without question.
In the first place, there was low student enrolment as a result of stiff opposition
and lack of co-operation. The missionary education was vehemently opposed by the
traditionalists, the priests and priestesses and the Muslim's.
The traditionalists opposed it because it was different from theirs and they
lacked understanding of its aims. On the other hand, the priests and priestesses were
afraid of losing their grips on their members. So they persecuted any person that
attended the schools and churches. For instance, as reported by Fajana (1978) that in
Abeokuta, those attending the churches were deprived of getting marriage mates. As
a result of this, most parents withdrew their children from the schools.
The Muslims who were afraid and suspicious of missionary education
vehemently resisted the attempt to attract their children to the schools.
Those that allowed their children to attend the schools did so half-heartedly.
They regarded it as a waste of the children's time to send them to school. Those that
sent children sent either their slaves or their motherless children.
Moreover, those that sent their children expected immediate rewards; if slow to
come, they withdrew their children. Further, the type of training given in the schools,
made the children offer no -useful services to their parents at home. They saw
themselves as too important to assist their parents at home. or to work in the farms.
This led to doubts about the value of western education, Parents therefore
immediately withdrew their children. So the missionaries had to mount admission
campaign from house to house and from farm to farm begging parents to send their
children to school. Those that allowed their children were given monetary or other
gifts such as clothes, books, slates and pencils. Even the students were paid for
25

attending schools. Where fees were paid due to the initial enthusiasm, they were
abandoned and schools were made free. Actually, the earliest educated Nigerians
apart from the children of the emigrants were the children of not-well-to-do parents.
Another problem encountered by the early schools is irregular attendance. The
children that were sent to school did not love schooling either. They preferred their
traditional homes. They preferred hunting, fishing or farming. As Fajana (1978) noted
in Bonny, in 16 weeks some children attended school only twice. The total number of
children enrolled was 78 but the average daily attendance never rose above 25. In
addition to the childrens dislike for school, local conditions and seasons contributed
to the irregular attendance. Traders often took their children away for a long time.
During the planting and harvesting periods, parents took their wards away. Schools
were therefore forced to function in the afternoons only. Sometimes, they were forced
to close down for a while.
Thirdly, the missions sometimes ran into financial problems. The pupils paid no
fees. The missionaries depended on foreign missions to finance the schools. They
equally depended on offerings collected on Sundays in the churches. But the money
never amounted to anything. Sometimes, they had to sell some of the inducements
so they could buy materials and other necessary things needed for the smooth
running of the schools.
The Merits of Early Missionary Education
Despite all the shortcomings, early missionary education contributed a lot to the
development of Nigeria, It helped to:
1. Lay the foundation for the western educational being practiced in Nigeria
today.
2. Stop the slave trade and other evil practices such as the killing of twins in the
eastern part of Nigeria.
3. Inculcate discipline and dignity for manual labour in the children.
4. Open up avenues for social and economic mobility those that had education
had limitless job opportunities. Those that attended these early schools were
employed as teachers, clerks, messengers, interpreters etc. They thus became
very important personalities in the community. They were seen as being close
to the white man and very near to government. Of course, there been paid
salaries even though not much, placed them at a higher economic level than
their counterparts that did not have the missionary education.
5. Their intellectual horizons were broadened and as a result were able to criticise
the system which led to the reforms and self-rule e.g. the various education
laws and Nigeria's since1960,
6. Establish printing presses which led to the production of books.
7. Alphabetise many indigenous Nigeria languages on the basis of which their
orthographies developed. As a result they were able to transcribe the
languages to the written form. It is on this basis that all Nigerian languages
could be put in the written form.
The Beginning of Secondary Education
All the missions were not interested in providing secondary education. They felt
it was not a prerequisite for evangelical service. They equally felt that the basic
education their converts acquired at the primary School level was sufficient' for them
to carry out their work evangelically and secularly. Hence secondary and higher
education were neglected.
26

It was the demand by influential church members, rich merchants and

immigrants living in Lagos that led to the establishment of secondary schools. .
T. B. Macaulay of the C.M.S. opened the first Grammar School in Lagos in 1859
with the little or no support from the C.M.S. mission. It occupied four rooms in an old
cotton warehouse. An emigrant businessman, captain J. P. L. Davies had to organise a
contribution from where he got 13 which was used for buying learning facilities such
as chairs and desks. He gave an advance of 25 from the purchase of books.
The children that finished their primary education in the other missions and
who wanted to further their education had no other alternative than to switch to the
C.M.S. Grammar school and consequently become members of the CM.S. Church.
The other missions started losing ground for fear of this, they started building
secondary schools. For instance Wesleyan Methodists raised 500 and requested their
mission to equally raise another 500. With that amount, the Wesleyan Boys High
School was established in 1879. Between 1859 1914 twelve post primary
institutions were established in Southern Nigeria.

