Cambridge Journal of Education and Science. 2016. No1 (15) - Volume II

Cambridge Journal of Education and Science
Cambridge Journal
of Education and Science
No.1. (15), January-June, 2016
VOLUME II
Cambridge University Press

2016
Cambridge Journal of Education and Science, 1(15), (January - June). Volume II.
Cambridge University Press, 2016. - 792 p.
Proceedings of the Journal are located in the Databases Scopus.

Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP): 5.275
SCImago Journal Rank (SJR): 5.347
Editor-in-Chief: Prof. Ella Brown, D. Hum. Litt. (UK)
Executive Editor: Prof. Jesse Hyland, D. Litt. et Phil. (UK)
Technical Editors: Julia Mills, Eva Collins (UK)
Editors:
Prof. Sheila Harbor, Psy. D. (UK)
Prof. Amanda Howard, Psy. D. (UK)
Prof. Preston Smith, Ed.D. (UK)
Prof. David Pearson, D.F. (UK)
Prof. Jimmy Lithgow, D. B. A. (UK)
Prof. Jeffrey Stevenson, Psy. D. (UK)
Prof. James Carpenter, D. Tech. (UK)
Prof. Lauren Robinson, D. G. S. (UK)
Prof. Adam Heigl, D. I. T. (UK)
Prof. Julia Berger, D.Phil. (UK)
Prof. Michael Hiller, D. Litt. (USA)
Prof. Susan Gould, D. Litt. (UK)
Prof. James Hunter, D. S. Sc. (UK)
Prof. Sarah Baker, D. A. (UK)
Prof. Jessica Walker, D. S. Sc. (UK)
Prof. Henry Lennox, D. Hum. Litt. (USA)
Prof. Jonathan Lucas, D. Litt. et Phil. (UK)
Prof. Adelaide Field, D. S. Sc. (New Zealand)
Prof. Christian Mills, D. G. S. (Australia)
Prof. Richard Coventry, D.Sc. (Australia)
Prof. Eva Galan, D.F.A. (France)
Prof. Patrice Lande, D. S. Sc. (France)
Prof. Sophie Holden S. J. D. (Canada)
Prof. Richard Martin, D. S. Sc. (Canada)
Prof. Philip Rice, D. I. T. (Canada)
Prof. Denis Cumming, Ed.D. (UK)
Prof. Anna Hay, Ed.D. (Canada)
Prof. Abigail Lesser, Ed.D. (Canada)
Prof. Joshua Savage, D. M. Sc. (UK)
Prof. Michel River, Psy. D. (New Zealand)
Prof. Emma Allen, Ed.D. (Australia)
Prof. David Lim, D. Sc. (Australia)
Prof. Lance Hagen, D. M. Sc. (UK)
Prof. Charles Winger, D. E. Sc. (UK)
Prof. Daniel Varney, D. E. Sc. (UK)
Prof. Peter Shield, D. Tech. (USA)
Prof. Jonathan Baxley, D. C. S. (UK)
Prof. Glenn Richardson, D.Sc. (UK)
Prof. Jane Walsh, D. C. S. (UK)
Prof. Kevin Rothman, D. Env. (UK)
Prof. Vincent Howard, D. I. T. (UK)
ISSN: 0305-7640

