ENV301E

STUDY GUIDE

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ENV301E

CONTENTS

PAGE

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAMENT

30

NOISE MANAGEMENT

78

AIR MANAGEMENT

88

WATER MANAGEMENT

137
PRESCRIBED BOOK

AUTHOR:

Fuggle, R.F & Rabie, M.A.

TITLE:
Environmental Management in South Africa 1SI
Edition with postscripts 1996

PUBLISHER:

Juta

ISBN:

070 213 8983

2|Page

CHAPTER 1
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS

PAGE

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1.2 INTRODUCTION

1.3 LEGISLATION
1.3.1
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa
Act 108of 196
1.3.2
Environmental Conservation Act 73 of 1989
1.3.3
Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965
1.3.4
hazardous Substance Act 15 of 1973
1.3.5
The Minerals Act 50 of 1991
1.3.6
The Occupational Health and safety Act of 1993
1.3.7
The National Environmental management
Act 1 07 of 1 998
1.3.8
Environmental Conventions and Protocols

6
6
The
8
The
13
The
14
15
15
18
25

1.1.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

This course is aimed at engineering students who would like to know how their actions affect
the environment.
The prescribed book for the course is Environmental Management in South Africa bv
R F Fupgle and M A Rabie.
This study guide should be used together with the prescribed book and deals briefly with the
principles underlying tire development of pollution management strategies. The management
of pollution is a multi-disciplinary exercise and requires input from a team with a wide field
of expertise in order to deal comprehensively with the many facets of the pollution problem.
The following chapters of the prescribed book should be read only to attain a background
knowledge:
Sections 2.2 to 2.9 of chapter 2.
Chapter 3,4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,14, 15,16, 20,21,24,26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31.

1.2.

INTRODUCTION

South Africa is blessed with an abundance of mineral resources, which has led to the
development of the mining industry as well as various other industries. One of the side
effects of industrial development is pollution and the way it affects the environment.
Most manufacturing turd industrial companies now recognise that caring for the environment
is also good for business, and that waste reduction and pollution prevention can increase
profits,
Some side-effects of industrial development affect people directly, for example pollution by
smoke in the black residential areas which do not have access to electricity. Others affect
people less directly or may not even have a immediate effect on our lives, for example the

destruction of rainforests which absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere.
Environmental diseases are confined to non-infectious diseases caused largely by exposure to
disease causing agents in the environment. Environmental diseases do not include for example,
active smoking. An example of an environmental disease is silicosis which is caused by exposure
to high levels of dust in the work environment.
We all inhabit the same precious environment and must share the responsibility for protecting our
environment from damage.
The South African Government has estimated that it will take at least 20 years, with an annual
budget of between R 20 million and R 50 million to clean up the rapidly increasing pollution in
the country.
Waste and pollution affect all of us and we all bear some responsibility for them. Protecting and
improving the quality of our environment will take money, hard work and dedication; it will also
require careful planning and greater public awareness. An effective strategy to deal with the
problem must involve all people and all institutions in society. Concerned citizens, community
organisations, trade unions, business and government all have a role to play. This effort will be
well worth the benefit - a safer and healthier planet for future generations to enjoy.
Read through chapters 1 and 2 in the prescribed textbook to get background knowledge of the
influence your actions have on the environment.

1.3

LEGISLATION

There has been little environmental legislation in South Africa in the past.
1.3.1 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108 of 1996
A number of fundamental rights are guaranteed by Chapter 2 of the Constitution of the Republic
of South Africa Act 108 of 1996. All other legislation in the Republic of South Africa must
comply with it.
Sections 24 and 25 are important in the environmental context since section 24 describes the
general right to an environment that is not detrimental to a person's health or well-being Section
25 states that no-one may be deprived of property except in certain exceptional circumstances.
The protection of these rights is important and production processes that might infringe on them
should be avoided. These rights are complimented by Section 38, which extends the right to claim
relief in terms of Section 24 to a wide range of people Sections 32 and 33 arc also important and
which guarantee access to information.
Section 24 states that: "Everyone has the right (a)

to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being; and

(b) to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations,
through reasonable legislative and other measures that (i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation;
(ii) promote conservation; and
(iii) secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while
promoting justifiable economic and social development."

The right contained in section 24(a) is comprehensive. Our courts must, however, still define the
precise extent of this right. The "health or "well-being" of people covers a wide field. A decision
in the High Court of South Africa on section 24(a) reported as the Minister of Health

and Welfare v Woodcarb (Pty) Ltd and Another 1996 3 SA 155 (N) per Hurt J shows that its
impact will probably be extensive. In this matter the dispute involved the sawmilling business of
the respondent, the disposal of some of the sawdust and other unusable by products of the business
by burning it in a Rheese burner. This caused air pollution. As the respondent had no certificate of
registration under Section 9 of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965 ('APPA'), the
chief air pollution control officer (CAPCO) applied to the court for an interdict to stop the
respondent from generating smoke. The court found as proved that the burner "regularly belched
large quantities of smoke over the surrounding countryside". CAPCOs claim was successful for
two reasons. The court found that the applicant had established that the operation of the Rheese
burner by the respondent without a certificate of registration under Section 9 of the Act (APPA)
was unlawful conduct. It was not only unlawful in the light of Section 9, but the generation of
smoke in these circumstances is an infringement of the rights of the respondent's neighbours "to
an environment which is not detrimental to their health or well-being", -enshrined in Section 24 of
the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108 of 1996. Sections that affect
administrative processes are sections 32 and 33 which pertain to the right of access to information,
and which are needed to enforce the right contained in section 24. Section 32(1) reads: "Everyone
has the right of access to (a) any information held by the state; and
(b) any information that is held by another person and that is required for the exercise or
protection of any rights."
Section 33 reads:
"(1) Everyone has the right to administrative action that is lawful, reasonable and procedurally
fair.
(2) Everyone whose rights have been adversely affected by administrative action has the right to
be given written reasons."

1.3.2 The Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989

This Act is also over-arching legislation and is a "generalistic" Act in contrast to legislation
dealing with specific aspects. Its purpose is to facilitate the integration and co-ordination of the
many Acts dealing with specific activities. As such it is the basis for the consideration of the
cumulative effect of actions, and for ensuring that a conflict or absence of control is dealt with
adequately. It may not usurp the functions in specific legislation such as the Water Act and others.
It should rather be used to co-ordinate the application of such legislation in its wider perspective
so that no environmental degradation is caused.
According to the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998, the term "environment'
refers to surroundings within which humans exist and are made up of the following:
"(i) the land, water and atmosphere of the earth;
(ii)

micro-organisms, plant and animal life;

(iii)any part or combination of (i) and (ii) and the interrelationships among and between them;
and
(iv)the physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and conditions of the foregoing
that influence human health and well-being."

In the same Act "Pollution" refers to any change in the environment caused by:
"(i) substances
(ii)

radioactive or other waves; or

(iii)

noise, odours, dust or heat,

emitted from any activity, including the storage or treatment of waste or substances, construction
and the provision of services, whether engaged in by any person or an organ of state, where that
change has an adverse effect on human health or well-being or on the composition, resilience and
productivity of natural or managed ecosystems, or on materials useful to people, or will have such
an effect in the future."

Section 1 of the Environment Conservation Act contains definitions of words used in the Act.
Amongst them is the definition of "environment" which reads: "environment means the aggregate
of surrounding objects, conditions and influences that influence the life and habits of man or any
other organism or collection of organisms". The definition must also be read with the title of the
1989 Act which states that the purpose of the Act is "to provide for the effective protection and
controlled utilisation of the environment." This definition does more than merely define a word. It
also establishes two major principles. It creates a principle that forms a basis for the integration
and co-ordination of the many different environmental disciplines. It also removes people from a
position as masters over the environment and places them within the environment as component
thereof.
Section 2 of the Environment Conservation Act reads:
"(1) Subject to the provisions of subsection (2) the Minister may by notice in the Gazette
determine the general policy ...to be applied with a view to(a) the protection of ecological processes
(b) the promotion of sustainable utilisation

of species ...;

(c) the protection of the environment against disturbance, pollution

..;

(d) ...
(g)

the execution and co-ordination of integrated environmental monitoring

programmes;"

This environmental policy was promulgated under Government Notice 51 in Government Gazette
No 15428 of 21 January 1994. It contains several subheadings, such as the policy with regard to
"Environmental Education", "Land Use", "Nature Conservation", "The Urban Environment" and
others. The section relating to "Pollution Control", is important and states:
"In the first instance pollution, of whatever nature, should be prevented by formulating an
effective comprehensive policy, the promulgation of appropriate legislation, the establishment and
maintenance of norms and standards, the application of the best practicable environmental options
based on the most suitable available technology, the fostering of

positive attitudes among industrialists and the public, and participation in international cooperation.
A national strategy for integrated waste management and integrated pollution control will be
developed in which the elements of responsibility, accountability, minimising, treatment and reuse
will enjoy priority." The Preamble of the General Environmental Policy (GEP) contains several
important principles:
"Each generation has an obligation to act as a trustee of its natural environment and cultural
heritage in the interest of succeeding generations." The concept of sustainable development is
accepted as the guiding principle for environmental management. Under the heading "Economic
Measures" it is stated that:
"... environmental resource economic measures should be employed to. . internalise external
environmental costs as part of exploitation and production costs, having due regard to the
economic implications."
"External environmental costs" are those costs that are a by-product of the process but which are
carried by someone other than the producer. The production and management process of a
development is structured to ensure that the developer as the generator or producer of the costs
carries the cost burden.
The General Environmental Policy, determined in terms of section 2 of the Act, facilitates the
integrating and broad environmental protection aims of the Act, and describes and defines certain
broad guidelines. The policy is binding on all government officials.
Section 3 of the Environment Conservation Act becomes extremely significant where it states:
"Each Minister, Administrator, local authority and government institution upon which any power
has been conferred or to which any duty has been assigned in connection with the

environment by or under any law, shall exercise such power and perform such duty in accordance
with the policy referred to in section 2."
This means that the government official responsible for control of air pollution (The Chief Air
Pollution Control Officer) is bound to the requirements of "internalisation of external costs" and of
"sustainable development", as well as of all the other principles contained in the General
Environment Policy. Practically speaking, this means that if the Officer receives an application for
a registration certificate, he/she has to examine the application to establish whether it complies
with the requirements of the GEP.
The Environment Conservation Act contains three other important sections, namely sections 21,
22 and 26. Section 21(1) reads: "The Minister may by notice in the Gazette identify those
activities which in his opinion may have a substantial detrimental effect on the environment
ll

Section 22(1) then reads: "No person shall undertake any activity identified in terms of section
21(1) or cause such an activity to be undertaken except by virtue of a written authorization issued
by the Minister or by a competent authority or local authority or an officer, which competent
authority, authority or officer shall be designated by the Minister by notice in the Gazette."
Section 26 gives the Minister the power to prescribe the procedure which should be followed for
the application to the Minister under section 22.
Schedule 1 of Government Notice No R 1182 in Government Gazette 18261 of 5 September 1997
lists the activities which have been identified by the Minister as being potentially detrimental in
terms of section 21.
The commencement dates for the two listings are 2 March 1998. From this date onwards the
procedure prescribed (in terms of section 26 of the Act) and as contained in Government Notice R
1183 in Government Gazette 18261 of 5 September 1997 will have to be followed.

The practical effect of this is that sections 21 and 22 establish a general system for the control of
activities. Matters under specific legislation (for example those subject to the Hazardous
Substances Act) would still be valid and permissions would still have to be obtained under those
specific enactments, but the ultimate decision as to whether a certain activity as a whole (and as
listed in Notice 1182) may be continued lies in the hands of the Minister of Environmental Affairs,
or the person or institution to whom his powers have been delegated The Minister is, in other
words, the co-ordinating agent and convener of activities.
Several sets of regulations, such as those dealing with environmental impact assessments, waste
management and noise control, have been promulgated in terms of this Act.
(a)

Environmental ImpactAssess Regulations

These regulations require that certain activities only be undertaken after obtaining
an authorisation (permit) from the authorities.

(b)

Noise Regulations
These regulations were promulgated in terms of Section 25 of the Act in
Government Gazette No. 13717, dated 10 January 1992, Notice R 154. These
regulations provide a set of model regulations that can be implemented by various
local authorities. Authority to implement the regulations depends upon the local
authority having the services of a noise control officer w'ith specifically laid down
minimum qualifications.

(c)

Waste Regulations
The Regulations

for the

Identification of Waste were promulgated in

Government Gazette No. 12703, dated 24 August 1990, Notice 1986 and identify
waste, define it and enable its regulation.
The Regulation for Waste Disposal Sites was promulgated in Government Gazette
No. 15832, dated 8 July 1994, Notice R1196 and establishes the requirement to
license any site to be used for the disposal of waste.

In view of the fact that responsibility for waste management is shared with the
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, several waste management related
initiatives were undertaken jointly with that department. The requirement for a
permit applies to public and private waste disposal sites, i.e. municipal sites,
private sites owned by waste contractors and private sites for exclusive disposal
of the owner or operators own waste.
1.3.3 The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965
This Act deals with pollution of the atmosphere by noxious and offensive gasses, smoke, dust and
diesel fumes.
The management structure of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (APPA) is based on four
categories of air pollution
Part II of the Act deals with noxious and offensive gasses. Part III deals with smoke, Part IV deals
with dust and Part V with air pollution from diesel vehicles.
Anyone carrying out business using a process listed as a "Scheduled Process" under Schedule II
of the Act must apply for a registration certificate. At the moment there are 72 scheduled
processes. They include processes such as sulphuric acid processes, i.e. processes for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid or processes in which sulphur trioxidc is evolved or used.
These are mainly industrial processes where the control structure is aimed at managing the
processes (causing the pollution) such as the machines used for the processes.
Smoke
In this case, the aim is to avoid the generation of smoke into the air. The focus is not so much on
the chemical components of the emissions, as on the particulate content thereof. The focus of this
type of control is to avoid smoke migration to people. This is achieved by demanding efficient
burning processes and chimney stacks high enough to disperse smoke properly. The Act regulates
"fuel burning appliances" and includes boilers and similar steam

generating appliances for which permits are required. A number of local authorities have adopted
zoned controlled regulations in terms of Sections 14, 18 and 20 of the Act.
Dust
The focus is on avoiding small particles of otherwise innocuous material from being driven
through the air, causing a nuisance or health-related problems. Control processes here deal with
steps such as vegetation and the use of water to avoid wind-driven dust.

Fumes
This refers to the exhaust fumes of vehicles for which a specific management regime was
designed
1.3.4 The Hazardous Substances Act 15 of 1973
This is a general Act that attempts to lay down broad principles regarding handling hazardous
substances. For this purpose four categories, Groups I, II, 111 and IV, were established. Typical
substances in Groups I and II include materials such as pesticides, carbon tetrachloride and others.
Group III focuses on electronic products. Group IV focuses mainly on radioactive materials. An
attempt has been made to group the different substances together in such a way that their effective
management is facilitated. The Act accepts that severe adverse impacts can result from handling
these substances. For that reason, control has been instituted for activities that would entail some
form of exposure to these substances.
Various regulations have been promulgated under this Act. They stipulate which substances and
products fall into each category of hazardous substances, and which control mechanisms apply to
that particular group.

1.3.5 The Minerals Act 50 of 1991

This Act establishes a management system for mining in general with a strong focus on
environmental protection. Mining in principle is dealt with mainly in sections 6 to 9 of the Act.
Section 39 of this Act requires that an environmental management programme (EMP) be
developed and approved prior to mining being undertaken. The Department of Minerals and
Energy has prepared guidelines for the preparation of such an application under section 39 They
are contained in a document entitled "Aide-Memoire For Environmental Management Programme
Reports for Proposed Prospecting and Mining". These guidelines are currently under review.
It deals with the detailed management of mining processes. This aspect is important because
industry has to apply these processes and is expected to comply with the BATNEEC ("Best
Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost") requirement. A specific aspect that could be
of some value is the Draft Code of Practice prepared by the SABS on the management of tailings.
1.3.6 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993
This Act is an example of overarching legislation because it does not deal with any specific one
of the four categories of impacts identified above (with the exception of the regulations
promulgated under the Machinery and Occupational Safety Act 6 of 1983). That Act has been
repealed and the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS) has replaced it. The regulations have
been incorporated into the OHS Act. It imposes a duty of care on the employer to ensure that the
workplace is made and kept safe.
The legal requirements for prevention or mitigation of a negative impact very often refer to "best
practicable means" or a similar criteria. This concept always involves an inquiry into what is
factually (not legally) the best w ray of preventing or mitigating the impact. One of the factors
involved in this factual inquiry is the health and safety of employees.

The scope of the Act is very wide. Its crux is contained in sections 8, 9 and 10.
Section 8 reads:
"(1) Every employer shall provide and maintain, as far as is reasonably practicable, a
working environment that is safe and without risk to the health of his employees.
(2) Without derogating from the generality of an employer's duties under subsection (1),
the matters to which those duties refer include in particular(a) the provision and maintenance of systems of work, plant and machinery, that, as far
as is reasonably practicable are safe and without risks to health;
(b) taking such steps as may be reasonably practicable, to eliminate or mitigate any
hazard or potential hazard to the safety or health of employees, before resorting to
personal protective equipment;
(c) making arrangements for ensuring, as far as is reasonably practicable, the safety
and absence of risks to health in connection with the production, processing, use,
handling, storage or transport of articles or substances;
(d) establishing, as far as is reasonably practicable, what hazards to the health or safety
of persons are attached to any work which is performed, any article or substance
which is produced, processed, used, handled, stored or transported and any plant or
machinery which is used in his business, and he shall, as far as is reasonably
practicable, further establish what precautionary' measures should be taken with
respect to such work, article, substance, plant or machinery in order to protect the
health and safety of persons, and he shall provide the necessary means to apply
such precautionary measures;
(e) providing such information, instructions, training and supervision as may be
necessary to ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health and safety at
work of his employees;
(f) as far as is reasonably practicable, not permitting any employee to do any work or
to produce, process, use, handle, store or transport any article or substance or to
operate any plant or machinery, unless the precautionary measures contemplated in
paragraphs (b) and (d), or any other precautionary measures which may be
prescribed, have been taken;

(g) taking all necessary measures to ensure that the requirements of this Act are
complied with by every person in his employment or on premises under his
control where plant or machinery is used;
(h) enforcing such measures as may be necessary in the interest of health and safety;
(i) ensuring that work is performed and that plant or machinery is used under the
general supervision of a person trained to understand the hazards associated with
it and who have authority to ensure that precautionary measures taken by the
employer arc implemented; and
(j) causing all employees to be informed regarding the scope of their authority' as
contemplated in section 37(l)(b)."
This section places the employer under a legal obligation to use his foresight in order to estimate
what the hazards for his employees at his workplace will be. "Hazard" is defined as "a source of or
exposure to danger". "Danger", in turn, is defined as "anything which may cause injury or damage
to persons or property". Once he has foreseen a possible hazard, the owner is obliged to take all
practicable steps to prevent that hazard from occurring. If the hazard cannot be prevented from
occurring, the owner must mitigate the extent thereof. The owner must train his employees to
understand the extent of the hazard and on how to deal w'ith it
The employer must do all of the above to the extent that it is practicably feasible.
This Act specifically addresses the health and safety of persons at work, as well as their health in
connection with the use of plant and machinery. It does this by obliging the employer to eliminate
or mitigate any hazard or potential hazard to the safety of the employees, either by removing or
protecting people against the hazard, or by instructing the employees to wear protective clothing
or to take certain precautionary measures.
People other than employees must also be protected from hazards to health and safety arising
from or in connection with the activities of people at work and this is addressed in the Major
Hazard Installation Regulations promulgated in Government Notice R 60 of 16 January 1998.

The Regulations promulgated under the (now repealed) Machinery and Occupational Safety Act 6
of 1983 and contained in Government Notice No R 2281 of 16 October 1987, are still valid and
contain requirements regulating temperature, lighting, ventilation, noise and fire precautions at the
workplace.
1.3.7

National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998

The Act is based on certain rights enshrined in the Constitution, sustainable development and a
number of National Environmental Management Principles, for example:

Environmental management must place people and their needs at the forefront of its
concern and must serve their physical, psychological, developmental, cultural and social
interests equitably.

Development must be socially, environmentally and economically sustainable.

Sustainable development requires that pollution and degradation of the environment are
avoided, minimised or remedied.

Waste must be avoided, minimised and re-used or recycled where possible or disposed of
in a responsible manner.

A risk-averse and cautious approach must be adopted, which takes into account the limits
of current knowledge about the consequences of decisions and actions.

Negative impacts on the environment and on peoples environmental rights must be

anticipated and prevented, or minimised and remedied.

Responsibility for the environmental health and safety consequences of a policy,

programme, project, product, process, service or activity must exist throughout its life
cycle.

Workers have the right to refuse work that is harmful to human health or the environment
and to be informed of hazards which must be respected and avoided.

Decisions must be taken in an open and transparent manner, and access to information
must be provided in accordance with the law.