TABLE1: TWELVE EARLIEST SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED IN NIGERIA

AGENCY
FOUNDING
C. M. S.
R. C. M.
Methodist
Methodist
Baptist
Church of Scotland
C. M. S.
Government
Private African
initiative
C. M. S.
C. M. S.

SCHOOL

LOCATION

C M.S. Grammar School

St. Gregorys College
Methodist Boys High
School
Methodist Girls High
School
Baptist Boys High School
Hope Waddell Institute
Abeokuta Grammar
School
Kings College

Lagos
Lagos
Lagos

YEAR
FOUNDED
1859
1876
1878

Lagos

1879

Lagos
Calabar
Abeokuta

1885
1895
1908

Lagos

1909

Eko Boys High School

Lagos

190

Ibadan
Ijebu-Ode

1913
1913

Ibadan Grammar School

Ijebu-Ode Grammar
School
R. C. M.
St. Marys Convent
All schools except two were boys school. Source:

Lagos
1913
Fafunwa, Babs, A. 1974)

Features of the Early Secondary Schools

Most of the schools were boarding schools. The missions and the government
favoured the boarding system because they felt this was the only civilised way the
children could be trained to become civilised. They believed this system would give
them the opportunity to supervise, control and direct the children properly without
the 'evil and uncivilized' influences of their home environment.
The secondary schools were purely literary. They taught a very large number of
subjects. According to Fajana (1918), the subjects were English and Orthography,
writing, Dictation, Arithmetic and Algebra, Grammar, History (Religious and secular)
Geography, classics, prose and poetry.
There were also optional subjects which were offered at extra costs. They were
in two parts: In the first part were Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French and other modern
languages, geometry, trigonometry, Book-keeping, drawing, rhetoric and logic, moral
philosophy and political economy. In the second part were Roman and Greek History,
27

Mythology and antiquities, physiology; geology and botany. The Hope Waddell
Institute added practical courses to the curriculum just enumerated. The practical
courses included printing, carpentry and mechanics. ( Akpochafo, 1990).
These large numbers of subjects were taught in such a way that the students
assimilated little or nothing. Apart from the manner of the teaching, the children who
entered these schools then, were inadequately prepared from the primary schools.
The parents and the children who entered the schools only saw this as an opportunity
of having better wage-earning prospects. At that time there was acute shortage of
clerks and interpreters. It was so acute that the government was making its
recruitment from the Gold Coast (Ghana), Sierra Leone and the West Indies. Due to
this acute demand, parents never allowed their children to complete schooling before
removing them to seek employment.
The schools were equally poorly staffed. Some of the missions were so poor
that they could not afford to employ two graduates. The poor remuneration equally
led to the exodus of the few teachers from the teaching profession. The end result
was that there was a general fall in the standard. The products of the schools were far
below standard.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
The missions were interested in providing technical education but its result was
disappointing. The Roman Catholics, for example, established an agricultural school
at Topo, Badagry in 1875 where they taught technical subjects as well as reading and
writing. The school produced its own food from the farms.
However, technical education was not a success, rather, it was the Grammar
schools that flourished despite all their flaws. The failure of technical education could
be attributed to the following
reasons:
( I) Lack of finance - due to this factor, the missions could not maintain the schools,
neither were they able to buy the expensive equipment required. (Technical education
was more expensive to run than a grammar school)
(2) There were no factories to absorb the graduates from the technical school. There
were demands for literate clerks than for carpenters, masons, brick makers or
printers. The colonial government did not employment such school leavers either.
Where they were given employment, they were discriminated against particularly in
ranking and wages. The incentives which were given to others were never given to
them. Invariably many of the students drifted to other areas such as clerical services
and the clergy. In time technical education died a natural death.
Achievements/Contributions of the Christian Missionaries
1. The missionaries helped in curtailing and in many cases stopping some obnoxious
traditional practices in the country, such as superstitious beliefs, killing of twins,
human sacrifices/ritual murders, slave trade etc. They rather encouraged the
regard for the dignity of human life.
2. The missionaries made most indigenes have the belief in one supreme God.
3. They established schools through which tremendous contributions were made
towards the intellectual development of the Nigerian people.
4. The missionaries helped in settling some prolonged wars and intercommunal
clashes in different parts of the country.
5. The missionaries were largely responsible for reducing to writing most Nigerian
Languages. They encouraged and financed the translation of the Bible, Christian
and other educational Literature into local languages
28

6.