Cambridge University Press, 2016

University of Cambridge, 2016
CONTENTS
Medicine, Pharmacy, Biology & Chemistry
Parag Deepak Dabir, Jens Johannes Christiansen
Not to be Missed Entity: Dieulafoys Lesion!.............................................................................................................9
Ebtesam M. Al-Zabedi, Mahmoud A. Ogaili, Mohamed T. Al-Maktari, Mohamed S. Noman
Hepatitis B Virus Seropositivity among Schistosomiasis and Diabetes Mellitus Patients
in Sanaa City, Yemen................................................................................................................................................13
Hamid Soori, Ali Nasermoadeli, Elaheh Ainy
The Role of Graduated Drivers Licensing on Incidence and Severity of Road Traffic Injuries in Iran.................39
P.S. Pastides, W.S. Khan
Cell-Based Therapies in Musculoskeletal Injuries: The Evolving Role of Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal
Stem Cells..................................................................................................................................................................49
Yu.V. Odinets, N.I. Makieieva, V.A. Golovachova, K.K. Iarova, N.P. Alyeksyeyeva
Macro- and microelement composition of blood and hair and ecological related renal pathology
in children ................................................................................................................................................................71
Vladimir Gryn
The structure of the appendix fetuses, infants, people chest age, mature and senile..............................................82
Ye.N. Pronina, Yu.N. Dovbnya, G.A. Yeroshenko
Morphological and functional features of human frontal sinus anterior wall glands............................................89
Firuza Maksudova, Ekut Karieva
Application of the mathematical planning method for creation of combined capsules of non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory action.........................................................................................................................................93
O.V. Korobka, N.I. Hasjuk, M.N. Fastovets, Z.I. Rossocha, O.M. Kovalova
Association between the I/D polymorphism of the ACE gene and the development
of asphyxia in newborns.........................................................................................................................................101
Y. Chernjavskaja, N. Artemova, E. Kozakevitch, O. Kovalova, V. Pokhylko
4a/4b of the eNOS gene polymorphism is not associated with systemic hemodynamic disorders
in preterm infants with early neonatal sepsis.........................................................................................................110
Ziyoda Fayzieva, Zakira Usmanova
The study of specific activity of diabenit, glikoinuvit and stevil-50 on various models
of experimental hyperglycemia...............................................................................................................................118
. Sharipova, M.Kh. Tursunova, K.S. Makhmudjanova
Data chronic toxicity of the preparation Dragee Leoglisirflom.........................................................................125
Mahamadzarif Kadirov, Ahmadhodja Yunuskhodjaev, Kamoliddin Shadmanov
Coordination compound of cobalt(II) with -amino acids showing blood-forming and antidote activity.........134
E.G. Shvarev, L.V. Dikareva, D.L. Ovodenko, A.K. Aupova, G.E. Shvarev
Markers of Endometrial Biological Fluids in Inner Genitalia Diseases Diagnostics............................................142
Revazi Melkadze, Ketevan Kintsurashvili
The Phenolic complex and antioxidant activity of Caucasian Blackberry (Rubus caucasicus L) leaves.............150
Michael Koptev, Elena Pronina, Sergey Bilash, Angelina Prog-Zakaznikova, Anatoly Bilych
Comparative characteristics of morphological changes in the lungs and the heart of rats,
caused by acute stress..............................................................................................................................................156
Olga Sermukhamedova, Zuriyadda Sakipova, Liliya Ibragimova
Development and validation assessment of flavonoids quantification technique in the grass
of Leonurus turkestanicus......................................................................................................................................163
Snizhana Feysa, Svitlana Opalenyk

Laboratory characteristics of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus with multiple
complications..........................................................................................................................................................171
Tatiana Kovalenko, Yelena Klimova, Valeriy Minukhin, Andrei Kuzmenko
Evaluation of phagocytosis activity in animals of different age in generalized inflammatory process in the
background of immune drug.................................................................................................................................178
Tetiana Svirina-Abramian
Analysis of suicidal danger factor indexes in male patients with alcohol dependence.........................................185
F.S. Khamedova, Z.Yu. Khalimova
Features of a clinical flow and diagnostics of patients with the family anamnesis of inactive adenomas
of hypophysis..........................................................................................................................................................190
Yuliia Lysanets
Child Health Inequality in the 21st Century: Contemporary Policies and Strategies in Tackling
the Problem.............................................................................................................................................................206
Maryna Mishyna, Yuliya Mozgova, Nataliia Makieieva, Victoriia Golovachova, Yuriy Mishyn,
M.R. Abdelgawad Mohamed Khalaf, Laasri Meryem, Elyzaveta Makieieva
Etiology characteristics of pyelonephritis in young children and sensitivity to antibiotics of causative agents
in form of biofilms..................................................................................................................................................212
N.D. Suyunov, N.N. Mastibekov
The prevalence and prognosis of the respiratory organ diseases...........................................................................220
Ambika P. Ashraf, Jessica Alvarez, Carrie Huisingh, Krista Casazza, Barbara Gower
Higher Serum Insulin Concentrations Positively Influence the Bone Mineral Density
in African American Adolescents...........................................................................................................................232
Raquel Caroline Andrade Paiva, Eduardo Jose Rodrigues Garbeloti, Milton Faria Junior,
Carolina Baraldi Araujo Restini
Self-perception of Venous Symptoms and Quality of Life Analysis in Wheelchair Athletes and Non-athletes:
A Pilot Study...........................................................................................................................................................246
Humanities & Social Sciences