Global and international responsibilities relating to the environment must be discharged in

the national interest.

The costs of remedying pollution, environmental degradation and consequent adverse

health effects and of preventing, controlling or minimising further pollution,
environmental damage or adverse health effects must be paid for by those responsible for
harming the environment.

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Integrated Environmental Management (1EM)

The general objectives of IEM are the following:

To promote the integration of the principles of environmental management into all

decision-making that might have an effect on the environment

To identify, predict and evaluate the actual and potential impact on the environment,
socio-economic conditions and cultural heritage, the risks and consequences and
alternatives and options for mitigation of activities, with a view to minimising negative
impacts, maximising benefits and promoting compliance with the principles of
environmental management

To ensure that the effect of activities on the environment receive adequate consideration
before actions are taken in connection with them

Compliance, enforcement and protection

Duty of care and remediation of environmental damage

Every person who causes, has caused or may cause significant pollution or degradation of
the environment must take reasonable measures to prevent such pollution or degradation
from occurring, continuing or recurring, or, in so far as such harm to the environment is
authorised by law or cannot reasonably be avoided or stopped, to minimise and rectify
such pollution or degradation of the environment.

Without limiting the generality of the duty given above, the persons on whom it imposes
an obligation to take reasonable measures, include an owner of land or a premises, a
person in control of land or premises, or a person who has a right to use the land or
premises on which or in which:

20 | P a g e

(i) Any activity or process is or was performed or undertaken

(ii) Any other situation exists which causes, has caused or is likely to cause
significant pollution or degradation of the environment.
The measures required in terms of the above may include measures to:

investigate, assess and evaluate the impact on the environment

inform and educate employees about the environmental risks of their work and the
manner in which their tasks must be performed in order to avoid causing significant
pollution or degradation of the environment

cease, modify or control any act, activity or process causing the pollution or degradation

contain or prevent the movement of pollutants or the cause of degradation

eliminate any source of the pollution or degradation

remedy the effects of the pollution or degradation

Should a person fail to comply with a directive from the Director General or provincial head of
department to remedy any of the above, the latter may take reasonable steps to do so and recover
all costs incurred from any or all of the following persons:

Any person who is or was responsible for, or who directly or indirectly contributed to the
pollution or degradation or the potential pollution or degradation

The owner of the land at the time when the pollution or degradation or the potential for
pollution or degradation occurred, or that owners successor in title

21 | P a g e

The person in control of the land or any person who has or had the right to use the land at
the time when:

(i) the activity or the process is or was performed or undertaken

(ii) the situation came about

Any person who negligently failed to prevent:

(i) the activity or the process being performed or undertaken
(ii) the situation from coming about

provided that such person failed to take the measures required under duty of care described
above.
Protection of workers refusing to do environmentally hazardous work
Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, no person is civilly or criminally liable or may
be dismissed, disciplined, prejudiced or harassed on account of having refused to perform any
work if the person in good faith and reasonably believed at the time of the refusal that the
performance of the work would result in an imminent and serious threat to the environment.
An employee who has refused to perform work in terms of the above must notify the employer
either personally or through a representative that he or she has refused to perform work and give
the reason for the refusal as soon as possible.
Control of emergency incidents
The term "incident refers to an unexpected sudden occurrence including a major emission, fire
or explosion leading to serious danger to the public or potentially serious pollution of or
detriment to the environment, whether immediate or delayed.
A "responsible person" includes any person who:

is responsible for the incident

owns any hazardous substance involved in the incident

22 | P a g e

was in control of any hazardous substance involved in the incident at the time the
incident occurred.

The responsible person or his or her employer must report the following immediately after he or
she is informed of the incident:

The nature of the incident

Any risks posed by the incident to public health, safety and property

The toxicity of substances or by-products released by the incident

Any steps that should be taken in order to avoid or minimise the effects of the incident on
public health and the environment to-

(i) the Director General

(ii) the South African Police Services and the relevant fire prevention service
(iii) the relevant provincial head of department or municipality
(iv) all persons whose health may be affected by the incident
The responsible person must do the following as soon as possible after the incident.

Contain and minimise the effects of the incident, including its effects on the environment
and any risks posed to the health, safety and property of persons

Undertake clean-up procedures

Remedy the effects of the incident

Assess the immediate and long-term effects of the incident on the environment and
public health

Within 14 days of the incident, the responsible person must report to the Director General,
provincial head of department and municipality any information which is available to enable an
initial evaluation of the incident, including:

the nature of the incident

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the substances involved and an estimate of the quantity released and their possible acute
effect on persons and the environment and data needed to assess these effects

24 | P a g e

initial measures taken to minimise impacts

causes of the incident

measures taken and to be taken to avoid a recurrence of such incident

Criminal proceedings

Whenever any manager, agent or employee performs or omits to perform an act which was his or
her task to do or to refrain from doing on behalf of the employer and which would be an offence
under any provision listed in Schedule 3, and the act or omission of the manager, agent or
employee occurred because the employer failed to take all reasonable steps to prevent the act or
omission in question, then the employer shall be guilty of the offence
Whenever any manager, agent or employee performs or omits to perform an act which was his or
her task to do or refrain from doing on behalf of the employer and which would be an offence
under any provision of Schedule 3, he or she is liable to be convicted and sentenced as if he or
she were the employer.
Any manager, agent, employee or director may be convicted and sentenced in addition to the
employer or firm.

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SCHEDULE 3
Relevant national legislation
Act 45 of 1965 - Atmospheric Pollution Prevention-

Section 9

Act 15 of 1973 - Hazardous Substances -

Section 19 (1) (a & b)

Act 63 of 1977 - Health -

Section 27

Act 73 of 1989 - Environment Conservation

Act 36 of 1998 - National Water
Relevant provincial legislation

Section 29 (2) (a) & 4

Section 151 (i) and (j)

Ordinance No. 12 of 1983 - Transvaal Nature Conservation Sections 16A, 42, 84

96, and 98
Ordinance No. 15 of 1986 - Transvaal Town Planning and Sections 42, 93 & 115
Townships
1.3.8 Environmental conventions and protocols
(a)

Montreal Protocol
South Africa is a signatory to the Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (the socalled Montreal Protocol) and is committed to a programme of reducing certain ozone
depleting substances. Presently the impact of the protocol falls more upon producers of
ozone depleting substances than on users. As time progresses, tighter restrictions will be
placed on users of certain CFCs which will require replacement.

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(b)

Climate change
South Africa is a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, which aims to address the threat of global climate change. This urges
governments to reduce the sources of greenhouse gases to stabilise green house gas
concentrations in the atmosphere. This could prevent concentrations being reached where
interference with global climatic systems may occur.
(c) Convention On The Control Of Transboundary Movements Of Hazardous Wastes And
Their Disposal, Basel 1989.

The main function of the Basel Convention of 1989 is to limit the transboundary movement of
hazardous wastes and to regulate the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes.
(The absence of a protocol specifying the international "environmentally sound management"
rules could make the Convention less effective.)
The focus of the Convention is to prohibit the export of waste to a non-party of the Convention
or the import from a non-party. According to the Convention, the transboundary movement of
hazardous substances may only be allowed if:
(a) The exporter shows that there are good reasons why the export should be allowed. This
would be where (article 4(9)):

The state of export does not have the technical capacity and necessary facilities or
suitable disposal site to dispose of the waste in an environmentally sound and
efficient maimer.

The wastes in question are required as a raw material for recycling or recovery
industries in the state of import.

The transboundary movement in question is in accordance with other criteria to be

decided upon by the parties, provided that the criteria do not conflict with the
objectives of the Convention.

27 | P a g e

(b) The importing state is a signatory to the Convention and has not yet prohibited the import
of such wastes and has notified this prohibition with the Convention secretariat.
(c) Neither state has reason to believe that the wastes will be managed in an environmentally
unacceptable manner. (For this purpose (article 4(8)) technical guidelines for the
environmentally sound management of wastes should be decided upon by the parties. It
appears that such guidelines have not yet been agreed upon.)
(d) The procedure of prior informed consent is complied with. In this regard Article 6
mentions that the "travelling route" of the hazardous waste must have been agreed upon
in writing and consent given to the exporter by the importer and the transit states.
The fundamental definition of waste is contained in Article 2 of the Convention: "Wastes
are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or arc
required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law". "Hazardous waste" is
defined in article 1 as substances contained in Annexure 1 of the Convention and having
the characteristics as mentioned in Annexure III (e.g. flammability or infectiousness).
"Other waste" which is mentioned with hazardous waste, is defined in Annexure II as
household waste and residues arising from tire incineration of household waste.
Hazardous waste also refers to waste defined as hazardous waste by the domestic
legislation of the state of import, export or transit.
Once the transboundary movement of hazardous waste has been given the required
permission by the state of import and the states of transit, the exporter must meet further
requirements. The waste must be labelled and packaged in accordance with
internationally recognised practices (Art. 4(7)). The hazardous waste must be
accompanied by a movement document (Art 4(7)). The exporter may not transfer his
obligation (under this Convention) to the states of import or transit.
On 5 May 1994, South Africa acceded to this Convention without any reservations.

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(d)

Bio-diversity
South Africa is a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity which seeks to
promote international co-operation in conservation of biological diversity of species and
to promote the sustainable use of living, natural resources worldwide. This means that
controls will begin to tighten where biological diversity is threatened. This relates to
instances where rare or endangered species are threatened by development or where
specific areas which have been identified as sites of scientific significance or ecosystems
of significant value are being threatened by encroachment.

1.3.9

The common law concept of nuisance

The word "nuisance" is regularly mentioned in legislation, such as in the noise regulations and in
the APPA (Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act).
Nuisance is a common law term that plays a prominent role in neighbour law. As the concept of
nuisance is not defined in any of the Acts, the common law meaning of "nuisance" must be
applied. In order to do this, it is necessary to find out what it means.
What is meant by common law? It is that part of South African law (excluding any legislation
passed by the South African parliament) which is based on the Roman-Dutch law applicable in
Holland in the seventeenth century, with English law and indigenous law influencing it. The
common law can be found mainly in textbooks and case law.
Legislation and common law are both of equal standing and importance. Together they form
South African law.
Common law' generally consists of the rather unsophisticated and elementary rules of law To a
large extent legislation is passed to refine the common law, to flesh it out, to add more detail and
to provide the detail so that the application of the broad principles of the common

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law is facilitated. On considering the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, you will for realise that
it refines the principles of nuisance.
Neighbour law is based on the necessity to organise the relationship between neighbours. For
example, it may happen that one neighbour does something that in the opinion of the other person
amounts to an illegal action that is an abuse of rights and is a nuisance When deciding whether the
act is legal and acceptable or illegal and a nuisance, the following considerations must be
investigated:
1.

The benefit that the action has for the person initiating or executing it (the "acting
neighbour). It might be the profit of a gold mine or the crops of a farm.

2.

The benefit that the action has for the wider community. This may include job opportunities.

3.

The detrimental effect of the action on the one or more neighbours directly affected by the
action (the "suffering neighbour"). This could be the dust or noise emanating from the mine.

4.

The detrimental effect of the action on the many people belonging to the wider community
who are indirectly affected by the action. This includes the adverse effects of the siltation of
rivers.

5.

The area where the action is executed.

6.

The motive of the acting neighbour.

7.

Whether the detrimental effects of the action could not have been avoided by using
alternative ways to execute it.

8.

Whether the action in dispute commenced prior to or after the suffering neighbour moved to
the area.

If after the analysis of the matter according to each of these aspects it appears to be fair and just
to prohibit the action, a nuisance would be present. If an action for an interdict was instituted, the
court could then prohibit the action.

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CHAPTER 2
WASTE MANAGEMENT
PAGE
CONTENTS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
SOURCES OF WASTE
2.3
METHODS OF HANDLING WASTE
2.4
TYPES OF TOXINS AND HAZRDOUS SUBSTANCES
2.5 WAYS IN WHICH TO XINS AND HAZADOUS
WASTE ENTER THE HUMAN BODY
2.6
EXPOSURE LIMITS
2.7
SOURCES AND TYPES OF TOXICWASTES
2.8
PRE-REATMENT OF TOXIC WASTES
2.9
DISPOSAL OF TOXIC WASTE
2.10.1
2.10.2
2.10.3
2.10.4

Incineration
Solidification (encapsulation)
Composting
Land filling

2.10 METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL

2.11 WASTE MANAGEMENT
2.12 WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERACHY
2.12.1
Opportunities for wastes
avoidance and minimization
2.12.2
Wastes collection and sorting
2.13 LEGISLATION
2.13.1
Environment Conservation Act 73
2.13.2
The minimum requirements for the
handling and disposal of hazardous wastes
2.13.3
Hazardous substances Act 15 of 1973
2.13.4
Minerals Act 15 of 1991

47

31
31
34
36
37
38
40
41
40
47
49
49
51
52
53
53
53
54

55
56
65
71

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2.1.

INTRODUCTION

Management of waste is covered in Chapter 19 of the textbook by Fuggle and Rabie.

Waste management implies dealing with waste in an environmentally responsible way from its
generation until it is finally disposed of. This puts the onus on everyone to prioritise waste
minimisation, treatment and recycling and final disposal.
Human production and consumption touches the lives of all people. Everybody generates waste
to some extent, generally without thinking about it, where it will end up and what effect it will
have.
At every stage in the production or manufacturing of goods we use daily, waste is produced. The
production, packaging and consumption of our food generates waste. Every year South Africas
towns and cities generate over 24 million tons of waste which works out at approximately a ton of
waste for every person living in the country. In addition, mining and industry produce over 400
million tons of waste per year.
Wc all produce waste and we need to recognise that we are responsible not only for the waste we
dispose of, but also for the waste resulting from the production of things we use.
The fertility of our soil has always been an important symbol of life to people in South Africa.
The land serves as the source of most of our food and the raw materials used in industry to
produce consumer goods. Some of the raw materials we use can be referred to as renewable
resources and include plant and animal products that either reproduce themselves naturally or can
be farmed. Their reproduction is dependent on the quality of the soil and any pollution has a
negative effect on their growth.
The land is also the source of the wide range of non-renewable resources used by industries and
includes minerals and metal ores.

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The Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989 defines waste as any matter, gaseous, liquid or
solid or any combination of these which is identified by the Minister as an undesirable or
superfluous by-product, emission, residue or remainder of any process or activity from time

During the pre-colonial and early colonial societies in South Africa, the nature and level of
production meant that wastes were biodegradable and could be recycled by natural processes
Waste consisted of organic human and animal waste and crop residues. With the low population
levels and simple needs, natural processes could recycle the waste that was produced. Since the
industrial revolution this has changed. The enormous growth of the mining industry with the
associated metallurgical and mineral refining industries meant a large increase in the volume of
wastes and the production of many synthetic and natural toxic waste materials. Natural processes
cannot recycle some of these, while others can only be recycled with difficulty over long periods.
These wastes pollute our environment and threat

Waste can be classified according to its source as follows:

Mainly waste originating in households; includes paper, food scraps, glass, used

Waste from gardens, parks, sidewalks and building activities. This includes branches,

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Commercial waste
Waste from shops, offices, hotels and restaurants. Consists mainly of large quantities of
paper and other packing material.

Industrial waste
The residue originating from production processes at industries and refineries. Can be
classified according to its physical, chemical and biological properties as hazardous and
non-hazardous waste.

Agricultural and forestry

waste

Waste from agricultural

and

forestry activities, for example dung, stalks, hay, chaff,

branches and sawdust.

Mineral waste
Large quantities are generated annually, mainly in the gold and coal mining industries.
The generation of power and the production of fuel from coal are also responsible for
mineral waste.

All waste is part of what can be referred to as the waste stream. There are many sources that feed
the waste stream and these consist of the formal and informal waste stream. The formal w aste
stream consists of all the waste that follows a recognised path of disposal. The formal waste
stream can be identified and controlled although it might involve making difficult decisions,
The informal waste stream (waste that does not follow a recognised disposal path) is more
difficult and expensive to control.
Sources of informal waste include:

Litter

Human waste in areas without sanitation

Illegal dumping of industrial and household waste

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Waste is the root cause of pollution and it is therefore necessary to control waste in order to
control pollution.

2.3.

METHODS OF HANDLING WASTE

Collection (Chapter 19.5 Fugglc and Rabie)

Waste matter is normally placed in drums, plastic bags and other containers. These
containers arc usually found at places of waste generation and are collected using
vehicles. Sometimes waste is gathered at central transfer stations from where it is taken to
the relevant waste disposal site.

Transport (Chapter 19.6 Fuggle and Rabie)

Transport takes place between places of waste generation and disposal and is frequently
undertaken using special trucks. Specific legal measures apply during the transport of
hazardous waste.

Recycling (Chapter 19.7.2.3 Fuggle and Rabie)

This is the cyclic process during which waste, such as bottles, paper and aluminium cans,
is salvaged and re-used.

Treatment
Hazardous waste is treated using different chemical and physical processes to bring
properties such as toxicity, reactivity, pathogenicity, corrosivity, flammability and
pollution potential within acceptable limits before disposal.

Storage
Short term storage involves the storage of waste in containers (drums, bins, plastic bags,
etc.) before it is removed.
Long term storage involves the storage of hazardous waste, especially radio active waste,
for decades or even centuries until effective treatment/recycling/disposal

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methods have been developed. Mineral waste such as pulverised fuel ash,
phosphogypsum, waste from mining activities etc. is also stored for long periods.

Disposal (Chapter 19.7.2 Fuggle and Rabie)

Open dumping refers to waste dumped on a site not suitable as a waste disposal site, with
no compaction or covering of the waste.
Sanitary land filling/land building refers to waste dumped in layers on a specially
prepared disposal site, compacted and covered daily with suitable material such as soil.
After these sites are closed down, they can be used as sports fields, parking areas, etc.
Encapsulation involves hazardous, non-biodegradable waste being encapsulated in
reinforced concrete capsules at a suitable waste disposal site.

Other methods
Co disposal is the collective disposal of liquid and solid waste to maintain an acceptable
balance in a waste disposal site.

Waste is considered hazardous if it exhibits one or more of these characteristics ignitability,

corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.
Ignitahilitv: Characteristic of liquid substances whose vapours are likely to ignite in the presence
of ignition sources, non-liquids that may catch fire from friction or contact with water and which
bum vigorously and ignitable compressed gasses and oxidisers. Examples arc solvents that readily
catch fire and substances which are sensitive to friction.
Corrosivity:

Characteristic of substances that exhibit extreme acidity or basicity or the

tendency to corrode steel.

Reactivity: Violent chemical changes under normal conditions.

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Many hazardous compounds are less harmful when diluted.

Toxins are substances that harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed. T hey may be general
poisons that kill a wide range of cells or specific poisons that only kill one kind of cell or cellular
component. They are often harmful even when diluted.
Toxic and hazardous wastes have a wide range of impacts on human health. Some act quickly
like the ncurotoxins which attack human nerve cells and others such as the carcinogens may take
years to affect a human. The cruelest agents are those that cause

2.4.

TYPES OF TOXINS AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

Asphixiants: These are gaseous chemicals that enter the lungs and prevent the absorption of
oxygen by the body'. Some gases arc only dangerous in enclosed spaces and these include
nitrogen oxide, methane and carbon dioxide. Other gases are toxic even in low concentrations and
include carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide.
Neurotoxins: These are mostly fast-acting and highly toxic chemicals that attack nerve cells. This
group includes most of the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT, dicldrin and aldrin and
organophosphate pesticides such as Malathion and Parathion as well as heavy metals

Fihrotic agents:

Irritants that damage lung tissue when particles are inhaled, some are

carcinogenic and include silica, asbestos and cotton fibers.

Carcinogens: These are substances that cause cancer and include chemical agents and radiation.
They can enter the body through the skin, in food, in water or air. They take time to develop and
are more common in the aging populations of developed countries.
Teratogens: These are substances that cause abnormalities in embryos by crossing the placental
barrier and include chemical agents and radiation. Thalidomide was a drug used to

37 | P a g e

prevent morning sickness in pregnant women and caused serious birth defects in babies. It is safe
for adults but not for foetuses.
Allergens: These are immune system activators that sensitize people to a wide range of other
substances. They are generally inhaled or ingested but can also affect people on contact.
Mutagens:

Agents that damage genetic material and reproductive cells resulting in

abnormalities and include chemical agents and radiation. Any level of exposure to a mutagen is
dangerous.
Irritants: These are agents such as strong acids and alkalis that damage tissue on contact. They
can affect the skin or lining of lungs and stomach. Irritants can also include chlorine, chlorides and
dioxins.

2.5 WAYS IN WHICH TOXINS AND HAZARDOUS WASTE ENTER

THE HUMAN BODY
Toxins can enter our bodies in the food we eat and the liquid we drink. Some can also pass
through our skins. Some of the ways in which toxins affect us are discussed below.
Bio-accumulation: The cells of the human body have the ability to store certain substances. In
this way small amounts of toxins can accumulate over time until they reach dangerous levels,
Bio-magnification:

This occurs when toxins accumulate through the food chain. For

example, small fish eat lot of plankton containing small mounts of toxins, bigger fish eat the
small fish and humans catch the big fish and eat them. The higher you are in the food chain the
greater the effect of bio-magnification has on you.
Persistence: Some chemicals degrade very quickly in the environment and others remain active
for a long time. For example, DDT is an insecticide which remains active for a very long time.