They also provided much medical services in the country. They built hospitals,
maternity centres, dispensaries and also Leper Clinics, through which many
people were treated. This helped reduce considerably many deaths that hitherto
occurred out of ignorance.
7. With religious instructions, the missionaries were able to inculcate some worthy
moral values in the natives, such as respect for the dignity of human lives,
humility, honesty and a general code of conduct for teachers and pupils was set.
8. The Christian missionaries can also be credited for contributing much towards the
economic development of the nation. This was demonstrated in the suggestion of
T. F. Buxton, (a member of the anti-slavery movement in London) that the
missionaries and teachers should go to the interior part of the Niger with the the
plough", this was to make' both Christianity and agriculture to flourish and to
bring about commerce which would turn the people's attention away from slave
trade.
9. The mission schools produced the present day political leaders of Nigeria, most of
who were beneficiaries of the schools.
10. The mission education made a lot' of contributions towards the social, political,
religious and economic life of the Nigerian people.
Problems of Christian Missionaries
1. Athough all the missions had similar educational policies, these policies were not
executed in the same manner. They also lacked central co-ordination. These
resulted in differences. In the first place, there was no general curriculum as each
mission designed its own curriculum. Each mission taught what it felt necessary
and practicable taking the availability of teachers into consideration. Where the
teachers were not enough, they taught Bible studies and domestic science to
girls.
2. There were no common textbooks for the various classes in all the missions.
There was also the problem of language to be used for instruction. While some
schools used Yoruba, others used Portuguese while others still used English.
3. There was no uniform time for starting and closing schools. The teacher opened
and closed the school at his own convenience especially as he was also expected
to perform other duties such as being the catechist and the community doctor.
4. There was no uniform qualification of teachers. There was no uniform salary
either. Each mission determined the qualification as well as the salary of its
teachers. In most cases the teachers were not qualified and were poorly paid.
5. Teacher-pupil ratio could not be fixed. A teacher had a limitless number of pupils
to teach.
6. There was no uniform system of evaluation either. Each mission conducted its
own examination and awarded its own certificates. There was no supervision of
the school's infrastructural facilities, personnel and pupils by the missions, so
standard could not be enforced.
7. The transcription of the various indigenous languages was equally uncoordinated.
This resulted in the use of the different orthographies by the different missions.
e.g. the sound [kp] as in 'akpu' in Ika language is represented by the letters k, p
but the same sound is represented by the letter 'p' in Yoruba. So the student will
write 'apu' instead of 'akpu'.
8. There was a lot of competition and rivalry amongst the mission. They competed
for fame and supremacy this led to disunity amongst the missions and
consequently the adherents were confused because as far as the natives were
concerned, all the missions were one.
9. The missions failed to realise that the natives already had their own form of
education. But as far as the missions were concerned, there was no form of
29

education in Nigeria before their arrival. So, they tried to shield the pupils from
the influence of their homes. In turn, the pupil saw their own culture as inferior
and tended to feel superior to those not in school. Also, the children looked down
on their own culture due to the teaching given to them. For instance, the pupils
were encouraged to change thejr Nigerian names to English and Biblical names.
The pupils were very proud of the changes. This was a. sure way of losing their
identity as Nigerian cultures were not projected.
10. The competition for fame and supremacy also led to the establishment of substandard schools. In most cases, the churches served as schools on weekdays
while the schools became churches on Sundays.