Wang Ping
Change and Development: A Case Study of the Implementation of Mandarin Chinese into
the UK School Timetable........................................................................................................................................261
M. Morris, G. Donohoe, M. Hennessy
The Fall and Rise of Medical Students Attitudes to Communication Skills Learning in Ireland:
A Longitudinal Approach......................................................................................................................................274
Gad Yair, Golan Peleg-Fadida
Learning - the Israeli Way: Key Educational Experiences and Classroom Noise.................................................286
Kaarina Mtt, Anne Koski-Heikkinen, Satu Uusiautti
Ideal Teacherhood in Vocational Education..........................................................................................................313
Yulia Goncharova, Alexandra Kolomoychenko
Anglicisms in modern Ukrainian economic and financial discourse: specificity of functioning........................334
Alina Golovachova
Problems definitions of wages and salaries in Ukraine..........................................................................................341
Alla Khomenko
The typology of upbringing paradigms in the system of pedagogical scientific knowledge................................348
A.A. Opletin
Facilities of the physical culture in creating the pedagogical system of a personality self development
on base of the synergy theory about realized and nonrealized in psyche of the person.....................................355
Natalia Chebotareva, Svetlana Kovaleva
Social and Communicative Strategies of Influence on Society in Information Warfare......................................362
Ann Moseychuk
Diagnostics of research competence of future middle ranking medical workers.................................................372
Valentina Bilan
Psychological and pedagogical conditions of formation aesthetic relations future defectologist
to correctional and pedagogical work....................................................................................................................378
Valentina Lyapunova
Sources of development of the ideas of tolerance in Ukraine................................................................................386
Valery Panachev
Pedagogical aspects of the public home rule in university for improvement of sanitary
and atheletic-mass work.........................................................................................................................................395
Valeriia Gutman, Natalia Shklyar
Methods of instrumentation in the process of subjectivation of education content in the institutes
of higher education.................................................................................................................................................401
Volodymyr Mokliak
The autonomy of higher educational establishments of Ukraine in the statute of 1835......................................408
Vugar Mammadzade
Participation of non-governmental organizations (NGO) in the Republic of Azerbaijan for the formation
of civil society at the present stage..........................................................................................................................415
Galina Alekseeva, Dang Chuynh Mai, MSc. Huynh Ngoc Hong Nhung
The system of program events for social-labor integration of disabilities into Russian social environment
through development of the decorative and applied arts (in view of the experience of Vietnam)......................424
Gohar Meliksetyan
Recitatives and Fugues for piano of Aram Khachaturian..................................................................................431
Greta Hakobyan
Some peculiarities of communication between lecturers and students at higher education institutions...........438
Gyuzel Antropova, Semen Matveev, Svetlana Shishkina
Using of factorial and cluster type analysis in pedagogical researches.................................................................444
Dimitrina Hamze
The communicative dynamic of the grotesque a direct successor of the communicative essence
of language..............................................................................................................................................................450
Denis Kislov
Mythological component of marketing communications......................................................................................461
Yelena Kuvarova
Variation of onymous and appellative vocabulary in structure of Russian epistolary vocative...........................469
Elena Osmina, Ekaterina Ponomarenko
Subjective Image of Educational Interaction as a Social-Psychological Factor of Its Development....................477
Irina Astrakhantseva, Zinaida Kuznetsova, Aleksandr Nazarenko
The initial stage of the environmental education as a basis of rational human interaction with nature.............482
I. Parfanovich
Comparative analysis of psychological and pedagogical reculiarities of underage girls with normative
and deviant behavior..............................................................................................................................................491
Inna Boyko
Doctrinal Approaches to the Definition of Legal Validity Concept of International
Judicial Institutions Decisions................................................................................................................................497
Inna Semenets-Orlova
The economic mechanism of public administration of educational changes.......................................................505
Irina Bondarenko
Ethical Category of Honor, Dignity nd Professional Standards of Ukrainian Journalist...................................512
Iryna Pogorska
Strategic ulture: specificities of discourse about the concept efficiency in analyzing the international
political...................................................................................................................................................................518
Larysa Udovyka
Areas of national legal systems in the context of globalization.............................................................................526
Lesya Petrenko
The fundamentals of the new ukrainian educational system in Gr. Vashchenkos pedagogic heritage...............534
Liudmyla Bakhmat
Pedagogical conditions for developing self-assessment of learning achievements of future teachers.................541
Ludmila Pastushenko
Ethical Principles of Constantia in the German Romance of XVII century.........................................................548
Lyudmila Savchenko
Interaction between the family and the institution in the national-patriotic education
hildren and youth.................................................................................................................................................554
Lyudmila Filimonyuk, Viktoria Burljaeva, Konstantin Chebanov
The process of multicultural socialization of young..............................................................................................562
Lyudmila Chikonova
Constitutional right to land: the problem of judicial protection..........................................................................568
Zhamila Mamyrkhanova, Coauthor Zhantas Zhakupov
Dialect problem of the Kazakh people living abroad............................................................................................578
Marina Shulenkova
An interdisciplinary study of the process of education of young people as the subject-oriented forecasting
capacity of educational systems..............................................................................................................................595
Mehriban Tagirova
Paints, describing time ..................................................................................................................................... 604
Valentina Vladymyrova, Nadeschda Kyrylenko
The motive of loneliness in the Olena Pechornas novel The sinner...................................................................615
Namir Al-Ani
Ontology as the doctrine of the divine essence (substance) in neo-Platonism and philosophy
of the European Middle Ages and Renaissance......................................................................................................621
Natalya Bilous
Emotional-philosophical dominants in Annette von Droste-Hulshof s life and creative work...........................631
N.V. Shklyar, O.V. Karynbaeva, E.S. Dunaeva, Y.V. Hodos, E.V. Popova
Teachers professional readiness to the learning skills formation of schoolchildren with disabilities
in the process of inclusive education......................................................................................................................638
Oksana Bukatov
Competence aspect of training future teachers of vocational education..............................................................644
Olga Shapovalova, Inna Vityugova