38 | P a g e

The human skin and the lining of the gastro-intestinal tract can replace damaged cells rapidly.
There is a danger of error, which is evident in scarring, as well as a risk of cancers with every
replacement.
We excrete some toxins through breathing, perspiration and urination. Repeated exposure can
cause diseases and tumours in the digestive tract and in other organs involved.

2.6

EXPOSURE LIMITS

A major issue facing everyone engaged in developing policies with respect to hazardous and toxic
substances is the setting of standards for permitted levels of exposure to pollutants.
Most people are prepared to accept a higher level of exposure to low-level risks. For activities
that people enjoy or find profitable they may be prepared to accept a higher level of risk than they
normally would. On the other hand, if someone else derives some benefit from the risk that we are
exposed to without benefit, we are likely to demand a higher level of protection.
It is often very difficult to isolate the risk associated with exposure from the many other risks a
person is exposed to in setting standards.
For scientists it is usually far easier to identify risks associated with short-term high levels of
exposure (acute) than those associated with long-term low level exposure (chronic).

2.7

SOURCES AND TYPES OF TOXIC WASTES

Domestic waste water: Contains ammoniacal nitrogen in concentrations up to 50 mg/1 and in

septic conditions may contain sulphide at levels up to 50 mg/1. Both can cause damage to aquatic
fauna unless diluted and dispersed.

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Stormwater: Its composition is more varied than domestic waste water and is influenced by the
nature of the drainage area and the frequency of storms. The toxic potential is associated with
heavy metals such as zinc and lead and is mostly found in the first flush of a storm.
Agriculture waste: Contains a wide variety of materials that are used for fertilisers and pest
control. Fertilisers containing oxidised nitrogen can cause human toxicological problems.
Pesticides and herbicides are the most potent aquatic toxins. Due to its toxicity and persistence in
the environment, eldrin was prohibited.
Leachates: A wide range of toxic substances can leach out of sites used for dumping solid wastes,
particularly if surface water or ground water can access it.
Industrial wastes: The main types of toxic industrial waste and the toxins it contains are listed in
table 1.

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Table I: Sources of common toxins

Toxin
Acids - pH < 6 mainly inorganic but with
some organic acids

Sources
Acid manufacturing, battery
manufacturing, chemical industry and steel
industry

Alkalis - pH > 9

Brewery waste, chemical industry, textile

manufacturing

Ammoniacal nitrogen
Chromium - mainly hexavalent

2.8

Fertiliser manufacturing and rubber

industry'
Metal processing

Cyanide

Gold mining

Detergents

Detergent manufacturing and laundries

I lerbicides and pesticides

Chemical industry

Metals - mainly copper, cadmium,

Metal processing

cobalt, lead, nickel and zinc

Metal plating

Phenols

Oil refining and wood preserving

Solvents - mostly benzene, acetone,

Chemical industry

carbon tetrachloride and alcohols

Pharmaceutical industry

PRE-TREATMENT OF TOXIC WASTES

The following should be considered when deciding whether toxic wastes should be pre treat ed:
=> Availability of space - site may be too restricted or the land too valuable to be used as a
treatment plant.
=> Availability of expertise - the company may not want to get involved in waste treatment.
=> Sludge and/or odour production might create a nuisance.

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=> Possibility for the introduction of clean technologies.

If a decision is made to carry out the pre-treatment of toxic waste by chemical or biological
methods, it is still useful to install devices to improve the quality of the process. These may
include coarse or fine screening to reduce solids as well as some form of control to reduce
variations in concentration, flow and pi I.
Further attempts should be made to minimise the quantity of material discharged through
housekeeping by using the following techniques:

The life of process solutions can be extended by filtration, topping up and adsorption

Production process can be altered by using less toxic compounds, e.g. substitute copper
pyrophosphate for copper cyanide in electroplating industry

Evaporation of organic liquors by incineration

After minimising the types, quantities and concentrations of any toxic substances, it may still be
necessary to treat them before disposal. The processes used are classified as physical, biological
and chemical. The physical processes are summarised in Table 2.

Biological processes arc either aerobic or anaerobic. The latter has proved to be particularly
popular for the treatment of high strength industrial waste. Due to the fact that aerobic and

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anaerobic processes utilise different types of bacteria, a waste that is toxic for aerobic organisms
may not have the same effect on anaerohic organisms.
Chemical treatment of industrial waste may be used in addition to biological treatment. Chemical
treatment is mainly used for oxidising particular compounds, pH correction and improving the
removal of solids. The commonly used chemicals are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Chemicals used in industrial waste treatment
Chemical
Purpose
Calcium hydroxide
pH adjustment, precipitation of metals and
to assist sedimentation.
Sodium hydroxide
Used mainly for pH adjustment instead of
lime
Sodium carbonate
pH adjustment and precipitation of metals
with soluble hydroxide
Carbon dioxide
pH adjustment
Aluminium sulphate
Separation of solids
Ferrous sulphate
Separation of solids
Chlorine
Oxidation

2.9

DISPOSAL OF TOXIC WASTE

Ultimately toxic wastes have to be disposed of and this disposal should be done in a manner that
does not present a short- or long-term hazard to people or the environment Some hazardous
wastes may be rendered innocuous by treatment prior to disposal.
Handling hazardous and toxic waste presents a multitude of problems, the greatest of which is
know ing exactly what one is dealing with.
Internationally there are many ways of labelling and identifying toxic and hazardous goods, but
all assume that products are pure and that they are not mixtures or diluted compounds, which tend
to be found in waste. Furthermore, no scheme exists which addresses the odorous nature of w
aste.
An important criterion when devising methods of waste disposal was that they had to be easily
understood by everyone involved in the transportation, treatment and disposal of

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hazardous waste. The following four parameters were considered adequate to cover the hazards
associated with waste:
1.

Flammability

2.

Reactivity

3.

Odour

4.

Toxicity

[hence F.R.O.T.] explainFROTsystem here

When combined withAppendix

1 of the

well-known International Maritime Dangerous

Goods Code (IMDG) the FROT No. not only provides the actual chemical type, but an indication
of its concentration and the actual hazards associated with that concentration. This is achieved by
rating each parameter from 0 to 3 as follows:
1 None
2 - Low
3 - Medium
4 - High
-

Thus the FROT No. would give a four number code, for example:
3333 where the first digt designates Flammability, the second Reactivity, the third
Odour and the last Toxicity
or

3102

or

1123 etc.

Obviously the lower the numbers the less the hazard, for example normal builders rubble would
be 0000. Any waste assigned a rating of 3 could be considered hazardous, but three ratings of 3
would indicate a highly dangerous waste. A more detailed description of the numbers and their
meaning is given in the following sections.

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Flammability
The knowledge of a wastes flammability (and/or potential flammability) is essential to the
handling and disposal of that waste.
Thus:
1

- Low:

Not flammable
Potential to bum, may contain trace amounts of
solvents, or flash point above 100C.

Medium:

Flash point 60 - 100C or confirmed low

concentration of highly flammable solvents.

High:

Flash point below 60C.

When assigning ratings to waste, one should bear in mind many wastes are potentially
flammable, i.e. they may bum. For example, damp domestic waste which has been known to
spontaneously combust under certain conditions and should be given a rating of 1. Oil and water
mixtures would normally have a rating of 1, but paint sludge may require a rating of 2
Reactivity
This encompasses properties such as corrosivity, oxidation or reducing and acid or alkaline
mixtures. One should also consider the incompatibility of the different chemicals in the storage
container.
Thus:
1

- None Neutral pH (6 to 8)
No known incompatibility

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All chemical reactions non-exothermic, non-corrosive

2

- Low

pH 4 to 6 or 8 to 10
Very dilute solutions of reactive chemicals, only very slightly
corrosive

- Medium

pH 2 to 4 or 10 to 12
These may be known corrosives (e.g. mild steel) or redox chemicals in
sufficiently high concentrations to cause a noticeable reaction

- High

pH 0 to 2 or 12 to 14
Concentrated solutions of reactive chemicals Corrosive to stainless steel

Of all the groups this is the one that requires a reasonable knowledge of chemistry to correctly
assign the ratings. Labelling a chemical "reactive" needs a understanding of what it reacts with,
and whether that reaction creates a potential hazard.
Certain redox chemicals are far more reactive than others at equivalent concentrations and this
must be taken into account when deciding on the rating to be assigned.
Corrosivity covers a wide range of reactions, and not just liquid/metal. For instance, toluene is a
powerful solvent and can be considered highly corrosive to a rubber-lined tank. Certain chemicals
may also be corrosive to manmade fibres, but not harmful to human skin. Such a case would
warrant a rating of 1. However, a powerful degreaser would certainly warrant a rating of 2.
Odour
Smell is a very personal thing, and what one person finds offensive, may be much less effective
to someone else. When one considers assigning ratings one must consider what the general public
thinks and not the people who handle such products on a daily basis.

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- None:

Very few wastes would

fall into this group

- Slight:

- Moderate: Moderate offensive odour or strongly unpleasant odour

- Strong:

Moderatenon-offensive odour or slightly offensive

A highly offensive odour

The following are examples of odours and their ratings:

1

Rubble, soil

Householdgarbage, fruit waste

- Solvents, sewage, redundant perfumes

- Abattoir waste, chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide

Odour is the way the public perceives waste disposal operations and the general opinion is "if it
smells, it is toxic" and therefore the correct rating is of great importance.
Toxicity
The toxic rating of substances must take into account not only humans, but must encompass
every part of the environment from aquatic life to vegetation to animals. One must also consider
possible bioaccumulation.
1

None:

No known harmful or toxic effects

Slight:No medium to long-term effects from exposure to people or the

environment

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Moderate:

Known toxic effects from exposure, can cause permanent

damage to the environment, contains low concentrations of highly
toxic materials

High:

Highly toxic material at concentrations known to cause

permanent injury or death. A substance of great environmental
concern

There are several substances which due to their high reactivity must also be regarded as highly
toxic. For example, bromine gas, white phosphorous, chromic acid aqua regia, concentrated
bleach and this must be taken into account when assigning ratings.
Landfill leachate would rate 3 because of its environmental effect. Mercury, PCBs, DDT etc.,
will rale no lower than 2 even if it is found in only trace amounts because of the bioaccumulation
problem.

2.10 METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL

2.10.1 Incineration
(Chapter 19.7.2 Fuggle and Rabie)
Incineration is frequently used for decomposition of organic toxins. Incineration or burning is
widely used to reduce the volume and weight of solid wastes, typically reducing waste volume by
90 % and mass by approximately 70 % and makes it lighter and less bulky to transport and
landfill. Waste incinerators must operate at very high temperatures (above 1 500C) and the
combustion gases pass through a boiler system to recover energy. The gases are cleaned prior to
discharge into the atmosphere.
Gas cleaning strategies are aimed at removing the following components from the gas stream:
Acid gases such as nitrogen and sulphur oxides and hydrogen chloride. A variety of wet
scrubbing systems can be used.

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Particulate matter associated with trace metals. Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and
baghouse filters are used for this purpose.

Organic micropollutants such as dioxins and furans - control of these emissions can be
achieved by control of combustion conditions, as well as using activated carbon or other
absorbents.

Reduction of emissions of metals such as mercury and cadmium.

The incinerator ash may still contain toxic heavy metal residues and must be disposed of in a
hazardous waste disposal site.
Environmental Considerations
The following must be controlled when incinerating waste:

Dust and odour from waste handling and storage

Ash management (grate ash and flyash from gas cleaning system)

Atmospheric emissions from stack

The following measures can control the potential effects of dust and odour from waste handling:

Location of waste unloading within a building and the use of water sprays to suppress
dust
Extraction of air above storage bunker for use as combustion air in incinerator

The toxic wastes that give rise to the most serious problems are metallic waste and radioactive
waste. These types of waste have common characteristics in that they contain hazardous elements
which cannot be broken down for a very long time. They should be replaced with less toxic
substances.

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2.10.2 Solidification (encapsulation)

(Chapter 19.7.2.2 Fuggle and Rabie)

2.10.3

Composting

Another way of disposing of solid waste is by composting.

In South Africa most organic waste that can be used in composting is landfilled because it is
mixed with general waste from residences, offices and industries. Many foreign countries require
people to separate the organic waste from other waste so that it can be used for composting.
Composting is essentially the controlled aerobic decomposition of putrescible material. The
methods of aeration, windowing (mechanical or manual turning of the material) and forced
aeration of the static pile are the most common methods used. The process of composting is
essentially the breaking down of putrescible material by micro-organisms in a series of distinct
stages.

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These stages are as follows:

In the first stage or mesophilic stage, micro-organisms begin to break down the organic
material. The temperature of the material rises to about 50C.

During the second, or thermophylic stage, temperatures rise and only temperature
resistant organisms survive. The micro-organism population decreases, the material cools
and anaerobic conditions develop unless sufficient air is introduced.

In the third stage the material cools and micro-organisms compete for the remaining
organic material leading to the breakdown of cellulose and lignin in the waste

During the final maturation stage, levels of microbial activity continue to decrease as the
remaining organic material is broken down and the micro-organisms die off.

Maintaining the correct balance of oxygen and temperature is essential for the successful
degradation of organic waste. If the process becomes anaerobic, odour problems can be severe
and microbial activity may cease. Electronic sensors can be used to monitor the temperature and
moisture content.
The following environmental considerations must be kept in mind when composting:

Fugitive emissions of dust may arise from wind dispersal of waste feedstock

Odour, arising from trace organics produced in anaerobic conditions

Leachate generation due to the moisture requirement in composting may lead to excess
water and run-off from the composting pile

Dust and odour from waste material preparation can be minimised by enclosing the operation,
and by locating the process within a building with a ventilation system.
These techniques play a very important role in reducing the final volume of w-aste that is
landfilled.
At the moment more than 95 % of all solid w aste ends up in landfill sites.

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Landfills range from holes in the ground to carefully prepared and monitored sites for hazardous
waste. A major cause of concern is that hazardous waste ends up on municipal waste dumps.
Hazardous substances include solvents, pesticides, motor oils and hydraulic oils arc mixed with
household, office and industrial waste.

2.10.4 Landfilling
(Chapter 19.8 Fuggle and Rabie)
Landfills are the final destination of the residues from incineration and other treatment and
processing options. They are unavoidable even if waste is recycled or recovered. The challenge is
to design and manage the process of landfilling in a sustainable way so that there is not a longterm potential for environmental damage.
The process of landfilling consists of waste preparation (shredding, compaction, etc.), waste
placement (involving deposition, compaction and covering of the waste in the landfill) and finally
the landfill completion when the completed landfill site is capped with a low permeability layer to
minimise the infiltration of rainwater and is covered with soil to return the area to the surrounding
landscape.
Within the landfill, constituents of the waste undergo biodegradation and stabilisation. The
infiltration of rainwater and surface water into the waste mass, together with biochemical and
physical breakdown, produces a leachate. The leachate contains soluble components of the waste.
llie breakdown products also include "landfill gas" which can be used for its energy content. The
gas typically consists of 50 - 70 % methane and 30 - 50 % carbon dioxide with traces of nitrogen,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.
Environmental considerations:
Leachate: Escape of leachate due to failures of landfill caps, covers and liners can contaminate
water resources.

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l andfill gas: Can cause damage to vegetation and is an explosive hazard. Methane and

carbon dioxide are greenhouse gases.

l itter, vermin and noise: Nuisance aspects of landfills and their operation are the most
intrusive in terms of disturbance and disruption to the surrounding population.

2.11 WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management implies a approach whereby waste is dealt with in an environmentally
responsible way from its generation cycle to treatment and disposal.
Waste management is regulated by the Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989. In addition to
designating certain materials as waste materials, the Minister issued regulations on the
management of waste disposal sites in Government Notice R1196 of 8 July 1994.
In 1994 the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism published a draft policy on
hazardous waste management in South Africa. The classification of hazardous waste contained in
the draft is a modification of the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code).
This code approximates the classification of hazardous waste in the Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 22 March 1989 (Basel
Convention).
The classification of hazardous and toxic wastes according to the IMDG code is shown in
Anncxure 1 to this chapter. The code consists of nine classes of compounds, some individually
named. However, no provision is made for mixed wastes because you normally name the class of
greater hazard within the waste. There is also no indication of the concentration of the waste.
The waste management provisions in the Environment Conservation Act are administered and
regulated by the Department of Water Affairs by means of a permit system as specified in Section
20 of the Act.

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An effective waste management strategy is absolutely essential for our economy unless we want
to see our own and future generations being exposed to a wide range of harmful and potentially
hazardous substances. So far it has mainly focused on disposal without attempting to minimise
waste production at the source. The strategy assumed that waste can be emitted into the air and
water is biodegradable in the soil to levels that pose no danger to human health. It should be
enforced in a holistic way, with the aim of arriving at the best practical environmentally
acceptable option.

2.12

WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

The options for waste management are usually arranged in a hierarchical manner to reflect their
desirability. The first priority is waste avoidance, that is not producing waste in the first place. If
waste has to be produced, quantities should be minimised. Once that has been achieved, the next
priority should be to maximise the recovery, reuse and recycling of suitable waste materials.
After the possibilities of waste prevention have been exhausted, the next priority should be to
reduce the volume of residual waste being passed on for final disposal. Resources should be
extracted in the form of products or energy.
2.12.1 Opportunities for waste avoidance and minimisation
The following are possible ways of waste minimisation:

Manufacturers and companies could produce products which last longer and require less
maintenance

Manufacturing processes could use less toxic substitutes and recycle materials

Proper operating procedures and regular maintenance would also reduce wastage and
other emissions

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A prerequisite for the cost effective reuse and/or recycling of valuable components is that these
materials be separated from the bulk waste. Paper, glass and different metals should all

The legal situation with regard to waste management at industrial premises is complex, because
more than one Act and one set of regulations are involved. The Environment Conservation Act 73
of 1989, the Hazardous Substances Act 15 of 1973 and the regulations they contain, as well as the
Minimum Requirements for the Handling and Disposal of Hazardous Waste and the Minerals Act
50 of 1991 are relevant. The Asbestos Regulations published as Notice No R 773 in the
Government Gazette of 10 April 1987 are deemed to have been made in terms of the Occupational
Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993.
2.13.1 Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989
Section 20 of this Act reads: "Waste management. No person shall establish, provide or operate
any disposal site without a permit issued by the Minister of Water Affairs ..." This means that
disposal sites are opened, run and closed under the auspices of the Department of Water Affairs.
This section is the only one in any Act which deals with the establishment of

The word "waste" is defined in section 1 as "any matter, whether gaseous, liquid or solid or any
combination thereof, which is from time to time designated by the Minister by notice in the
Gazette as an undesirable or superfluous by-product, emission, residue or remainder of

Such a designation was done in some detail in the Government Gazette No 12703, Notice No

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In this notice, the definition of waste (as contained in section 1 of the Environment Conservation
Act) is extended to include "any matter, gaseous, liquid or solid or any combination thereof,
originating from any residential, commercial or industrial area, which (a)

is discarded by any person

(b) is accumulated and stored by any person with the purpose of eventually discarding it with
or without prior treatment connected with the discarding thereof
(c) is stored by any person with the purpose of recycling, re-using or extracting a usable
product from such matter.

The exclusions from this definition of waste are very important, because they show how the
different Acts and their respective regulations are interrelated. The text of the notice reads further:
"... excluding (i) water used for industrial purposes or any effluent produced by or resulting from such use
which is discharged in compliance with the provisions of section 21(1) of the Water Act,
1956 ...;
(ii)

any matter discharged into a septic tank or french drain sewerage system;

(iii)
building rubble used for filling or levelling purposes;
(iv) ...
(v) any minerals, tailings, waste-rock or slimes produced by or resulting from activities at a
mine or works as defined in section 1 of the Mines and Works Act, 1956;..."
The Mines and Works Act 27 of 1956 has been repealed by the Minerals Act 50 of 1991.
The Water Act 54 of 1956 has also been repeated and has been replaced by the National Water
Act 36 of 1998. These Acts should therefore be referred to in conjunction with the Notice.

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The Notice contains no further requirements.