30

Chapter Six
PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP
WHAT IS PPP?
Public private partnership has been defined as arrangements between
governments and private sector entities for the purpose of providing public
infrastructure, community facilities and related services. Such partnerships are
characterized by the sharing of investment, risk, responsibility and reward between
the partners (). .
Public private partnership has also been defined by the Canadian council for PPP
(1999) as cooperative venture where there is an allocation of the risks inherent
in the provision of public service between the public and private sectors.
Partnership has been defined by the Encarta Dictionary to mean the relationship
between two or more people or organizations that are involved in the same activity.
Infrastructure is defined as the large-scale public systems, services, and
facilities of a
country or region that are necessary for economic activity including power and
water
supplies, public transportation, telecommunications, roads, and schools .
CONSTRAINTS OF PPP
1. Corruption: The major bottleneck of PPP is level of corruption in Nigeria, it is
difficult to trust some individuals in the management of money or school
admission and so, many Nigerians were jittery. The last Federal Government that
attempted it had no sufficient time to plan, enlighten the public and implement it to its
legal and logical conclusion, and so created a lot of apprehensions.
2. Ignorance and Fear: The PPP concept is yet to take root in Nigeria hence the
ignorance and fear displayed by many groups and individuals. However, not a few
Nigerians believe and desire to see the educational system including the
Ministries and the schools reformed. The initial pubic reaction was that the PPP
was a ploy by the Federal Government to sell or privatize the Unity schools,
which they felt amount to Government shirking its responsibility to Nigerian
children (Sango, 2006; Nadaba, 2007). They were also afraid that school fees
would rise beyond common people's purse, thus making the schools elitist
(Bosah, 2006).
3. Over-centralisation of management: Another factor killing the system is
over-centralisation of management. It has been the trend since independence and
this continued with the take-over of all community schools by the Federal
Government (FG) in 1976. One of the shortcomings of that move was that it
has deprived the leadership of schools the much-needed initiative to run their schools
successfully. Bureaucracy delays decision-making and mistakes are descended
upon with severity. School heads therefore wait on Ministries dictation to run their schools
and this has stilled innovativeness and quality delivery. Freedom to take
appropriate decisions is important to leadership success.
4. In recent times, market forces are taking central place in the management of
many public enterprises including education. The trend in school management
in the last two or three decades in some English-speaking countries
(e.g. England and Wales)
is
a
paradigm
shift
to
autonomy or decentralisation (Coleman, 1994). Such terms as charter
schools, autonomous or self-managed schools or school-based management have
emerged to describe this trend. These are public schools that have opted to be
independent of bureaucratic control so as to control their own resources and
performance. In the United States of America, charter schools are "governmentfunded and government-regulated and they may be operated by private boards or
corporations" (Coulson, 2003, p.4). Coulsn observed that in the United States of
America: In times of greater centralised authority, large administrative
31

structures, such as states, school districts, and school boards, maintain control
over decisions regarding educational policy, budget, and operations. When the
pendulum swings towards decentralisation, much of this control shifts to smaller
school boards for example, and more recently, individual schools, (p.l).
5. Political issues: This is a very important aspect of public private partnership
because where there is the absence of political will to PPP, then its likelihood of
working will be very slim and also is the fact that the next administration may
not be interested in or may want to reconcess it due to different reasons
among which is the fact that there is this tendency
with new administrations to change some policies decided upon by the
previous
administrations, so concessionaires try to speed up commissions of projects
before the deadline of the present administration and at the end of the day causing
increase in the
cost.
6. Funding issues: This is a major problem for any concession agreement
because raising that kind of needed credit locally is almost impossible especially
considering the fact that most banks were skeptical about the project as it is new
and there is no precedent to show for the success or failure as the case may be.
7. Legal issues: Until very recently, there were no legal framework for PPPs in Nigeria
and this has posed a serious challenge to both the government and the
concessionaires because there were no legally defined operating parameters to
describe how to go about with PPP. Though the recent enactment of the ICRC Act
has to an extent addressed this issue. The Act laid
down broad principles on which concessions are to be granted and has
given certain guarantees and hope to potential concessionaires
PROSPECTS
1. Partnership envisaged should cuts across different but mutually inclusive
groups
of
stakeholders,
including
International
Non-Government
Organizations
and Development
Agencies such
as United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Culture (UNESCO), United States Agency
for
International Development (USAID), Multinational Corporations such as
Alesco Cooperation Limited, Shell, Chevron, Taxaco, Total Final ELF, ExxonMobile and others Organized Private Sector (OPS) such as Nigerian Association
of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Marine and Agriculture (NACCIMA), MAN
Global and selected Non-quoted private sector companies such as
Econet,
Minneapolis
Telecommunications Network
(MTN),
Globalcom,
Etisalat, Zain, Dangote and Folawiyo Groups. Professional Bodies such as
Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN), Institute of
Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN), and Nigerian Institute of Management
(NIM), among others are not left out.
2. Nigerian public/private sector partnership should go beyond the Education Tax
Fund. Nigeria should take advantage of the international experience and allow
for significant contributions to educational development.
3. in order for government to deliver the minimum standard of services, products
and or care required for a PPP to thrive, it must put in place, laws, regulations
and institutions or enhance existing ones, as well as improve the enabling
environment for private sector participation (PSP) in the provision and
development of infrastructure to occur.
4. Stakeholders commitment to the PPP would be accomplished by focusing on
micro, small and medium-sized operations, involve community leaderships like
community development associations, town unions, non-governmental
organizations, local, state and/or regional governmental authorities including
private company operators.
32

5. PPPs must, therefore, be facilitated through processes aimed at translating the

desires of stakeholders into form of partnerships so desired.

33