In contrast, section 24 of the Environment Conservation Act provides that all waste removal,
handling and storage, utilisation of waste by recovery, re-use and re-cycling is under the control
of the Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism, as long as it has not passed the entrance
gate to the disposal site. As soon as this happens, the Department of Water Affairs becomes the
governing body.
The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism has the duty to develop a policy for
Integrated Waste Management. Since the two Departments' functions concerning waste
management and disposal are so interrelated, it was advisable for them to co-operate and co ordinate their functions as far as possible. The Departments did this when they compiled the
Discussion Document towards a White Paper on Integrated Pollution Control and Waste
Management in May 1997. It contains several useful principles such as the Establishment of a
Pollution and Waste Information Management System.
A document entitled The Minimum Requirements for the handling and Disposal of Hazardous
Waste was compiled by the Department of Water Affairs. They contain the detailed procedures to
be used when dealing with hazardous waste. Although this document was prepared as a result of
the requirements of the Environment Conservation Act, it is such a comprehensive document that
it will deal as a separate piece of legislation.
2.13.2 The Minimum Requirements for the Handling and Disposal of Hazardous Waste
These are minimum administrative requirements and if waste producers wish to follow' a more
stringent management procedure, they are encouraged to do so.
The Minimum Requirements are not legislation, they are guidelines. Minimum Requirements
published by these departments must be applied unless there is good reason not to do so. The
Department of Water Affairs compiled these Minimum Requirements in its capacity as supervisor
of disposal sites, because it has an interest in receiving waste which is classified and packed in a
certain manner so that the disposal at the disposal site is simplified.

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Interim storage of hazardous waste might cause water pollution if no requirements for handling
and storage exist.
Enforcement of the Requirements is made possible by the "prevention of water pollution"
sections under the Water Act as the Minister may initiate steps to prevent the pollution of water
through hazardous wastes and can recover the costs of this action from the polluter. Similarly, the
Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, local authority or government institution
concerned may take preventative action under section 31A of the Environment Conservation Act
and recover the costs from the polluter.
Section 1:

Minimum requirements

Section 1 contains the background to the document. It lists the source of the Department's
mandate to compile this document, as well as several important principles which the Department
acknowledges. They are the duty of care" (the w'aste generator remains legally responsible for
the fate of the waste generated and its disposal) as well as the "polluter pays" principle. The
generator of waste retains the ultimate financial responsibility for ensuring that the waste is
handled, stored, transported and disposed of according to the legislation and in an
environmentally sound and acceptable manner.
Another principle is the so-called "ladder approach" to waste management which states that
waste should be managed in the following sequence: waste should be prevented by waste
avoidance and minimisation during the generation process; waste should be recycled; waste
should be treated in order to reduce toxicity and to minimise the quantities of waste; waste
disposal is the last step on the ladder and involves the incineration, destruction or landfilling of
waste.
The "Best Practical Environmental Option" (BPEO) approach is recommended. This is a different
concept from that of "Best Practicable Means" as promulgated in the Atmospheric Pollution
Prevention Act 45 of 1965. From the definition of BPEO on page 4 of the document, it appears
that the public are more involved. A more holistic approach is followed because emphasis is not
only placed on the specific location where the proposed activity is to

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take place, but on the environment as a whole. The introduction of the "precautionary principle"
to the Minimum Requirements is also very important.
"The precautionary principle assumes that a waste or an identified component of the waste is both
highly hazardous and toxic until proven otherwise. Since the legislation is more strict for highly
hazardous and toxic materials and the costs for their treatment and disposal are consequently
higher than for wastes of low hazard, it is obviously in the Generator's interest to obtain the
necessary information to prove that the material or waste product is in a lower hazard class. It
must be emphasized that the burden of preof is on the Generator of waste."
Section 2:

Hazardous waste management -an overview

Section 2 contains another description of waste:

"(Waste is):
Any material, whether solid, liquid or gaseous which is:
(i) to be discarded, discharged or emitted in any form, with or without means of control,
treatment, reduction or compositional change
(ii) no longer to be used for its original purpose and which is likely to be stored or
accumulated for three months or longer, with or without the eventual intention of its being
treated, disposed of, discharged or emitted
(iii) sent off site for re-use, recycling, re-generation, alienating, treatment or disposal, or for
processing so as to produce other re-usable, recyclable, or disposable substances."
Section 2 contains the following description of hazardous w raste: "Hazardous waste will be taken,
for South African purposes, to be any waste that directly or indirectly represents a threat to human
health or to the environment by introducing one or more of the following risks:

explosion or fire

infections, pathogens, parasites, or their vectors

chemical instability, reactions or corrosions

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acute or chronic toxicity

cancer, mutations or birth defects

toxicity, or damage to the ecosystems or natural resources

accumulation in biological food chains, persistence in the environment, or multiple effects"

The compilers of the Requirements comment correctly, "The basic definition that identifies a
waste as hazardous therefore hinges on whether the waste material could cause danger to humans
or to the environment. This is a very broad definition since wastes vary substantially in nature,
composition, size, volume, appearance and degree of hartnfulness. Waste must therefore be
analyzed for all hazardous components and classified according to the classification system, to
distinguish those wastes that are harmless or only slightly hazardous from those which might be
harmful or extremely hazardous".
The classification process involves five steps.
First, the waste is identified as a probable hazardous waste. This must obviously be done with
reference to its properties, processes used on the material before it became waste, and groups of
industries. The Hazardous Substances Act is a very useful indicator of whether the waste in
question is a hazardous waste.
The statement that wastes which might be hazardous in terms of the definition in the
Requirements, are excluded from it if another Act deals with them is interesting. This is in
accordance with the content of Notice No 1986 (in Government Gazette No 12703, of 24 August
1990), the exceptions being the Water Act and the Nuclear Energy Act as well as the Hazardous
Substances Act (for radioactive material only). Domestic waste is also excluded from the
definition of hazardous waste.
The second test in the classification process is laboratory analysis of the waste to determine its
constituents and properties.

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The third step in the classification process is the comparison of the properties and constituents of
the waste with the list of technical names and subsidiary risks in SABS Code 0228. (The
Requirements contain the Class Definitions for SABS Code 0228). If the compound or constituent
appears in the Code, it is confirmed as a hazardous waste. If it does not appear, the waste remains
a probable hazardous waste and the Department should be approached for guidance to confirm
whether the waste is hazardous or not.
There are nine classes in the Code. The worst class is class 6. Should a waste fall into class 6
after step three has been completed, the waste will have to be hazard rated for waste disposal,
taking into account its acute and chronic toxicity and its environmental impact. This is step 4 of
the classification process. The hazard rating will determine the class of landfill required for
disposal of the waste after treatment.
The fifth step involves the possibility of "delisting" which means that generators of waste may
perform tests to prove that their wastes should be regarded as non-hazardous or of a lesser
hazardous nature, which in turn might exempt the generator from having to dispose of the waste
on a hazardous wraste site. The waste may then be disposed of on a general site equipped with a
leachate management system.
The waste will then have to be handled and transported to the relevant disposal site, in
accordance with the hazard rating requirements for transport as contained in Code 0228. A
manifest or control document accompanies each load of hazardous waste until it is legally and
responsibly disposed of. A copy of the manifest is then returned to the generator.
Section 3:

Waste minimisation options

This section addresses those options already suggested in section 1, namely recycling and re use
and the use of the latest and most efficient technology. A useful suggestion is a w raste
minimisation audit.

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Section 4: Minimum requirements for the identification of a probable hazardous waste

This section contains further detail with regard to step 1 of the classification process as outlined
in section 2. It lists the industrial groups, processes and waste stream
It reiterates the precautionary principle.
It states that all manufacturers and institutions practising any of the processes or services and
activities listed in Diagram I or any similar activity, are required to register with a government
institution and to provide all the details required in terms of the registration procedure. This is a
useful and innovative proposal. Unfortunately the registration process is not yet operative.
Section 5:

Minimum requirements for tests and analyses

This section also points out the need for record-keeping and the accreditation of laboratories.
Section 6:

Minimum requirements for classification

The information in this section is vital to the person responsible for waste classification since it
explains steps 3 and 4 of the classification procedure in great detail.
Section 7:

Minimum requirements for treatment and disposal

This section is just as vital information as section 6 and should be incorporated into this Register.
It deals with the various methods of treatment of waste before disposal, as well as the correct
method of disposal.

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Section 8:

Hazardous waste treatment technologies

This section also contains vital information necessary for the execution of the pre-disposal
treatment as mentioned in section 7 above.
Section 9:

Site preparation

Section 10:

Waste handling, storage and transportation

The following principles are important:

10.2

Collection and

storage 10.2.1
Collection
It is essential that all wastes should be collected at the point of origin as they occur and that they
should not be allowed to lie around for any length of time. Such waste material must also not be
mixed with other wastes of a different nature or composition. Mixing could result in severe
reactions in the case of non-compatible materials and may hinder later efforts to recover or
recycle the waste material. Once the waste has been collected in a suitable container, the waste
container itself must be clearly marked before temporary storage to prevent any risk of incorrect
identification resulting in environmental pollution. Guidance regarding compatibility of materials
can be found in SABS Code 0232.
10.3

Storage

A temporary storage site requires a waterproof area that is protected from stormwater from
surrounding areas and should have an effective drainage system and spillage collection area
where any spillage can be recovered and suitably treated. This area must be clearly demarcated
and should not be accessible to unauthorised persons.

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10.4 Accumulation time

A generator of waste may accumulate the following quantities of hazardous waste on site for 90
days or less without a permit for a waste disposal site:
Extreme Hazard Group 1 = 10 kg
High Hazard Group 2 = 100 kg
Moderate Hazard Group 3 = 1000 kg
Low Hazard Group 4 = 10 000 kg
This is subject to the following conditions:

The waste is stored in such a manner that no pollution of the environment occurs at any
given time

The date upon which accumulation begins is clearly marked and visible for inspection on
each container

While being stored on site, each container and tank is labelled or marked clearly with the
words "hazardous waste"

The generator fences off the storage area to prevent unauthorised access and erects a
waterproof, durable and clearly legible noticeboard in official languages at every entrance
of the storage area with the words "Hazardous waste: unauthorised entry prohibited"

10.5

Packaging and

labelling 10.5.1
Packaging
Hazardous waste must be securely packaged during handling, storage and transport to prevent
risk to the environment. The ways of achieving this objective depend on the nature of the
material, its physical form, the quantity and on the degree of hazard of the material.

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The container must be manufactured from materials that can resist the effects of the material it
contains and must also withstand the physical methods used for handling and transportation of the
containers.
The type of packaging used is determined by a series of practical tests related to the degree of
hazard posed by the material as categorised by the three Packaging Groups 1, 2, and 3 in SABS
Code 0229. This Code is applicable to moderate quantities of material, ranging up to 450 litres in
capacity. If the waste material can be classified as explosive, flammable or radioactive, further
regulations apply when the material is being stored and transported. When larger quantities of
waste are involved, bulk containers should be used as specified in SABS Code 0233.
10.5.2 Labelling
Labelling of containers with the correct name and description of the contents is essential...
Labelling of hazardous substances must be done according to the SABS Code 0233.
When hazardous waste is transported, further labelling of bulk containers and placarding of the
vehicle is also required. (Refer to SABS Code 0233 for details)."
The generator is responsible for the packaging/containerisation of the waste and the labelling of
the containers and remains legally liable in terms of the "cradle to grave" principle. It also has the
"duty of care"; it therefore has to assure itself of the credibility of the transporting company,
because the transporting company becomes its "agent".) Only under this heading is it mentioned
that SABS Code 0228 gives a full description of the various types of containers which can be
used for the packaging of hazardous substances and must be strictly followed.
In the case of a hazardous spillage at site, the Generator must initiate remedial action to clean up
any spillage remaining on site after an accident. The Generator (and the transporter as his agent, if
it is a road accident) must ensure that adequate steps are taken to minimize the effect which an
accident or an incident may have on the public and on the environment.

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The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and the local authority must be advised
immediately, should it prove impossible to contain the spillage of a hazardous waste on a site.
All road accidents must be reported to the Department of Transport on the prescribed
documentation.
2,13.3 Hazardous substances act, act no 15 of 1973
'['here is a close interaction between the Minimum Requirements on the one hand and the Act on
the other hand. A hazardous substance (as defined in the Act and set out more closely hereunder)
remains a hazardous substance until such time as it meets the "throw away/store awayrequirement of the Minimum Requirements. After a hazardous substance has been classified for
treatment and disposal purposes in the manner as described in the Minimum Requirements, its
(previous) status as hazardous substance is "revived for purposes of labelling, packaging and
transportation to the disposal site. This impression is supported by the fact that the Minimum
Requirements mention Hazchem placards, but contain no further explanation of what is meant by
them. However, regulations promulgated under the Hazardous Substances Act provide for the
transport of hazardous substances by means of road tankers, and these regulations contain
information with regard to the Hazchem placards.
An accidental spillage of a hazardous substance - before it has reached the stage where it can be
classified as a hazardous waste - should be treated in the same way as a spillage of a hazardous
waste, and all the requirements with regard to immediate remedial action and notification should
be met.
Thc Hazardous Substances Act controls the use and distribution of substances which, if not
controlled, could have a negative impact on the environment. The term "Hazardous substances" is
not defined anywhere. The heading of the Act gives some information in this regard.
The substances "cause injury or ill-health to or the death of human beings by virtue of their toxic,
corrosive, irritant, strongly sensitizing or flammable nature or the generation of pressure thereby
in certain circumstances, and for the control of certain electronic products."
All hazardous substances are divided into four different groups in the Act.

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Group 1 hazardous substances

Group I is defined in section 2(1 )(a) of the Act as "any substance or mixture of substances
which, in the course of customary or reasonable handling or use, including ingestion, might, by
reason of its toxic, corrosive, irritant, strongly sensitizing or flammable nature or because it
generates pressure through decomposition, heat or other means, cause injury , ill-health or death
to human beings, to be a Group I... hazardous substance".
Like all other Acts discussed so far, this Act also makes provision for regulations (in terms of
section 2(1 )(a)) whereby other or additional substances can be included in Group I.
Government Notice No R 452 in Government Gazette No 5467 of 25 March 1977 classifies
certain substances (for example hydrocyanic acid and yellow phosphorus) in Category A of Group
I substances. Category B contains other substances such as Dieldrin and calcium cyanide.
However, Government Notice No R 1381 in Government Gazette 15907 of 12 August 1994
amends the declaration under Notice 452: Group I (Category B) and hazardous substances are no
longer applicable. They have been replaced by Class 6.1 "Poisonous Substances, Group 1" as
specified in Appendices E and F of SABS Code of Practice 0228. The content of Category A of
Group 1. Hazardous substances remains the same as listed in Notice No R 452.
In terms of Government Notice No R 1705 in Government Gazette 16796 of 3 November 1995,
Carbon Tetrachloride is a Group I Category A hazardous substance.

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Group II hazardous substances

Group II hazardous substances are also defined in section 2( 1 )(a) of the Act. Their definition is
the same as that for Group I hazardous substances. Government Notice No R 1382 in Government
Gazette No 15907 of 12 August 1994 provides further information. It states that all substances
and goods specified in the SABS Code of Practice 0228, are Group II hazardous substances (with
the exception of Class 1: Explosives and Class 7: Radioactive Substances). Both the Act and the
Notice do not contain any further legal prescriptions with regard to Group II substances.
Therefore the use, sale or manufacture or any activity involving these substances, although they
are classified as hazardous, does not require a license. The Act mentions that the DirectorGeneral: National Health and Population Development administers the provisions of this Act. It
appears that he has delegated this power to the Directorate of Environmental Health, as far as the
administration of Group I and Group II hazardous substances is concerned.
Group III hazardous substances
Group TIT hazardous substances are loosely described in section 2(1 )(b) as "any electronic
product". Section 1 of the Act, by contrast, contains a rather lengthy definition of what is meant
by an electronic product:
"(a) any manufactured product which, when in operation, contains or acts as part of an electronic
circuit and (i) emits (or in the absence of effective shielding or other controls would emit)
electronic product radiation; or
(ii) would, as a result of the failure or breakdown of any built-in safety measure or
shielding, pose an electrical, mechanical, chemical, biological, ergonomic or other
hazard, or cause excessive temperature, excessive pressure or ignition of
flammable material, which may cause injury, ill-health or death to human beings;
or

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(b) any manufactured article which is intended for use as a component, part or accessory
of a product described in paragraph (a) and which, when in operation (i) emits (or in the absence of effective shielding or other controls would emit)
such radiation; or
(ii) would, as a result of the failure or breakdown of any built-in safety
measures or shielding, pose an electrical, mechanical, chemical, biological,
ergonomic or other hazard, or cause excessive temperature, excessive
pressure or ignition of flammable material, which may cause injury, illhealth or death to human beings."
Government Notice No R 1302 in Government Gazelle No 13299 of 14 June 1991
clarifies the situation. It lists several items of equipment that are Group III hazardous
substances, such as "1. any electronic product generating ... other ionizing beams" or "(iv)
any electron accelerator; ... (vi) or any neutron generator".
Group IV hazardous substances
Group IV hazardous substances are only defined in section 1 of the Act:

"Group IV

hazardous substance means radioactive material which is outside a nuclear installation as defined
in the Nuclear Energy Act, 1993, and is not a material which forms part of or is used or intended
to be used in the nuclear fuel cycle, and (a) has an activity concentration of more than 100 becquerels per gram and a total activity of
more than 4 000 becquerels; or
(b) has an activity concentration of 100 becquerels or less per gram or a total activity of 4 000
becquerels or less and which the Minister has by notice in the Gazette declared to be a
Group IV hazardous substance.

69 | P a g e

and which is used or intended to be used for medical, scientific, agricultural, commercial or
industrial purposes, and any radioactive waste arising from such radioactive material."
Government Notice No R 246 in Government Gazette No 14596 of 26 February 1993
amends this definition of the Act somewhat, in the sense that it states that a written
authority for a Group IV hazardous substance is not necessary if it has
(a) a total activity of less than 4 000 becquercl
"(b) more than 4 000 becquerel but less than the maximum activity
indicated in the Annexure hereto, where such Group IV hazardous substance forms
part of a device indicated opposite to such maximum activity, except in the ease
where such device is manufactured in or imported into the Republic;....1 The Notice
then lists smoke detectors, watches with luminous dials and occluded gunsights as
well as their maximum activity (w'hich sometimes is more than 4 000 becquerel).
If a company has any of these three items on its premises, the requirements of this Notice
become relevant.
A written authority in terms of section 3(A)(1) of the Act must then be obtained, Section 3(A)(1)
of the Act states:
"Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall produce or otherwise acquire, or
dispose of, or import into the Republic or export from there, or be in possession of, or use, or
convey or cause to be conveyed, any Group IV hazardous substance, except in terms of a written
authority under subsection (2) and in accordance with (a)

the prescribed conditions; and

(b) such further conditions (if any) as the Director-General may in each case determine."

70 | P a g e

Notice No R 246 then sets out at length what requirements must be met to obtain the written
authority in terms of section 3A. The application form itself must be obtained from the
Directorate:

Health Technology, to whom the Director-General has

delegated his powers with Tegard to the administration of Group TV substances.

The application form must make provision for the particulars of the applicant, the reason for the
application, a description of the Group IV hazardous substance relevant to the application, an
attachment to the form must include a brief explanation of any envisaged activity regarding the
substance and plans of the premises to which such activity is relevant. The authority will remain
valid for the period stipulated by the Directorate, or until the holder of the authority dies or
becomes insolvent.
Chapter 3 of the Notice is important. It contains the conditions to which any activity relating to
Group IV hazardous substances is subject. (The Director-Gcncral may add other conditions to
those mentioned in chapter 3.) The holder of the authority is responsible for the entire extent of
radiation protection with regard to a Group IV hazardous substance. This means that he is
responsible for efficient organisation of protection and continuous medical care with regard to
optimum working methods, particularly with regard to routine matters. Amongst other things, a
radiation protection officer and an acting radiation protection officer must be appointed and
internal rules must be compiled by the holder with regard to specific circumstances in his
undertaking. The so-called controlled area must be physically marked off and demarcated and a
warning notice in English and Afrikaans attached and an entrance control system be put in place.
Stock records must be kept and stored in a safe place. The radiation levels must be monitored and
the hazardous substances must be stored in a storage place when they are not being used. They
must be disposed of in the manner determined by the Director-General. All the names of the
radiation workers must be contained in a register and regular medical examinations must take
place. Accidents must be reported to the Director-General or the South African Police and the
holder of the authority must provide all the assistance that is necessary. The holder must restrict
the extent to which employees and other persons may be exposed

71 | P a g e

to ionizing radiation in accordance with the limits as contained in Annexurc 2 to the

Notice.
The Act and the Notices do not contain prescribed forms for the licenses for Group I and
Group III hazardous substances and these have to be obtained from the relevant
Directorates.
The Road Tanker Regulations
Government Notice No R 73 in Government Gazette No 9556 of 11 January 1985 is a document
of 49 pages ("The Road Tanker Regulations"). It was promulgated under section 29(1) of the
Hazardous Substances Act, and regulates all matters concerning the transport of hazardous
substances by road tanker.
A road tanker has been defined as a "goods vehicle which has one or more temporary or
permanent tanks or tank or tanks made up of different compartments with a total capacity of not
less than 500 litres, which forms part of or is attached to it, other than a tank used solely for the
operation of die vehicle as a means of transport" (section l(xv)).
The crux of the Road Tanker Regulations is contained in the imperative that "9. The consignor of
any grouped hazardous substance not being :he conveyor himself and requiring such substance to
be conveyed by road shall ensure that the conveyor has such information as is necessary to enable
him to prepare the appropriate hazard warning panels and compartment labels in accordance with
these regulations." (Section 9 of the Notice).
This requirement is in accordance with the Minimum Requirements, because they prescribe the
packaging and labelling of containers as well as the placarding of the vehicle.
2.13.4 Minerals Act 50 of 1991
This Act has to be taken into account by organisations involved in the mining of rock. Waste
rock, slimes or residue are termed "tailings" in section 1 of the Minerals Act.

72 | P a g e

In this regard, the SABS has compiled a draft document called "Proposed Code of Practice for
Mine Residue Deposits". It is not yet a final standard, and is therefore not yet obligatory for the
construction of slimes dams. However, it is envisaged that more guidance on the construction,
monitoring and decommissioning of slimes dams is needed, especially after the Merriespruit
Slimes Dam disaster. It is further envisaged that most of the guidelines contained in the Draft
Code of Practice will be accepted as valid for the final Code.
The Draft Code is a document of 124 pages. Its contents amount to the following:
Section 4 of the Code reiterates the importance of principles such as safety, environmental
responsibility, effectiveness and efficiency. It also reiterates the principles (which are contained in
the Minimum Requirements for the Handling and Disposal of Hazardous Waste) such as waste
avoidance, precautionary action, and the cradle to grave principle. Section
4.4.5 is important:
"The owner of a residue deposit is always required to have applied his/her mind to
management of a residue deposit. The owner shall thus ensure that suitably qualified
persons are engaged for conceptualization, investigations, design, commissioning,
operation and decommissioning." In the absence of any definition in the Code, the
common law concept of ownership prevails. This is in line with the Minimum
Requirements and the "cradle to grave" principle. The mine, as the producer of its own w
aste, remains - in terms of the Code - legally liable for its waste in terms of the Code.
Section 5 states that no Act exists which specifically regulates the matter of residue deposits.
However, it is pointed out that the Minerals Act employs the Environmental Management
Programme Report ("EMPR") to mitigate impacts on the environment.
The Aide-Memoire compiled by the Department of Minerals and Energy sets out what the EMPR
should contain. (The Aide-Memoire is currently being reviewed and is expected to be completed
in 1999.). The EMPR is a comprehensive document which contains a brief project

73 | P a g e

description (in part 1 of the EMPR), a description of the pre-mining environment (part 2 of the
EMPR), a motivation for the proposed project (part 3 of the EMPR), a detailed description of the
proposed project (part 4 of the EMPR), an environmental impact assessment (part 5) and the
environmental management programme (in part 6). (Parts 7 to 11 contain additional information
such as applicable legislation, amendments to the EMPR, etc.)
Part 6 of the Report is the most important because it contains the actual, detailed environmental
management programme. Part 6 is binding on mines. A criminal charge can be laid against a mine
if it does not comply with the requirements of its own management programme.
The compilers of the Code suggest that a programme report along the lines of an environmental
management programme report (EMPR) should also be compiled for the tailings dam.
During the conceptualisation phase, the primary objective and responsibility is to formulate a
safe, effective and environmentally responsible solution to satisfy the needs of the industry with
regard to the disposal of residue material. This means that a professional person should be
consulted who will select alternative sites and methods in accordance with good professional
practice outlined in this code. A new or revised management programme should be prepared in
accordance with the Aide-Memoire.
The primary objective of the investigation and residue characterisation phase is to gather all the
relevant and appropriate information regarding the proposed disposal sites and the residue to
facilitate the selection of an optimum design. The residue deposit must be characterised according
to the Safety Classification (contained in Annexure A, p. 63 of the Code) and the Environmental
Significance Classification (in Annexure B, on p. 65 of the Code).
During the design phase, the concept has to be transformed into a set of drawings, specifications
and instructions that will allow and ensure the implementation and achievement of a safe,
effective, efficient and environmentally sound mine residue disposal system.

74 | P a g e

During the construction phase the elements of the design are transformed into physical reality.
The operational phase can only commence once all the previous phases have been approved by
the Director: Minerals and Energy.
Decommissioning and closure phases follow as final stages.
The management of the residue deposit has to be done in accordance with the ISO 14001
principles, They involve policy-making (with regard to the residue deposit), setting objectives,
operation, conformance assessment and management review.
Training, awareness and competence of personnel, mine residue management system
documentation, operational control, emergency preparedness and facility audits (see p 25-27 of
the Code) remain key principles.

ANNEXURE1
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTES
BY THE INTERNATIONAL MARITIME DANGEROUS GOODS
(IMDG) CODE
CLASS 1 Explosives
CLASS 2:

Gases (compressed, liquified or dissolved under pressure)

2.1 Flammable gases
2.2 Non-flammable gases
2.3 Poisonous gases

CLASS 3:

Flammable liquids
3.1 Low flashpoint group of liquids; flashpoint below - 18C
3.2 Intermediate flashpoint group of liquids; flashpoint of - 18 C up to but
not including 32 C
3.3 High flashpoint group of liquids; flashpoint of 32 C up to and
including 61 C
3.4 (a) Mineral oil waste
(b) Tarry and distillation wastes and other chemical based residues
(c) Halogenated organic wastes
(d) Tarry materials from refining and tar residues from distilling

(e) Heterocyclic organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen

and/or sulphur
(f) Varnish sludge and paint sludge.
CT.ASS 4:

Flammable solids or substances

4.1 Flammable solids
4.2 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion
4.3 Substances emitting flammable gases

CLASS 5:

when wet

Oxidising substances
5.1 Oxidizing agents
(a) Peroxides, chlorates, perchlorates and azides
5.2 Organic peroxides

CLASS 6:

Poisonous (toxic) substances

6.1

Poisonous substances
(a) Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) wastes
(b) Cyanide containing wastes
(c) Wastes containing mercury
(d) Asbestos wastes
(e) Pharmaceutical and veterinary compounds
(f) Biocides and phytopharmaceutical substances
(g) Wastes containing cadmium
(h) Aromatic polycyclic compounds

(i) Wastes containing lead

(j) Wastes containing arsenic

G
O
G)

Wastes containing vanadium Pesticides

Wastes containing hexavalent chromium

(m)
6.2

Infectious substances
(a) Food processing wastes
(b) Sewage (liquid or sludge)
(c) Medical wastes

CLASS 7:

Radioactive substances

CLASS 8:

Corrosives

(c)
CLASS 9:

A.

Acids

B.

Alkalis

Miscellaneous dangerous substances, that is any other substance which

experience has shown, or may show, to be of a dangerous nature.
A.

I lalogenated hydrocarbon solvent wastes from cleaning processes

B.

Heavy metal containing wastes (excluding those mentioned in Class

6.1)

C.

Wastes containing inorganic halogen

D.

Wastes containing inorganic sulphur

E.

Laboratory chemicals (whose effect on the environment is not known)

F.

Phenol wastes

G.

Paint residues not containing solvents

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 3 NOISE MANAGEMENT CONTENTS PAGE

INTRODU CYION
LECGISLATION
3.2.1
Industrial noise
3.2.2
Noise causing annoyance and loss of sleep

79

82

82
83

3.1.

INTRODUCTION

Noise management is covered in Chapter 22 of Fuggle and Rabie.

Noise is a virtually unavoidable factor in present day life and can be described as sound which
has some or other undesirable effect on humans. For this reason noise is often defined as
unwanted sound and we are exposed to it before birth and throughout life.
The auditory effects of noise include interference with sound perception by inducing hearing loss
and the masking of wanted sounds, for example verbal communication in the workplace. There
may be some populations who are at greater risk to the harmful effects of noise. Young children
(especially during language acquisition), the blind, and elderly people are examples of such
groups. Specific effects that are considered when compiling guidelines for noise management
include interference with communication, noise-induced hearing loss, sleep disturbance effects,
cardiovascular and psychophysiological effects, performance effects, annoyance responses and
effects on social behaviour.
Noise of sufficient intensity and duration can induce temporary or permanent hearing loss,
ranging from slight impairment to total deafness. A pattern of exposure to any source of sound
that produces high enough levels can result in temporary hearing loss. If exposure persists over a
period of time, this could lead to permanent hearing impairment.
The non-auditory effects of noise on the human body include influences on sleeping patterns,
increase in the secretion of adrenal hormones and can affect the heart and vascular system.
High level noise giving rise to noise-induced hearing deficits can occur in occupational
situations, open air concerts, discotheques, motor sports events, shooting ranges and from
loudspeakers or headphones.. Due to the considerable variation in human sensitivity with respect
to hearing impairment, the hazardous nature of a noisy environment is described in terms of
"damage risk". This is defined as the probability of a population to suffer from

noise-induced hearing losses when exposed to noise. This risk is considered to be negligible at
equivalent noise exposure levels below 75 dB(A) over an exposure period of 8 hours.
Measurable sleep disturbance effects start from about 30 dB Leq. They increase with increased
maximum noise level. Even if the total equivalent noise level is fairly low, a small number of
noise events with a high maximum sound pressure level will affect sleep. It is particularly
important to limit the noise events exceeding 45 dBA when the background level is low.
Consequently, one should consider the equivalent sound pressure level, the levels of the noise
peaks and the number of noise events when performing noise exposure control.
With respect to cardiovascular diseases, the overall evidence suggests that a weak association
exists between long-term noise exposure and blood pressure elevation or hypertension. Evidence
regarding psychophysiological effects, such as gastrointestinal motility, is less clear. More
research is required in order to estimate the long-term cardiovascular and psychophysiological
risks of noise. In view of the unclear findings, no guideline values can be given with respect to
this critical effect.
Noise can act as a distracting stimulus and may also affect the psychophysiological state of the
individual. A sudden event, such as an unfamiliar noise, will cause distraction and interfere with
many kinds of tasks.
The most common method of sound measurement is to determine the pressure changes
transmitted by the medium as sound w raves. The sound pressure of the faintest sound that a
normal healthy person can hear is approximately from 0,00002 Pa (20 pPa, the threshold of
hearing) The human ear is very sensitive to sound over a wide spectrum of sound pressures which
vary from 0,00002 Pa (20 pPa, the threshold of hearing) to more than 200 Pa (the threshold of
pain). The reference sound pressure at 1 000 Hz is 20 pPa or 0 decibels (dB). The wide spectrum
of sound pressures is indicated by a short series of numbers, which range from 0 dB (threshold of
hearing) to 120 dB (threshold of tolerance).

Relative scale of sound levels:

Jet engine (25 m distance): Jet

HO dB

take-off (100 m distance):

125 dB

Sound can be felt

Rock music:
Power lawnmower:

110
dB
100 dB

Conversation difficult

Sound of a truck passing:

90 dB

Average street traffic:

85 dB

Intolerable for phone use

Business office:

65 dB

Voice must be raised to be

understood

Normal conversation:

60 dB

Living room (no TV or radio):

40 dB

Bedroom:

25 dB

Sounds in a forest:

15 dB

Noticeable quiet.

Noise can be divided into the following two main classes:

Industrial noise that causes loss of hearing - this form of noise exceeds the legal limit of 85
decibels

Noise causing annoyance and loss of sleep This class can be subdivided as follows:

Traffic noise

Building and business noise

Domestic and entertainment noise

Community annoyance varies with activity. The threshold of annoyance for steady-state,
continuous noise is approximately the equivalent sound pressure level of 50 dB(A). Few people
are seriously annoyed during the day by noise levels below approximately 55 dB(A). Noise levels
during the evening and night should be 5 to 10 dB lower than during the day.

For intermittent noise it is necessary to take into account the maximum sound pressure level and
the number of noise events. Guidelines or noise abatement measures should also take into account
residential outdoor activities.

3.2

LEGISLATION

3.2.1

Industrial noise

The protection of hearing is regarded as the as the most important goal in the noise control
programme of industry, mainly because noise-induced hearing loss is irreversible and the results
are experienced even after exposure is terminated.
In terms of Regulation 7 of the Environmental Regulations for Workplaces, promulgated under
the Machinery' and Occupational Safety Act 6 of 1983 (Notice R2281 of 16 October 1987), no
employer may require or permit an employee to work in an environment in which he or she is
exposed to a noise level equal to or exceeding 85 dB.
The duties of employers are stated in this regulation.
Control still remains the obvious method of silencing machinery that cannot be replaced due to
financial constraints. To control industrial noise the motto "prevention is better than cure" is of
inestimatc value.
A discussion on occupational exposure is given in Chapter 22.3.1.5 of Fugglc and Rabic. Further
control of noise is laid down in the Environment Conserv ation Act 73 of 1989.
Section 25 states:
"The Minister may make regulations with regard to the control of noise, vibration and
shock, concerning (a) the definition of noise, vibration and shock

(b) the prevention, reduction or elimination of noise, vibration and shock

(c) the levels of noise, vibration and shock which shall not be exceeded, either in
general or by specified apparatus or machinery or in specified instances or
places,
(d) the type of measuring instrument which can be used for the determination of the
levels of noise, vibration and shock, and the utilization and calibration thereof
(e) the powers of the provincial administrations and local authorities to control noise,
vibration and shock; and
(1) any other matter which he may deem necessary or expedient in connection with the
effective control and combating of noise, vibration and shock."
Such regulations were promulgated under Government Notice No R154 in Government Gazette
No 13717 of 10 January 1992. This Notice focuses both on the noise quality (perceived by the
listener) and the noise level of the alleged disturbance. It not only prescribes the measuring
apparatus that must be used, but also the placing of the measuring points. It gives the local
authority certain wide-ranging powers to zone certain areas as "controlled areas" in which the
ambient sound level may be higher than in other areas.
Government Notice No R 155 states that a local authority which intends implementing the
regulations made by Government Notice No R 154, must apply to the Director-General:
Environmental Affairs in the prescribed manner.
A more detailed discussion is given in Chapter 22.3.1.2 of Fuggle and Rabie.
3.2.2

Noise causing annoyance and loss

of sleep Traffic noise

Traffic noise is controlled in terms of the Road Traffic Act 29 of 1989. A more detailed
discussion is given in Chapter 22.3.1.3 of Fuggle and Rabie.

u Aviation noise
Noise due to aircraft is controlled by the Aviation Act 74 of 1962. A more detailed discussion is
given in Chapter 22.3.1.4 of Fuggle and Rabie.
Building, domestic and entertainment noise
These types of noise can also be controlled by a local authority' by means of by-laws after a
notice has been placed in Provincial Gazette. For a detailed discussion see Chapter 22.3.3.1 of
Fuggle and Rabie.
A list of notices published in the Government and Provincial Gazettes can be studied in Table 22.
3 in Fuggle and Rabie.
An example that will be discussed is Adminstrator's Notice No 1277, in the Provincial Gazette
dated 10 September 1980 (as amended).
It empowers the Randburg City Council (now the Northern Metropolitan Local Council of the
Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council) to enforce acceptable noise levels. It attempts to
regulate noise impacts by introducing the concept of "disturbing noise in section 1:
'Disturbing noise' means a noise level which exceeds the ambient sound level by 7dB(A) or
more, and "disturbing" and "disturb" in relation to a noise shall have a corresponding meaning."
In turn, a noise level is defined in section 1 as "the reading on an integrating sound level meter,
taken at the measuring point at the end of a reasonable period after the integrating sound level
meter has been put into operation during which period the noise alleged to be a disturbing noise is
present, to which reading 5db is added if the disturbing noise contains a pure tone component or
is of an impulsive nature".

Section 1 defines the ambient sound level as follows:

"Ambient sound level means the reading on an integrating sound level meter measured at the
measuring point at the end of a total period of at least 10 minutes after such integrating sound
level meter has been put into operation, during which period a noise alleged to be a disturbing
noise, is absent."
Industries will have to establish what the ambient sound level in its immediate area is. The SABS
Code of Practice 0103:1994 might be of assistance ("The Measurements and Rating of
Environmental Noise with respect to Annoyance and Speech Communication"). This Code
contains guidelines (not exact measurements) regarding the ambient sound levels which can be
expected in a certain area.
An "integrating sound level meter" refers to "a device integrating a function of sound pressure
over a period of time and indicating the result in dB(A), which dB(A) indication is a function of
both the sound level and the duration of exposure to the sound during the period of
measurement."
Section 2 of the Notice prohibits a disturbing noise:
2.(1) No person shall make, produce, cause or permit to be made, produced or caused, a noise
which is a disturbing noise."
It should be clear that a "noise disturbance" refers mainly to a variation in decibels, and not so
much (if at all) to the listener's perception of the quality of sound.
The introduction of the various items of noise in section 2(2) was probably done to address the
problem of the listener's perception of the quality of sound.
"(2) No person shall:

(a) operate or sanction the operation of any warning device, siren, hooter or any
similar device, other than in an emergency or when required by law;
(b) perform any work or use or permit any machine, machinery, engine, apparatus,
tools or device to be used in building, demolition or excavation activities during
the time specified in subsection (3)
(c) operate or sanction the operation of any lawnmower, other garden machinery or
power operated tool before 08h00 and between 13h00 and 16h00 on a Sunday or
public holiday: which may, or in a manner which may, disturb or hinder the
comfort, convenience, peace and quiet of the public."
The relevant times for the prohibition of the disturbing activities as mentioned under paragraph
(2)(e) are mentioned in subsection (3) of section 2:
"(a) The whole Sunday and each public holiday.
(b) Before 06h00 and after 13h00 on a Saturday.
(c) Before 06h00 and after 18h00 on any other day."
It is an offence to contravene any of subsections (1) to (3) of section 2.
The requirements with regard to noise measurements are very cryptic: "3(1) The
measurement of ambient sound and noise levels shall be done in accordance with Code of
Practice SABS 0103-1983."
As already mentioned above, the latest edition of the SABS Code 0103 is dated 1994.
The Chief: Health Services of the Local Council may, if he is satisfied that the noise is a
disturbing noise, instruct the responsible person in writing to:
"(a) cease or cause such disturbing noise to be ceased immediately "(b) take or cause the
necessary steps to be taken to reduce the disturbing noise level to an acceptable level
within a period specified in such notice" (see section 4(1)).

The exceptions contained in section 4(2) arc noteworthy, especially section 4(2)(a)(ii):
"If the Chief: Health Services is satisfied that the disturbing noise is due or caused by:

(a)

the working of a machine or an apparatus

(i) which is necessary for the maintenance, preservation or repair of property, or the
protection of life or safety of persons, or where such machine or apparatus is
used on behalf of a public authority;
(ii) where the noise level of which has, in the opinion of the chief: Health Services,
been reduced or muffled according to the best practicable methods and which
continues to be disturbing;
(iii)circumstances or activities beyond the control of the responsible person, he may,
whether generally or specifically, after receipt of the written representation by the
responsible person, permit such disturbing noise to continue, subject to such
conditions as he deems fit."
The Notice concludes with the remark that "any person who fails to comply with the notice
referred to in subsection (1-), shall be guilty of an offence".

CHAPTER 4
AIR MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

PAGE

INTRODUCTION
89
SOURCES OF AIR POLUTION
92
MAIN TYPES OF AIR POLUTANTS
94
EFFECTS OF AIR POLUTIONON ON HUMAN HEALTH 102
THE BODYS REACTION TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES
105
UNITS AND CONCEPTS IN TOXICOLOGY
109

4.7

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON

THE MAN-MADEENVIROMMENT
111
4.7.1
Effects on ornamental stone
113
4.7.1
Effects on fabrics and dyes
113
4.8
EFFECTS OF AIRPOLLUTION ON THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT
114
4.9
MEASUREMENT OF AIR POLLUTANTS
116
4.10 AMBIENT AIR MONITORING
123
4.11 LEGISLATION
127
4.11.1
The atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965 128
4.11.2
Administrators Notice No 148 of 21 February 1951 136
2.11.3
National Building Regulations and Building
Standards Act 103 of 1977
136

4.1.

INTRODUCTION

Earth is the only planet known to man that has a considerable amount of free oxygen and water
vapour in its atmosphere. This makes it the only known planet which sustains life.
It consists of two layers, the troposphere which extends from sea level to about 17 kilometres
into the atmosphere (95 % of all gases and 90 % of water vapour are in this layer) and the
stratosphere which extends from 17 kilometres to about 48 kilometres into the atmosphere. The
ozone layer is in the upper layer of the stratosphere. The main gases in the earth's atmosphere are
nitrogen (78 %) and oxygen (21 %) with the remaining 1 % made up of argon, carbon dioxide,
water vapour with traces of hydrogen, ozone, methane, carbon monoxide, helium, neon, krypton
and xenon.
Studies have shown that the earlier atmosphere of the earth contained almost no oxygen. Oxygen
probably formed through the process of photosynthesis in which plants and some bacteria use
sunlight to form oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. The delicate balance between carbon
dioxide and oxygen is of utmost importance in maintaining suitable conditions for human life on
earth. See also Fuggle and Rabie Chapter 17.1
According to Greek mythology the most precious gift from the gods to man was fire, a form of
combustion. Unfortunately perfect combustion, i.e. entirely smokeless combustion, is onlypossible in theory.
Wherever there is life, there is waste, from plants to insects, to birds to animals to people. Some
of this waste passes into the atmosphere and when man notices it is called pollution.
Air pollution can be defined as the presence of harmful quantities of pollutants in the
atmosphere. Air pollutants consist of gases and particles in the atmosphere, which if in large
quantities can be harmful to people, animals and plants.
Wc as humans have to breathe every minute of our life and without air for more than four
minutes we die. People are very concerned about air pollution because we cannot easily control

the air that we breathe and in many cases, we cannot even see the pollutants although they can be
very harmful to our own health.
People around the world are also becoming more and more concerned that economic activities
are upsetting the oxygen/carbon dioxide balance and that they release a wide range of other
pollutants into the atmosphere. Burning fossil fuels, like coal and oil to generate electricity for
industrial and residential use releases oxides of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen and particulate
matter into the atmosphere. Fossil fuels are also used to produce synthetic fuels. Some industries
might also release highly toxic substances such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), nitrogen and
phosphorous compounds and heavy metals such as Cadmium and dioxins into the atmosphere.
People are also concerned that air pollution might change the climate and this will affect the
ecosystems supporting us. The two ways this might happen is through ozone depletion and global
warming.
Air pollution is not a recent phenomenon. Shakespeare WTOte about it in Hamlet where he
referred to the atmosphere as a foul and pestilent congregation of vapours. As early as 1272 King
Eduard I attempted to clear the smoky or rather smoggy atmosphere over London. The British
Parliament ordered the torturing and execution of a man who sold the so-called "outlawed" coal.
King Richard III heavily taxed the use of coal. However, none of these measures was successful,
London's skies remained smoky and her buildings sooty. In 1952 London lay under a blanket of
smog so dark that for four days travelling required street lights and headlights. Masks were
required for breathing. When it was all over, the records showed that about 4000 more people
than usual died during this period.
The BPM (Best Practicable Means) concept found its way into South African law via the British
air pollution control legislation where it had been in use for a long time.

Best practicable means, when used with reference to the prevention of the escape of noxious or
offensive gases or the dispersal or suspension of dust in the atmosphere or the emission of fumes
by vehicles, includes the provision and maintenance of the necessary appliances to that end, the
effective care and operation of such appliances, and the adoption of any other methods which,
having regard to local conditions and circumstances, the prevailing extent of technical knowledge
and the cost likely to be involved, may be reasonably practicable and necessary for the protection
of any section of the public against the emission of poisonous or noxious gases, dust or any such
fumes;"
This definition only says that when controlling air pollution, the best affordable technology that
will not cause a threat to human health should be used.
Current air pollution control is still based on the principle best practicable means (BPM).
Many people favour the more recent principle of BPEO. BPEO (Best Practicable Environmental
Option) emphasises the protection of the environment across land, air and water and provides the
most benefit or least damage to the environment as a whole at acceptable cost in both the short
and long term.
The principle of BPM has been criticised widely because, contrary to BPEO, it does not consider
the entire environment. Although this is true to some extent, it has always been the policy of the
Directorate: Air Pollution Control to look wider than just how human health is affected by
pollution. The effect on the entire environment has been considered.
The third principle and the one which the European Community has recently adopted, is the socalled BATNEEC (Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost) principle. This
principle does not differ very much from BPM.
In the United States, the approach is to use "Best Available Technology". There is no doubt that
this is by far the best way to go if you can afford it. In this principle cost is not taken into account.
Although it works theoretically, it docs not always work in practice.

4.2

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Natural pollutants
Volcanic eruptions Dust storms Salt laden sea
spray Veld and forest fires

Man-made pollutants
Smoke, soot, gases, fumes and particles from:
Chemical and metallurgical industries
Power stations
Motor vehicles
Railways and harbours
Residential areas
Mining
Air traffic
Domestic sources
Agricultural activities:
Spraying with pesticides
Incorrect agricultural methods that cause wind erosion

Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are often released into the atmosphere by coal burning and
internal combustion engines. These oxides come into contact with atmospheric moisture and form
sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids reach the soil in combination with rain and are then
called "acid rain". Acid rain can cause extensive damage to the environment, especially to plants.
Photochemical smog originates when large amounts of smoke, gases and fumes accumulate
during windless nights and arc radiated by the sun in the morning. This leads to chemical

reactions and the formation of smog, which limits sight and causes burning of the eyes, nose
and throat. It occurs mostly in urban environments because of gases from motor vehicles.

MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Activity

Source

Fossil fuel burning and Burning coal to generate

refining

from

Pollutants
, Carbon dioxide, sulphur

stationary electricity, coal gasification dioxide, nitrogen dioxides

sources

to manufacture coke for

and smoke

metallurgical industries,
making of syn-gas (a mixture
of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide used to produce
synthetic fuels), and
domestic coal burning for
cooking and heating

Fossil fuel burning in

Road, air and sea transport

Carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide and lead

mobile sources

depending on fuel type

Industrial

and

chemical Ferro alloy industry,

processes

fertiliser and chemical

Nitrogen and phosphorus

compounds

industries
Solid waste disposal

Incineration of industrial,

Heavy metals, toxic

domestic and hospital waste chlorinated organics and

Land surface disturbances

Agriculture, mining and

alkali chlorides
Particulate matter (dust)

construction
Source: Fuggle and Rabie 1992. Environmental Management in South Africa. Juta

4.3

MAIN TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Gases
(i)

Sulphur compounds

Source: Natural sources account for about 75 % of sulphur emissions and include emissions from
volcanoes and biological processes. The remaining 25 % are due to human activities such as coal
burning and oil refining. Sulphur is a important macro nutrient for plants, but in high
concentrations it becomes toxic for most living things.
1I2S (Hydrogen sulphide)
This gas can be described as a chemical suffocating/asphyxiating gas and a malodorous gas.
Symptoms appear when the concentration is 200 mg/kg, and it is acutely dangerous at a
concentration of over 600 mg/kg. When one can no longer smell the gas, the condition of the
immediate area is extremely dangerous. The gas is irritating, but deaths follow the suppression of
the respiratory centre in the brain. No chronic or cumulative effects have been observed.
SO2 (Sulphur dioxide) (asphyxiating gas)
This is a prominent constituent of mist and smoke. It has an irritating, sharp smell when its
concentration is 3 mg/kg. It is irritating to the skin and mucous membranes and highly corrosive.
In cities, human activities account for up to 90 % of sulphur in the air. If the atmospheric
concentration is more than 0,25 mg/kg, mortality increases in a city if smoke concentrations are
also increased. People with chronic lung problems are affected the most. If it is released as a gas
through stacks, it reacts with water to produce sulphuric acid which causes "acid rain".
(ii)

Nitrogen compounds

Released by burning fuel for power generation as well as from the oxidation of ammonia
fertiliser and plant residues by bacteria in soil and water. Human activities account for about 50 %
of emissions.

N2 (Nitrogen)
Nitrogen is a colourless odourless gas that comprises 78 % of the atmosphere. It is a simple
suffocating gas because the O 2 (oxygen) in the air is displaced and it is the chief constituent in the
smoke vapour of mines.
Nitrogen fumes (NOx) (irritating gas)
These are compounds containing nitrogen - NOx. They form nitric acid if exposed to the
atmosphere or when they react with organic matter. Nitric oxide (NO) oxidises in the atmosphere
and forms Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), a red-brown toxic gas which gives smog its reddish brown
colour. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a colourless gas with a sweet odour which is sometimes used as a
weak anaesthetic (Laughing gas) and can also play an important role in climate change. Silofillers disease is caused by the inhalation of these fumes. Because the difference in concentration
which causes mild symptoms and serious symptoms is so small, they arc dangerous compounds.
Another important point is that the effects only appear after between 2 and 24 hours and not
immediately after exposure.
Chemical alveolitis (a type of pneumonia) with pulmonary oedema is caused by nitrous oxide.
Acute bronchitis symptoms which result in massive heart failure could also be presented by
patients.
(iii) Carbon compounds
CO2 (Carbon
dioxide)
Although carbon dioxide is not regarded as very harmful, a 3 % concentration causes an increase
in breathing rate and a 10 % concentration causes unconsciousness. It plays a particular role in
certain spheres of work, and it is suspected of causing climate changes in the general atmosphere.
CO (Carbon monoxide)
This is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon compounds. Petrol and diesel vehicle
combustion is a typical example. The gas is odourless and colourless and the early symptoms
appear suddenly, which makes it a dangerous gas. CO has a great affinity for hemoglobin in the
red blood cells and forms a reversible carboxy-haemoglobin compound in

the blood which blocks oxygen absorption. Death ensues if the blood is 60 - 80 % saturated by
carbon monoxide.
Metals
Many toxic metals are mined for use in the manufacturing processes and are released into the
atmosphere by fuel burning, ore smelting and waste disposal. The most important toxic metals are
lead, mercury', nickel, beryllium, cadmium, zinc, copper and thallium.
(i) Cadmium
Melting point
320,9C
Boiling point
767C
Insoluble in water, but reacts with water, evolving hydrogen and is soluble in acids. Poor
resistance to corrosion in the industrial ambience.
Could explode if it comes into contact with alkaline hydroxides or alkaline carbonates.
TLV 0,2 mg/W
The biggest danger is inhalation - seldom by food intake.
Acute symptoms: Irritation of the eyes, skin and mucous membranes which can lead to
inflammation with haemoptisis, pulmonary oedema and emphysema.
Chronic symptoms:

Non-specific complaints,

yellow stains on the teeth and anemia.

Damage to the kidneys could also occur.

(ii)

Chrome (chromium)

This applies particularly to chromium trioxide (Cr O 3).

Melting point 196C.

Breaks up into chromium and oxygen at 250C. Dissolves readily in water and is a powerful
oxidising agent. Combustible, explosive acid reacts easily with several organic substances and
reduction agents.

TLV 0,1 mg/m3

The skin is the primary contact danger area for people. Irritation of the nasal mucous membrane
and trachea occurs and a type of pneumonia may result.
(iii)

Lead (Pb)

Melting point is 327,4C and boiling point is 1 740C. Insoluble in water, but soluble in water
which contains a weak acid. Corrosion resistant. Neurotoxin.
TLV 0,2 mg/nr
Inhalation of dust is the most dangerous, but the organic compounds of lead (e.g. lead acetate,
ethyl-lead compounds) are particularly dangerous because they are readily absorbed by the
human skin. Symptoms could include abdominal pain, vomiting and constipation. Ihe skeleton of
the body is the primary lead deposit area and up to 90 % of the lead in people who have had lead
poisoning has been found in bones and teeth. Anaemia, muscular weakness and exhaustion, as
well as secretion through the kidneys, perspiration, bile and milk are other characteristic
symptoms. Psychiatric problems occur with organic lead poisoning in particular.
(iv)

Manganese (Mn)

Melting point is 1 245C and boiling point is 2 097C.

Decomposes in water, consequently pure manganese cannot be produced and is always found in
the form of a compound.
Is readily soluble in certain mineral acids, and sodium or potassium carbonate oxides it on the
surface when it is exposed to atmospheric air. It bums with an intense white light when it is
heated and releases hydrogen during reactions with water.
TLV 5 rng/rn3
Inhalation of the dust or gas is dangerous to man, although manganese tricarbonite compounds
can be absorbed through the skin.

Skin complaints (dermatitis), bronchitis and pneumonia may result from acute exposure. Chronic
symptoms may occur which include non-specific complaints, but psychiatric neurological
symptoms and a Parkinsons-like syndrome may occur after exposure for one or two years.
(v)

Zinc (Zn)

Melting point 907 C.

It forms a white powder of basic zinc when exposed to moist air. It bums easily when heated in
atmospheric air. Soluble in acids and alkalis, zinc-chloride and zinc-chlorate compounds are
soluble in water.
TLV 1 mg/tn3
The main danger is the inhalation of zinc oxide gas. Fever is caused by the vapour of the metal,
as well as by vapours of copper, magnesium aluminium, antimony, cadmium, iron and silver A
flu-like syndrome occurs in workers who are employed in these types of industries.
Organic compounds
(i)
Aromatic carbon compounds
Benzene is an example of these compounds, and has a TLV value of 30 mg/m3. It is highly
flammable vapour in form and is used as a solvent for many substances. The acute effects are
narcotic and euphoria and death may occur after suppression of the respiratory centre which
causes cessation of respiration. Chronic effects are loss of weight and a tendency towards
bleeding.
Nitro and amino compound derivatives of benzene, namely nitrobenzene, trinitrotoluene (TNT)
and aniline are further examples of organic compounds.
Absorption by the skin and lungs can occur and the substances are fat-soluble. Hepatitis and
aneamia could result.

(ii)

The halogenated hydrocarbon compounds

These are used as solvents for plastic and rubber. At high temperatures the substances break
down in the presence of air to form substances with free halogens such as, and CI 2 and carbonylhalogen compounds (with phosgene as an example).
(iii)

Polychlorinated biphenols

These substances are very stable and accumulate in the environment for example DDT. Harmful
side-effects are liver damage, skin discoloration, foetal deformation and nerve damage (DDT).
(iv)

Compounds containing a vinyl group

Vinyl cyanide (acrylonitrile) is absorbed by the skin and lungs and produces blood deviations
and can cause cancers in laboratory animals.
Vinyl chloride absorption occurs in the lungs and has a narcotic effect, it can also cause liver
problems (e.g. cancer) and bone changes in the hands.
The lungs and skin mainly absorb vinylbenzene styrene which is used in the manufacture of
polystyrene. Nerve damage and irritation of the skin and mucous membranes have also been
noted.
Halogens
Halogens include fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were
widely used as propellants, for refrigeration and foam blowing. CFCs are blamed for ozone
depletion in the stratosphere which forms the so-called "ozone layer" between roughly 15 and 50
kilometers above the earth. Ozone is an unstable form of oxygen. One molecule of ozone contains
three oxygen atoms. The stratospheric ozone layer protects life on earth from the harmful effects
of short wave (UV) radiation. The layer absorbs most of the solar UV-B radiation that in small
doses causes sunburn and skin cancers in fair-skinned people.
The Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 by 36 nations to cut emissions of CFCs into the
atmosphere by 35 % between 1989 and 2 000. In 1992, a meeting was held in Copenhagen

where it was decided to also restrict halon, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, HCFCs and methyl
bromide emissions.
Particulate matter
Particulates is the term used to describe either solid or liquid particles that are small or light
enough to remain suspended in the air. These solid particles include dust, soot, ash, smoke, nitrate
and sulphate salts and the liquid particles include sulphuric acid, dioxins and pesticides.
The solid particles vary in size from 50 pm to less than 1 pm. The particle size is important
because it determines the way in which the substances will settle in the human respirational
system. It has already been proved that the suction power of the human nose is inadequate for
particles larger than 50 pm. Particles of 10 to 50 pm will settle in the nose, while those of 7-10
pm will settle in the bronchi and bronchioli of the lungs. Particles with a size of 0,5 to 7 pm settle
in the alveoli, most particles with a size of 0,5 pm or less are exhaled.
Localised problems in the lungs or in the body may be caused by particles, for example, silica
forms nodules in the upper part of the lungs and may cause thickening of the pleura (surrounding
the lungs), while asbestos affects the lower part of the lungs which may result in cancer of the
lungs.
The World Health Organization estimated that up to 70 % of people living in urban areas inhale
unhealthy levels of particulate matter and the control of particulates is an important aspect of any
air quality management programme to prevent them from causing health problems to
communities.
Mineral pollutants
(i)

Asbestos

This group applies to a range of naturally occurring fibrous magnesium silicate minerals. Three
common types are found:
Chrysotile (green asbestos) Least hazardous to health
Crocidolite (blue asbestos) Most hazardous

Amosite (brown asbestos) Second most hazardous

Asbestos fibres can cause lung cancer as well as non-cancerous lung diseases.
The following asbestos-related illnesses may be distinguished:

Pulmonary fibrosis (asbestosis)

Pleural thickening

Lung cancer

Mesothelioma

Approximately 50 % of the inhaled fibres are cleared from the lungs and swallowed exposing the
throat and digestive system to their hazardous effects.
(ii)

Silica mineral particles

Fine particles of quartz and other forms of silica can accumulate in the lungs and cause the
formation of nodules of scar tissue (fibrosis) which enlarge, merge and reduce the respiratory
functions of the lungs. This disease is called silicosis.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Volatile organic compounds mainly consists of the lighter fractions of oil or hydrocarbons and
are mainly used for their evaporating properties, e.g. benzene. Emissions are mainly from
households (cleaners, cosmetics and lacquering), metal surface treatment (paints and coatings),
oil refining (loading, storage and transfer of hydrocarbon products) and petrol stations (filling of
vehicles with petrol). Crops like rice and stock farming are natural occurring sources of volatile
organic compounds such as methane.
Tropospheric ozone is formed as the result of photochemical reactions between VOCs and
nitrogen oxides. This ozone is toxic to humans, plants and animals. The short-term effect for
humans include irritation of the eyes, nose, throat and lungs. Long-term exposure may cause
temporary or permanent damage to the lungs. Ozone also attacks paint, rubber and plastics.

Although people are affected dramatically by the symptoms in acute cases, the danger remains
long-term or chronic effects, which may follow later. Remember that man + time + type of agent
+ concentration of agent = disease or consequences.
It should therefore be remembered that air pollution usually occurs in small concentrations in the
environment, but that people are exposed to it constantly during their lifetimes. The chronic
effects of air pollution must be kept in mind at all times.

4.4

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

The World Health Organisation defines health as the promotion and maintenance of the physical,
psychic and social well-being of an individual and not merely the absence of the disease process.
There are, therefore, several ways in which air pollution can influence people's health. Human
biology can be influenced by air polution. Sometimes we can detect air pollutants by sight or
smell or because our eyes bum and our noses run. Unfortunately some pollutants cannot be
detected in this way and the only way to ensure that the air we breathe is safe is to monitor it for
pollutants.
Primary' pollutants are pollutants that are released directly into the atmosphere Some pollutants
are formed through chemical reactions by sunlight or by the combination of primary pollutants to
form secondary pollutants such as ammonium sulphate or ozone.
Toxic substances enter the body by one or more of the following three routes:
(1)

The respiratory system

(2)

The skin

(3)

The digestive system

In the case of air pollution the most important route, by far, is the respiratory system or lungs.
Before discussing this in a little more detail, the skin and digestive systems will be discussed
briefly

Absorption via the digestive system

Absorption via the digestive system is unimportant in air pollution and more of a threat in
occupational exposure. Cases of accidental swallowing of fluids have occurred when people have
sucked on a siphon or pipette. Eating food in a dusty workplace could be hazardous as can
general low level personal hygiene at work. Poisoning through ingestion can occur with suicidal
or homicidal intent. Somewhat more important is secondary ingestion of dust which has been
precipitated in the lungs. They are coughed up in sputum or phlegm, which may then be
swallowed.
Absorption via the skin
Most chemicals can be absorbed through the skin. Those that are water soluble dissolve in
perspiration and enter the body through the sweat glands and those that are fat soluble enter the
body through the oily excretions of the skin. Some pesticides are extremely hazardous in this
regard. Industrial workers should not work with any solvent or aqueous solution of a toxic
substance without wearing gloves. Should toxic fluids be spilled on clothes and overalls, they
should be removed completely and the whole body washed down well with soap and water.
Absorption via the lungs
The lungs, designed to absorb gases, have an exceptionally well-developed interception and
clearance system for dusts. Particulate matter larger than about seven microns are trappec in the
upper respiratory passages and removed with mucous and phlegm. Smaller particles can penetrate
right down to the alveoli where they are taken up by scavenging cells (macrophages) and
transported back to the higher reaches of the lung. There they are redeposited into the upper
respiratory' passages from where they are coughed up.
This only applies to insoluble particles, e.g. silica and asbestos. If the particles are soluble in
body fluids, they are dissolved and find their way into the bloodstream and are transported to the
rest of the body.

Vapours, fumes and gases are either taken up directly by dissolving in blood or are dissolved in
lung fluid and then absorbed into the lungs. They can either do local damage to the lungs or
systemic damage in other parts of the body.
On the average, a person inhales about 5 m J of air per day during 8 hours of work. Many
chemicals are toxic in infinitesimal quantities. One mg of lead per day is dangerous. One drop of
parathion can kill a person and 0,5 mg of atropine can cause severe toxic symptoms. However,
this amount of toxic substance can very easily be dispersed in a cubic meter of air which is then
inhaled.
Most of the air pollutants present in the air arc in the form of gases or particles.
The gaseous form is either toxic (a poison) or suffocating (the gaseous form in the air breathed in
by a person is very high; consequently, they breathe in less oxygen than they need). Both types of
gaseous form could be visible or invisible, with a smell or odourless. The terms vapour, miasma,
mist or smoke are sometimes used to describe the gaseous phase of a solid or liquid.
It is easy to subdivide air pollutants, like any other dangerous substance, into non-specific, re active and localised substances Non-specific substances are mainly a nuisance but can aggravate
conditions like bronchitis or sinusitis, and simple suffocating substances can reduce the available
oxygen in the air to less than 180 g/kg (p02 < 18 kPa). This could cause problems in patients who
already have incipient heart problems.
Reactive substances or directly irritating substances typically influence the exposed skin/mucous
areas of the body - the cornea of the eye, the nose, throat and upper parts of the air channels.
Slight or serious broncho-spasm (an asthma syndrome) could result with enhanced secretion of
mucus and delayed pulmonary oedema (water on the lungs).
Sick building syndrome can be caused in air-conditioned buildings by not introducing enough
fresh air to the air conditioning system, or not filtering or cleaning the air entering the airconditioning system. Characteristics of sick building syndrome includes dizziness,

headaches, pain above the eyes, nose and throat irritations, flu or cold-like symptoms and a
general feeling of lethargy and heaviness. The lack of fresh air means that there is a build up of
chemical and VOCs in the air of the building, which originates from photocopiers and fax
machines. Diseases can be spread easily due to the build-up of germs in the system. Sick building
syndrome can be reduced by improving the air-conditioning systems, increasing the amount of
fresh air drawn into the system and disinfecting filtering systems and cooling water tanks.

4.5

THE BODYS REACTION TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES

After absorption, various things happen to toxic substances before they affect the way the body
functions.
(a) Distribution
After entering the bloodstream a substance is circulated through many organs and tissues where
deposition or selective deposition can take place. This depends on:
(i) Blood circulation rate: If the rate through any organ is high, more of the toxic
substance reaches it.
(ii) Chemical and physical properties:

Fat vs. water solubility is important.

Organic solvents are concentrated in lipid (fat) tissues. Benzene is concentrated in

bone marrow where it depresses the blood forming processes and may eventually
cause leukemia. Other solvents concentrate in the brain tissue and most of them
have a narcotic effect.
(iii) Duration of exposure:

The longer the exposure lasts, the more of the

substance is absorbed and stored until equilibrium between absorption and

excretion is reached. If exposure lasts a long time, fat-soluble substances will tend
to concentrate in subcutaneous fat.

(b)

Detoxification

The body acts on the absorbed substances in various ways. The main chemical processes take
place in the liver - processes such as oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis and synthesis. Substances
may be made more soluble in water and be excreted via the kidneys. Substances can be made less
toxic - toluene is changed into benzoic and/or hippuric acid. Other substances may become more
toxic, e.g. parathion becomes paraoxon. The importance of a healthy liver if you work in the
chemical industry cannot be stressed enough.
(c)

Elimination
(i) Via the kidneys: Mention has already been made of water soluble
substances taking this route.
(ii) Via the airways: Just as gases and vapours are absorbed into the body when the
external concentration exceeds the internal concentration in the lungs, so vapours
and gases are eliminated when the external concentration drops. Mention has been
made of the elimination of dusts from the lungs.
(iii) Via the digestive tract: Some toxic substances are changed in the liver and
excreted with bile into the gut. Others present in the bowels are changed locally
into inert substances and excreted
(iv) Via the skin: This route is not particularly significant.
(v) Storage in the body: Examples are organochlorinc storage in body fat, lead
storage in bone, arsenic in hair and nails. Total DDT concentration in the
population of South Africa in 1970 was @ 6,35 ppm which is equal to 6 metric
tons.

(d)

Accumulation

Elimination is exponential, i.e. a specific percentage is eliminated per time unit. The biological
half-life varies from a few hours for solvents to 9 months for dieldrin. If the biological life of a
substance is short, the intermittent nature of work - 8 hours per day, 5 days a week - helps the
body to clear itself If the biological life is long, accumulation takes place until equilibrium is
reached - the so-called ceiling level for any specific intensity of toxic exposure. The important
question is whether the ceiling level is high enough to bring about signs and symptoms of
poisoning.
The substance itself or the substance it breaks down into has toxic effects on the body. There is
usually a quantitative relationship between dose and effect.
The same product can have different effects, i.e. benzene can have a narcotic effect, but also
affects the production of blood. The effect can van,' in animals and in people. Different agents can
have the same effect in people.
The body can also absorb substances through the skin (organophosphate poisoning) and through
the mouth as well as through the respirator}' tract. This accentuates the fact that the whole body
can be affected - and not only the lungs. The effects can be acute or chronic and are
concentration-dependent.
(e)

Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity

Different cancers and tumours (growths) are caused by factors such as chemicals, ultraviolet
light and radiation. Cancer implies the uncontrolled growth of cells beyond the normal
physiology.
B-naphthylaminc compounds have caused cancer of the bladder in the rubber industry. Other
carcinogens are dimethylbenzidine (0 - tolidine) and diphenylamine, to mention a few.

Pulmonary diseases
There are four main types of diseases which are caused by the inhalation of dust, gas or smoke.
Chronic obstructive air canal diseases include conditions such as asthma, emphysema and
bronchitis.
Bissinosis occurs especially among textile workers because of cotton dust. "Hard metal
disease" (cemented tungsten carbide) can be contracted where drilling is carried
out and metalwork is done.

Granulomatous disease
An example is a disease which is contracted from birds as a result of proteins in
the excreta of certain birds which cause a type of allergic reaction in the lungs.
Bagassosis from sugar cane and chronic beryllium infection of the lung result in
granuloma formation.

Chemical pneumonia
Here pulmonary oedema develops causing damage to the mucous membrane in
the lungs. Sulphur dioxide, cadmium fumes and phosgene can cause it.

Pneumokoniosis
This term refers to dust inhalation with lung infection which leads to fibrous
changes in the lungs Silica, asbestos, tin, talcum, glass fibres, etc. cause
permanent lesions and the formation of connective tissue in the lungs, which can
result in permanent damage.

4,6

UNITS AND CONCEPTS IN TOXICOLOGY

Toxicity' of a substance is its ability to cause harm when it reaches a susceptible organ in the
human body. Hazard refers to the probability that the substance will be harmful. "Working with"
is not necessarily synonymous with "exposed to". It all depends on the type and nature of the
work.
Toxicity is expressed in terms of the LDst). It is the amount of a substance in mg/kg which will
kill 50 % of test animals. It is expressed in oral, dermal or inhalation doses.
Maximum allowable concentrations are expressed in terms of Threshold Limit Values (TLVs).

TLV (Threshold Limit Values) refer to airborne concentrations of substances and represent
conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed to day
after day without adverse effect.
(i) TLV - TWA (Time Weighted Average) is the average concentration for a normal 8hour workday and a 40-hour work week, to which nearly all workers maybe
repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse effect.
(ii) TLV - STEL (short-term exposure limit) is the concentration to which workers
can be exposed continuously for a short period of time without suffering from the
following:
(1) Irritation
(2) Chronic or irreversible tissue damage
(3) Narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental
injury, impair self-rescue or materially reduce work efficiency and
provided that the daily TLV-TWA is not exceeded
(iii) TLV-C (ceiling) is the concentration of a substance, which should not be exceeded
during any part of exposure during work.
Quoted from "Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents." Issued by
the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACG1H).
In the Regulations for Hazardous Chemical Substances Government Notice R 1179 of 25 August
1995, promulgated in terms of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993, the term OEL
(Occupational Exposure Limits) is used.
"OEL or occupational exposure limit means a limit value set by the Minister for a stress factor in
workplace as devised from time to time by notice in the Government Gazette."

For more information refer to the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 and the
Regulations for Hazardous Chemical Substances Government Notice R 1179 of 25 August 1995.
TLV values arc calculated according to a dosage-effect relationship, and the dosage is then the
load which the human body can accumulate over a short period (acute effects) or over a long
period (chronic effects).
If exposure to a constant concentration of a substance with reasonably acute effects should take
place, the "burden" on the body will increase up to a level where the degree of intake by the body
balances the degree of neutralisation or elimination (excretion) of the substance by the body. This
neutralisation or elimination occurs either because the substance is metabolised (broken down) or
because the body excretes it. The time which it takes the body to excrete the substance is called
the "biological half-life".

4.7 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON THE MAN-MADE

ENVIRONMENT
Mechanism of damage
Different pollutants are concerned with this, but the effect of pollutants of the man-made
environment is particularly the result of acidic chemical mist, oxidising agents, hydrogen sulphide
and secondary pollution which also plays a large role.
(a)

The mechanism incorporates the following:

(i) Wearing away or abrasion by solid parts of sufficient size which move at high
speed.
(ii) Formation of precipitates which then have to be removed
(iii) Direct chemical reaction

(iv) Indirect chemical reaction

(v) Electrochemical corrosion
Certain materials absorb dusts or dusts are precipitated on their surfaces and they are then
damaged if the pollutant undergoes chemical change.
(b)

Atmospheric conditions which could assist the mechanisms are:

(i) Moisture
(ii) Temperature <iii>
Sunlight
(iv) Air movement

(c)

Specific mechanisms which could promote damage

The major effects of air pollutants on metals are corrosion of the surface, with eventual loss of
material from the surface, and alteration in the electrical properties of the metals. Metals are
divided into two categories, namely ferrous and non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron and
include various types of steel. Non-ferrous metals, such as zinc, aluminium, copper, and silver do
not contain iron.
Three factors influence the rate of corrosion of metals, namely moisture, type of pollutant and
temperature. In materials containing iron numerous small electrochemical nuclei form where these
are exposed to the atmosphere. Anode and cathode poles are then formed. The difference in
potential between the positive and negative poles is the driving power behind corrosion (the
movement of electrons). It then becomes part of the electrochemical and indirect electrochemical
processes. Sulphur dioxide removes the oxidised layer of such a product which exposes it to the
atmosphere which then results in the process.

(i) Rubber and other chemical products

Rubber and leather absorb sulphur dioxide which then changes into sulphuric
acid, which affects the leather. In the case of rubber, cracks or discolouration
occur as a result of sunlight (photochemically). This can, however, not always be
distinguished from the strong oxidising or reducing properties of ozone.
Effects on ornamental stone
The primary concern with regard to air pollution is the soiling and deterioration of limestone,
w'hich is widely used as a building material and for marble statuary.
Many buildings in older cities have been exposed to urban smoke, sulphur dioxide (SO 2), and
carbon dioxide (CO2) for decades. The surfaces have become soiled and are subjected to chemical
attack by acid gases. Sulphur dioxide and moisture react with limestone (CaC 03) to form calcium
sulfate and gypsum (CaS04 2H2O). These two sulfates are fairly soluble in water, causing
deterioration in blocks and in the mortar used to hold the blocks together. In the presence of
moisture, carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid. This acid converts the limestone into bicarbonate,
which is also water soluble and can be leached away by rain. This type of mechanism is present in
the deterioration of marble statues.
Effects on fabrics and dyes
The major effects of air pollution on fabrics are soiling and loss of tensile strength. Sulphur
oxides are considered to cause the greatest loss of tensile strength. The most widely publicised
example of this type of problem has been newspaper comments of damage to women's nylon hose
by air pollution. While the mechanism is not understood, it is thought that fine droplets of
sulphuric acid aerosol deposit on the very thin nylon fibres causing them to fail under tension.
Cellulose fibres are also weakened by sulphur dioxide. Cotton, linen, hemp and rayon are subject
to damage from SO2 exposure

4.8 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON THE NATURAL

ENVIRONMENT
Effects of air pollution on plants
Injury versus damage
The United States Department of Agriculture makes a distinction between air pollution damage
and air pollution injury. Injury is considered to be any observable alteration in the plant when
exposed to air pollution. Damage is defined as an economic or aesthetic loss due to interference
with the intended use of a plant. This distinction indicates that injury by air pollution does not
necessarily result in damage because any given injury may not prevent the plant from being used
as intended, e.g. marketed. Vegetation reacts with air pollution over a wide range of pollutant
concentrations and environmental conditions. There are many factors which influence the
outcome including plant species, age, nutrient balance, soil conditions, temperature, humidity and
sunlight. Any type of observable effect due to exposure can be termed plant injury.
At low levels of exposure for a given species and pollutant, no significant effects may be
observed. However, as the exposure level increases a series of potential injuries may occur,
including biochemical alterations, physiological response, visible symptoms and eventual death.
Air pollutants may enter plant systems by either a primary or a secondary pathway. The primary
pathway can be compared to human inhalation. Both of the outer surfaces are covered by a layer
of epidermal cells, which help in moisture retention. Between the epidermal layers are the
mesophyll cells and the spongy and palisade parenchymas. The leaf has a vascular bundle which
carries water, minerals and carbohydrates throughout the plant.
Two important features in plants are the openings in the epidermal layers called stomata which
are controlled by guard cells which can open and close, and air spaces in the interior of the leaf.

The leaf structure has several important functions, three of which are photosynthesis,
transpiration and respiration. Photosynthesis is accomplished by chloroplasts in the leaf which
combine water and CO2 in the presence of sunlight to form sugars and release 02. This process is
shown in the following equation:
6CO2

+ 6II2O ->

C6H,206, + 602

+ hv
Transpiration is the movement of water from the root system up to the leaves, and its subsequent
evaporation to the atmosphere. This process moves nutrients throughout the plant and cools the
plant. Respiration is a heat-producing process resulting from the oxidation of carbohydrates by
oxygen (02> to form carbon dioxide (C02) and water (H20), as shown the following equation:
CeH^Oe + 602 ->

6H20 + 6CO2

These three functions involve the movement of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water. With the
diffusion of gases into and out of the leaf, pollutant gases have a direct pathway to the cellular
system of the leaf structure. Direct deposition of particulate matter also occurs on the outer
surfaces of the leaves.
The indirect pathway by which air pollutants interact with plants is through the root system. The
deposition of air pollutants on soils and surface water can cause alteration of the nutrient content
of the soil near the plant. This change in soil condition can lead to indirect or secondary effects of
air pollutants on vegetation and plants.
Injury to plants and vegetation is caused by a variety of factors of which air pollution is only one.
Drought, too much water, heat and cold, hail, insects, animals, disease and poor soil conditions are
some of the other causes of plant injury and possible plant damage. Estimates suggest that less
than 5 % of total crop losses are related to air pollution. Air pollution has a much greater impact
on some geographical areas and crops than others. Crop failure can be

caused by fumigation from a local air pollution source, or by more widespread and more frequent
exposure to adv erse levels of pollution.
Vegetation develops certain characteristics which can lead to the recognition of air pollution in a
specific environment. If a field survey should be planned in order to determine whether a certain
area has a determinable air pollution problem, plant surveys are ideal but this is also a specialised
study.
Certain species of plants can be cultivated for monitoring purposes in order to observe whether
air pollution exists in a particular environment. The species are then observed in order to
determine sensitivity levels. (After Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Second Edition A C Stem etal.)

4.9

MEASUREMENT OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Sulphur dioxide
In South Africa, two techniques are commonly used for the determination of levels of sulphur
dioxide in the atmosphere. One is a very simple method developed originally by the National
Survey of Smoke and Sulphur Dioxide in Great Britain. The method was adopted in South Africa
and changed slightly by using a pH meter instead of a BDH indicator as specified by the original
method. ITie method involves the absorption of sulphur dioxide in a hydrogen peroxide solution
to form sulphuric acid. The resultant acid is determined by acid-base titrations which is subjected
to interference by other gaseous, acidic or base compounds such as nitric acid or ammonia.
Because sulphur dioxide levels have decreased the reliability of measurements made by titrations
has been reduced and many of the measurements are now done by the determination of sulphate
levels by ion chromatography, which yields results specific to sulphur dioxide.
Because of the widespread occurrence of and interest in SO2 emissions, a simple and cheap
method is sought which will also enable smaller concerns to undertake SO 2 tests. The hydrogen
peroxide method which was recommended to South African local authorities by the CSIR is one
(CSIR Special Report SMOG 5, Pretoria 1971).

A measured volume of air is drawn through a dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide. The SO 2
dissolves and is oxidised to sulphuric acid.
S02 + H20

-> H2SO3

H2SO3 + H2O2

H2SO4

The sulphuric acid formed is titrated with a 0,004 M sodium tetraborate solution to an end point
of pH 4,5. The SO2 concentration is then given by:
M,
C= 128 x pgW

where
C

the concentration in micrograms per cubic metre

the mass of titrant

the volume of air in cubic metres

A control solution is kept in parallel to trace any pH changes which may occur due to other
factors.
The method is subject to interference from substances such as acid fumes or ammonia. Gaseous
acidity will cause false high results and ammonia will cause low or negative results. Sampling
sites must not be chosen in the vicinity of known sources of ammonia or acids other than H2SO4.
The most commonly instrumental technique used is based on measurement of fluorescence
excited by radiation in the region of 214 nm. Commercial instruments which are capable of
measuring to less than 0,1 ppb are available as well as instruments for measuring sources in the
range of thousands of ppm. This method is subject to interferences from water vapour

which quenches the SO2 fluorescence and any hydrocarbons capable of fluorescing at the

Analysers using electrochemical cells are available for measuring SO 2 at levels of 1 ppm.

The classic method for carbon dioxide (CO) determination is the absorption of the gas in an
alkaline solution of cuprous chloride. With the aid of an Orsat apparatus, a specific volume of air
is repeatedly bubbled through the solution until all the CO is absorbed. The concentration can be
calculated from the difference in volume before and after absorption This method is suitable for
concentrations of 100 ppm and above.
Concentrations of below 20 ppm can be determined using the manual p-sulphaminobenzoic acid
colorimetric method, which is based on the reaction between carbon monoxide and an alkaline
solution of the silver salt of p-sulphaminobenzoic acid. A colloidal suspension of silver is formed.
The absorbency of the suspension is determined at a wavelength of 425 pm for high sensitivity
and at 600 pm for low sensitivity. Acetylene, aldehydes, olefins and hydrogen sulphide interfere
with the determination by reducing the silver salt of precipitating silver sulphide. These
substances must be scrubbed out by passing the sample over silica gel

Non-dispersive infrared analysers with a response time of 5 seconds may be used to measure
carbon monoxide in ambient air where levels encountered normally lie within the range of 1

An analyser for continuous monitoring of carbon monoxide at levels down to 1 ppm uses an
electrochemical cell and give a response time of about 25 seconds.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons can be classified into groups of which the most important are the paraffins, olefins
and aromatics - especially the polycyclic aromatics as they are the most hazardous to health. From
a photochemical reactivity point of view, olefins rank first followed by the aromatics and then the
paraffins. Methane is the most inactive paraffin and the most abundant hydrocarbon in motor car
exhausts.
A gas chromatograph (GC) is generally used for the identification and quantitative determination
of these compounds. This instrument passes the sample through a column by means of a carrier
gas which separates the sample into different components. Each compound is registered as it
passes a detector as it leaves the column. The retention time of the compound in the column is
used to identify the compound. The signal volume from the detector is proportional to the mass or
concentration of the compound passing it. Thus, a quantitative measure of the compound is
attained.
Direct sampling may be done by taking and keeping an air sample in an inert container and
transferring it into the GC column by means of a sample loop.
Indirectly the hydrocarbons can first be absorbed into a material such as activated charcoal. From
here they are extracted using carbon disulphide. A measured quantity of the extract is then injected
into the column. The hydrocarbons can also be trapped by freezing them out or filtering them out.
Ozone
The two widely used methods for the determination of ozone are: spectrophotometrically and by
ultra violet absorption.
One of the most widely used methods for determining ozone is based on the oxidation of iodide
by ozone to iodine. The resulting iodine is then determined spectrophotometrically by measuring
the light absorption of 13 at 352 nm. Interferences from other gases do occur. An

equimolar concentration of SO2 will reduce the ozone concentration by 100 per cent. The SO 2
can be removed by oxidising it to sulphate with glass fibre filter paper impregnated with
chromium trioxide. This also oxidises any NO to N0 2. An equimolar concentration of N0 2 will
increase the ozone concentration by ten per cent. If simultaneous determinations of S02 and N02
are done, the method may simply be corrected by the appropriate values from such
determinations.
The UV absorption of ozone at 254 nm may be used for determinations at levels down to 1 ppb.
Interferences from other UV absorbing pollutants such as mercury and hydrocarbons can be
minimised by taking two readings.
Nitrogen oxides
A well-known technique for the determination of oxides of nitrogen is based on the
chemiluminescent reaction of nitrogen oxide and ozone to give an electronically excited nitrogen
dioxide which emits light in the 600 - 3 000 nm region with a maximum intensity at 1 20 nm.
NO + 03

- N02* + 02

N02+

-> NO2+ hv

Suspended particulate matter

Dust is the general term for particulate matter in the air. Large particles in the air will settle under
the force of gravity. The settling velocity is proportional to the diameter of the particle and can be
calculated. The settling velocity of particles with diameters of less than 10 p is slow and the
particles remain suspended in the air for long periods until they are removed by impaction or
atmospheric dispersion. Larger particles are considered to be sinking particles.
(a)

Dust fall-out

The large particles manifest themselves as dust fall-out which is measured by a static dust
collector (usually a cylindrical container 1,13 to 0,20 m in diameter and 0,18 to 0,30 m in height).
The container is supported by a suitable stand not less than 1,4 metres above the

ground (Figure 1). II gusting winds prevail in an area and the temperatures are high, water
containing algaecide must be added to retain the particles and to prevent the growth of algae.
The sample is usually collected over a period of one month. After collection the dust is
transferred into a suitable beaker writh water and a rubber-tipped glass spatula. The soluble
and insoluble solids in the sample are separated by filtration and their masses determined in
the laboratory. The dust fall-out is expressed as:

M
D= x

000

mg/m /day

where
= dust fall-out
= mass total solids in grams
= area of collector in m
= collecting period in days

Stainless steel stand

PVC Bucket with clay

Figure 4.1:Schematic representation of the fall-out dust sampling system

(b)

Suspended particulate matter

The concentrations of particulate matter suspended in the air can be determined by drawing a
known volume of air through a filter of known mass. Particulate mass can be determined by
reweighing the filter after sampling. The device for collecting the particulates can be a high
volume pump with a flow rate of about 1,7 mVmirL The pump is connected to a filler holder who
is shielded to eliminate any dust fall-out. If the flow rate is fixed and known for a specific pump,
the volume of air can be calculated from the period of sampling (usually 24 hours). The
concentrations of suspended particulate matter arc expressed in milligrams or micrograms per
cubic metre of air.
~PM10
SIZE-

PM^ SIZE-SELECTIVE INLET

SELECTIVE INLET

MANIFOLD
FOUR FILTER HOLDER MOUNTS
ENCLOSURE CONTAINING MASS FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM

Figure 4.2: Example of an ambient sampler with size selective inlets

(c)

Determination of particle sizes.

Because particles smaller than approximately 7 pm can penetrate the lungs, it is of great
importance to gain knowledge about the aerodynamic dust particle sizes.
The aerodynamic size of particles in the air can be determined with a cascade impaclor which
consists of a battery of perforated plates, each having holes decreasing in size from plate to plate.
Impaction discs are positioned below the spaces. Because of inertia large particles will separate
from the air flow at low speed and settle on the impaction disc. As the sizes of the

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holes decrease, smaller and smaller particles settle on the plates. Finally the air is passed through

a membrane or nuclepore filter, lhe particle size distribution is determined by the differences in
mass of the impaction discs and filter paper which are weighed before and after sampling. The air
volume is calculated from the sampling time and the pumping rate. Sampling time is determined
by the type of impactor.
Another way to determine the aerodynamic size of particles in the air is to use size selective
inlets, e.g. PMio and PM25. A PM10 inlet has a 50 % efficiency at 10 micrometre in aerodynamic
diameter and is usually used to sample those particles less titan 10 micrometres in diameter. A PM2
5 inlet

only samples particles less than 2,5 micrometres in size.

The method for the determination of PM10 and PM25 involves using a high volume air sampler
capable of drawing air through the filter at a rate of about 1 m3/min through a PM]0 or PM2 5 inlet.
The sampler is run for 24 hours and the increase in mass of the filter together with the volume of
air passed through the filter is used to calculate the concentration of airborne particulate matter.
Measurements in real time can be made by using the TEOM (Tapered Element Oscillating
Microbalance) sampler. In this sampler, particles are collected on a filter which is attached to a
vibrating element whose vibrational frequency changes with the accumulation of particles on its
tip. Measurement of the vibrational frequency is used to estimate the mass of particles collected.

4.10 AMBIENT AIR MONITORING

The most formidable problem is the low concentrations which must be catered for. Depending on
the substance, it varies from parts of a microgram (fraction of a part per billion) to a few
milligrams per cubic metre. If particulates are to be monitored, large volumes must be sampled to
obtain a workable size, while the detection technique must be sensitive for gasses.

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To cover all possible detection and quantification techniques an extensive study would have to be
performed.
The brief summary below will, however, give an indication of the variety of techniques which
may be employed to monitor ambient air.

Dust - Collection

- Centrifugal
- Impaction
- High volume medium pore filtration

- Quantification
- Gravimetric
- Optical (stain)
- Identification

- Microscopic
- Spectra
- X-ray diffraction
- prxm
- Neutron activation
- Atomic absorption
- Combustion -Wet chemical

Fume - Collection

- Quantification

- High volume fine pore filtration

- Gravimetric
- Optical

- Identification
Droplets - Collection

- Same as for dust

- Absorption on solid filters
- Solution in suitable solvent

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- Quantification

- Gravimetric
- Wet chemical

- Identification

- Chromatography
- Wet chemical

Mists - Collection

- Filtration on tightly packed column

- Quantification

- Same as for droplets

- Identification

- Same as for droplets

Organic gases: - Collection

- Adsorption on solids
- Solution in solvents

- Quantification

- Gas chromatography

- Identification
- Flame ionisation
- Electron capture
- Element selective detectors

A brief list of gases which can be monitored by different methods is given below.

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Wet chemical methods

1
3
0
- Most gases

Flame ionisation

-S02

UV spcctrometrie

- so2f no2, 02

IR. spe ctro metric

-CO

Electrochemical diffusion

- CO, h2s, so2, no2, Cl2

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Pulsed fluorescence

- H2S, S02

Chemiluminescence

- NO, N02, NOx, NH3,03

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In order to measure the sample of air without contamination, it is important to use inert material
which does not react with the pollutant gases. Glass and teflon do not react chemically with the
criteria pollutants and a stainless steel manifold can be used when measuring CO. The inlet
plumbing should be short in length to minimise the secondary- transit time effects of nitrogen
oxide combining with ozone to form nitrogen dioxide. Maintenance-free operation is desirable for
long-term unattended service.
The most effective unit is manufactured from a glass tube of approximately 50 mm in diameter
and is of suitable length so it can reach from the analyser cubicle, through the shelter to a height of
at least 1 metre above and away from any surface. The top of the tube is bent at an angle of 180
to reduce the ingress of moisture and particulates. Any joints are made of glass or teflon and are
leak free. The cubicle end of the sample tube is fitted with a small centrifugal fan to achieve high
volume throughput. The exhaust is vented into the atmosphere. Each analyser is then
interconnected to the manifold by means of teflon tubing.
Practically any combination of air pollutants has to be catered for ambient air monitoring. In
practice this is all but impossible. A very typical limited ambient air survey station would contain
the following:
-

A gravity type dust collector such as a cyclone or an impactor for periodic quantification
and identification of the samples

A fine pore filter to collect fumes for periodic analysis

Equipment to sample droplets and mists for periodic assessment

-

A charcoal or other ty pe of filter for absorption or solution of organic vapours for

intermittent evaluation

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- Individual inorganic gas measuring trains to give continuous readings of:

so2

NOx

Oxidants

CO
Possibly H2S, NH3, halogens etc.

The station would also record wind direction and speed, temperature, possibly humidity and
precipitation and would be housed in an air-conditioned space of not less than 15 square metres,
with an electrical supply, drains and telemetering facilities.

4.11 LEGISLATION
The pollution of the atmosphere by noxious and offensive gasses, smoke, dust and diesel
emissions are dealt by the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act. Indoor air quality is not readily
controlled other than in terms of workplace requirements in the Occupational Health and Safety
Act. Despite this, poor management of office building air-conditioning equipment is probably
responsible for decreasing indoor air quality (sick building syndrome) and the associated loss of
productivity.
It is expected that increased awareness is likely to result in more focus being placed on the
workplace as the area requiring more control and occupational health enforcement.

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4.11.1 The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965 (APPA)

A more detailed discussion on air pollution legislation is given in Fuggle and Rabie Chapter 17.7.
The object of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act is to provide for the prevention of
pollution of the atmosphere and for related matters. This is done by means of regulating the
control of noxious or offensive gases (Part II), smoke (Part III), dust (Part IV), and air pollution by
fumes emitted by vehicles (Part V).
Regulations were made under the Act to fulfil the above objectives. Government Notice R1776 of
4 October 1968 declared the whole of South Africa to be subject to the provisions relating to the
control of noxious and offensive gases, while Government Notice R1775 of 4 October 1968 gave
the definition of such gases. A number of regulations were made under sections 14, 18 and 20 of
the Act, in terms of which local authorities have been declared bound by the provisions of Part III
of the Act. It declares which local authorities have adopted smoke control regulations and in which
areas smoke control zones have been designated. Regulations were also promulgated under Part
IV of the Act in terms of which areas have been declared as dust control areas. A number of local
authorities were declared bound by the provisions of Part V of the Act which relates to the control
of motor vehicle emissions. By means of Government Notice R1651 of 20 September 1974,
regulations were made on air pollution by fumes emitted by diesel-driven vehicles.
The regulations made under this Act have been administered by the local authorities. In terms of
Part B of the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution, air pollution has been defined as a concurrent
national and provincial competence, and Part B gives local authorities executive authority and
administrative control. The administration of the Act has been assigned to the Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism.
For any of the requirements regarding the prevention of pollution to apply, the relevant
municipality must first be declared a "controlled area". By virtue of Government Notice No

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1776 in Government Gazette No 2179 of 4/10/1968, Part II of the APPA has been made
applicable to the whole of the Republic of South Africa.
Noxious or offensive gases
The definition for noxious or offensive gases, contained in section 1 of the Act, reads as follows:
"...any of the following groups of compounds when in the form of gas, namely, hydrocarbons;
alcohols; aldehydes; ketones; ethers; esters; phenols; organic acids and their derivatives; halogens,
organic nitrogen, sulphur and halogen compounds; cyanides; cyanogens; ammonia and its
compounds; inorganic acids; fumes containing antimony, arsenic, beryllium, chromium, cobalt,
copper, lead, manganese, mercury, vanadium or zinc or their derivatives; cement works fumes and
odours from purification plants, glue factories, cement works and meat, fish or whale processing
factories; and any other gas, fumes or particulate matter which the Minister may by notice in the
Gazette declare to be noxious or offensive gas for the purposes of this Act; and includes dust from
asbestos treatment or mining in any controlled area which has not been declared a dust control
area in terms of section 27".
Part II of the Act deals with the control of noxious or offensive gases. The control is done by the
identification of possible pollutants - produced in scheduled processes - in Schedule 2 to the Act.
Such a scheduled process may only be performed by a person who is " ...the holder of a current
registration certificate authorizing him to carry' on that process in or on those premises" (section
9(1 )(i)). Section 10 sets out the procedure that must be follow'ed in an application for such a
registration certificate. The Chief Air Pollution Control Officer must be approached and must be
satisfied " ...that the best practicable means are being adopted for preventing or reducing to a
minimum the escape into the atmosphere of noxious or offensive gases produced or likely to be
produced by the scheduled process in question..." (section 10(2)(a)(i)).

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It is advisable to compare all the processes that are proposed to be conducted by an industry, with
the processes listed in the Second Schedule to this Act to establish whether any scheduled
processes will be conducted. The chances are that scheduled processes will be carried out. If the
planning engineer has established that his project involves a scheduled process, the correct
procedure would be to fill in the prescribed application form (as per the Second Schedule of
Government Notice No R 561 in Government Gazette 5058 of 2 April 1976) and to forward same
to the Chief Air Pollution Control Officer ("CAPCO"), and await his response. CAPCO might
either approve the application for the certificate, or he might "by notice in writing require the
applicant to take the necessary steps within a period specified in the notice for preventing or
reducing to a minimum the escape into the atmosphere of noxious or offensive gases produced or
likely to be produced by the said scheduled process." (section 10(2)(a)(ii)).
CAPCO has the right in terms of section 12 to subject registration certificates to conditions:
"(1) A registration certificate shall be subject to the condition that all plant and apparatus used for
the purpose of carrying on the scheduled process in question and all appliances for preventing or
reducing to a minimum the escape into the atmosphere of noxious or offensive gases, shall at all
times be properly maintained and operated and that the holder of the certificate shall ensure that
all other necessary measures are taken to prevent the escape into the atmosphere of noxious or
offensive gases ..."
An important exemption is that "due allowance shall be made for the unavoidable escape into the
atmosphere of noxious or offensive gases during the starting up of any plant or apparatus in
respect of which the registration certificate was issued or during the period of breakdown or
shutting down or disturbance of such apparatus or plant." (see section 12(1)).
Sections 12(2) and 12(3) respectively allow CAPCO to demand that the appliance preventing the
escape of the offending gases be improved or substituted in its entirety with a more effective
appliance. He would probably do so with reasonable notice, and if technology demands it and if it
is practical to the holder of the registration certificate to do so.

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The implication of section 12 is that the registration certificate is valid for an unlimited time, but
is subject to the conditions which CAPCO, at his sole discretion, may amend from time to time.
Section 9(2) makes it an offence to conduct any scheduled process without a registration
certificate. The maximum as per section 46 of the Act is a fine of R 500,00 or (on nonpayment)
imprisonment of six months in the case of a first offence. In the case of a second offence, a fine of
R 2 000,00 or imprisonment of one year is possible.
Section 9 provides for the issuing of provisional registration certificates.
Firstly a provisional certificate must always be applied for if the actual building or erection of a
facility for a scheduled process is envisaged and no registration certificate for that scheduled
process has been granted (section 9(l)(b)). The emphasis of this application lies in the scheduled
process to be conducted.
Secondly a provisional registration certificate must be applied for if the alteration of an existing
building or plant for which there already exists a registration certificate, is envisaged (section 9(1 )
(c)).
CAPCO's discretion to issue the provisional registration certificate is limited by the requirements
of section 10(4) and 10(5). For both types of provisional certificates, CAPCO has to satisfy
himself "...that the scheduled process in question may reasonably be permitted to be carried on in
the locality affected, having regard to the nature of that process, the character of the locality in
question, the purposes for which other premises in such locality are used and any other
considerations which in his opinion have a bearing on the matter, and that the carrying on of that
process in or on the premises in question would not be in conflict with any town-planning
scheme ..."
For a provisional certificate under section 9(1 )(b), CAPCO must consult with the local authority
in whose area the scheduled process will take place as well as with the local authority in whose
area the affected residents live.

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The provisional certificate is valid for the period as stipulated by CAPCO.

Smoke

Several sections under the APPA deal with the regulation of smoke pollution. They are contained
in Part III, section 15 and 16. The emphasis is on the control of the "fuel burning appliance" that
causes or might cause smoke pollution. The local authority supervises the installation of the "fuel
burning appliances", in contrast to the scheduled processes which are supervised by CAPCO.
To summarise: in order for the prohibitions under this part of the APPA to apply, the following
criteria must be followed:
First it must be established that the apparatus in question amounts to a "fuel burning appliance" in
terms of both the Act and the regulations set by the municipality.
Secondly, it must be established that the apparatus in question produces smoke of the quality as
prescribed in the regulations under Government Notice R 437.
Fuel-burning appliances:

Section I of the APPA contains this definition: "fuel-burning appliance" means any furnace, boiler
or other appliance designed to bum or capable of burning liquid fuel or gaseous fuel or wood, coal
or anthracite or other solid fuel, or used to dispose of any material by burning or to subject solid
fuel to any process involving the application of heat.". The definition contained in Notice No R
437 is identical.
The emphasis throughout this section is on the word "burning". In the absence of any other
definition, the dictionary definition may be used. "Burning" is defined as a process involving fire.
"Fire" is defined as a "process of combustion, in which substances combine chemically with
oxygen from the air". Arc furnaces, although called "furnaces" (and therefore seemingly

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initiating a process of "burning") do not use a process based on the chemical reaction with
oxygen. Arc furnaces make use of a complex technology whereby the relatively high resistance
threshold of gases (which have non-conducting characteristics) is broken down by a high voltage
electrical current.
The next step is the evaluation of the smoke caused by the appliance. Government Notice No R
437 states:
"2(1) Save as provided in subregulation (2), no owner or occupier of any premises shall, except
for an aggregate period not exceeding three minutes during any continuous period of 30 minutes,
permit the emission or emanation from such premises of smoke of such a density or content as
will obscure light to an extent greater than 40 percent."
A similar exemption as with scheduled processes exists in the Notice:
"2(2) The provisions of subregulation (1) shall not apply to smoke emanating or emitted in
contravention of that subregulation from a fuel-burning appliance during the start-up period or, if
such emanation or emission could not reasonably have been prevented, while such appliance is
being overhauled or during the period of any breakdown or disturbance of such appliance."
Installation of the appliance without approval allows the municipality to write to the installer,
ordering him to remove the fuel burning appliance from the premises (section 4 of the Notice).
The Council may also write to the installer, where such a fuel burning appliance has been
installed, ordering that a smoke-measuring apparatus be installed to measure the actual emission
of smoke (section 5).
Section 9 of the Notice explains that any contravention of the stipulations of the Notice amounts
to an offence: "(Any person ) ... shall be guilty of an offence and liable on a first conviction to a
fine not exceeding R 200-00 or, in default of payment, to imprisonment for a period not exceeding
six months, and on a second or subsequent conviction, to a fine not

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exceeding R 1 000-00 or, in default of payment, to imprisonment for a period not exceeding 12
months."
In terms of section 17 of the Act, a third party may lodge a complaint with the local authority:
"17.(1) If as a result of representations made to it by any occupier of premises (hereinafter
referred to as the affected premises), a local authority is satisfied that smoke or any other product
of combustion emanating from any premises is a nuisance to the occupier of the affected premises,
that local authority shall cause to be served on the person responsible for such nuisance a notice
calling upon him to abate the nuisance within a period determined by the local authority after
consultation with the chief officer and specified in the notice and to take all such steps as may be
necessary to prevent a recurrence of the nuisance.
(2) For the purposes of sub-section (1) smoke which is prejudicial to health or which adversely
affects the reasonable comfort of the occupier or occupiers of adjoining or nearby premises or
which affects the use of such premises for the purposes for which they are normally permitted to
be used, shall be deemed to be a nuisance ...".
Dust
Section 28 of the APPA (Part IV) regulates dust control.
If the dust (originating from one of three identified sources) is a nuisance to neighbours, the dust
must be contained by the "best practicable means". In practice this includes vegetating stockpiles,
wetting dust, and enclosing the stockpiles.
A pre-requisite for this section to apply is that the dust-causing activity must take place in a dust
control area.
The National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act 103 of 1977 also regulates dust
caused by building activities. (See at the end of this discussion of APPA.)

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Emissions caused by diesel-driven vehicles:

Another probable impact, again of relatively minor importance, is air pollution by fumes emitted
from vehicles on a premises, conduction loading and transporting operations.
Part V of the APPA regulates air pollution by fumes emitted by vehicles.
Government Notice 1651 in Government Gazette No 4393 of 20 September 1974 (as amended by
Government Notices Nos. R 1816 of 26 August 1983 and R 1808 of 17 August 1984) is used by
the local authority to define the limit for allowable emissions.
Section 1 of the Notice reads: "No person shall use or cause or permit to be used upon any public
road, any vehicle driven by a diesel engine if the noxious or offensive gases emitted by such an
engine are of such density or content as to produce, when measured in accordance with regulation
2 -.
(1)

in the case of a local authority mentioned in part 1 of the schedule, with effect from 1

July 1974, a mean reading on the meter greater than 60

(2) in the case of a local authority mentioned in Part 2 of the Schedule, a mean reading on the
meter greater than 65
(3) in the case of a local authority mentioned in part 3 of the Schedule, a mean reading on the
meter greater than 70."
The remainder of the Notice stipulates that a Hartridge-B.P. smoke meter must be used to measure
the density of the smoke. Further instructions for use of the meter are given in the Notice.

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4.11.2

Administrator's Notice No 148 of 21 February 1951

Part IV of this Notice deals with "Public Health". In section 1 of Part IV, the word "nuisance" is
defined as follows:
... the term "nuisance" shall include(a) any premises or part thereof of such a construction or in such a state as to be offensive, injurious,
or dangerous to health
(b) any accumulation or deposit of refuse, offal, manure or other matter which is offensive, injurious
or dangerous to health, ..."
Throughout the Notice the emphasis falls on offensiveness, potential for injury and danger to health.
(This is narrower than the common law concept. However, the common law nuisance concept may
also be relied on for purposes of instituting a civil action against a dust polluter.) The moment that
dust is accumulated to such an extent that it is "offensive, injurious or dangerous to health" (in terms
of paragraph ( f ) ) , it is a nuisance, and the prohibition as contained in section 10 of Part IV applies:
"Prevention of Dust Nuisance.

10. No person shall cause or permit to be discharged into the surrounding atmosphere from any
building or structure in the course of erection or demolition or from any premises at any time any
dust in such quantities or in such a manner as to be offensive, injurious or dangerous to health."
4.11.3

National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act 103 of 1977

This Act deals with all construction-related activities. In section 17(1), it authorises national building
regulations to be made.

Any land owner on whose land excavations are done or where a building is erected or where it is
broken down, must take precautions in the work area and the surrounding walkways and roads to
keep the dust level to a reasonable amount (see F6 of the Regulations).
CHAPTER 5
WARER MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS

PAGE

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5.1

INTRODUCTION

138

5.2

WATER CYCLE

138

5.3

CLIMATE AND GEOGRAPHY

139

5.4

WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND

140

5.5

WATER MANAGEMENT

140

5.6

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

141

5.7

TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION

141

5.7.1

Salination

141

5.7.2

Sediment and silt migration

141

5.7.3

Eutrophication

141

5.7.4

Water plants

142

5.7.5

Harmful inorganic and organic compounds

142

5.7.6

Infectious micro-organisms

144

USE OF WATER BY INDUSTRY

145

5.8