Attitude of mentally retarded pupils to study and to teachers...............................................................................651
44. World
Polina
VerbytskaHealth Organization. International classification of functioning, disability and
Actualization of ultural heritage potential in modern social and cultural conditions.......................................658
health (ICF). Published May, 2001. Accessed April 7, 2014. Available: http://www.
Rafiq Noruzov
who.int/classifications/icf/en.
For interpretation the piece from the Bible............................................................................................................665
45. Lee BY, Bartsch SM, Wong KF, Yilmaz SL, Avery TR, Singh A, et al. Simu-
Sevil Aydin Ismailova

lation
showsorganizations
hospitals that
cooperate on infection control obtain better results than
Women
in charitable
of Azerbaijan.................................................................................................671
hospitals acting alone. Health Aff. 2012;10:2295-2303. Available: http://dx.

Sergii Koniukhov
The Peculiarities
of Activity of Ukrainian Nationalists Printing House Prague in 1942-1945 years...............675
doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0992.
Tatyana
Vlasova,WR,
NatalyaJarvis
Bilan AA, Chinn RY. National prevalence of methicillin-resis46. Jarvis
Determining the sentence hyperstructure as the first stage of the translation of simple active
Staphylococcus
aureus
inpatients at United States health care facilities,
tantfrom
sentences
Russian and Ukrainian
into in
English.............................................................................................684
2010.
atyana
VorovaAm J Infect Control. 2012;40:194-200. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016
Ciphered
Content of the Literary Fairy Tales by V. F. Odoyevsky.........................................................................690
/j.ajic.2012.02.001.
Tatiana
Gera
47. Nijhuis
M, Van Maarseveen NM, Boucher CA. Antiviral resistance and impact on
Working with professional case as a means of psychological support future teachers: the mastery
viral replication
capacity:
of viruses under antiviral pressure occurs
of the situation,
the problem,
the task of evolution
teaching.................................................................................................697
in three
phases.
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Exp Pharmacol.
Viacheslav
Zhdan, Viktor
Bobyriov,
Serhii Bilash,
Tetiana Klymach2009;189:299-320. Available: http://
Motivational
factors of students readiness to professional activity in the process of training at HSEEU
dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-79086-0_11.
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy.....................................................................................................704
48. Kaci L, Kelemen S, Mandle KD, Weitzman ER. Willingness to share personal
Olga Vlasova, Tatyana Kuptsova

recordin data
for care
improvement
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health record users. BMC
Genderhealth
and literature
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of discources,
ideology
andpublic
narratives.................................................710
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2012;12:39. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472TatianaMed
Mineeva,
TatianaDecisMak.
Migunova
Analogies between the courts of justice in medieval England and the conscientious court
6947-12-39.
of Catherine II........................................................................................................................................................716
49. Buckeridge DL. Outbreak detection through automated surveillance: A review of
Tatyana Ustinova
the determinants
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Biomed
Inform. 2007;40: 370-379. Available:
E.M. Forsters
Novel The Longest
Journey: the JProblem
of Translation............................................................722
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2006.09.003.
Hursand
Mahmudov, Umida Parpieva, Feruza Jumanazarova
Forms and methods of formation of culture of free thinking at pupils at the lessons on social
50. Kukafka R, Yasnoff WA. Public health informatics. J Biomed Inform. 2007;40:365and humanitarian disciplines in extracurricular activities in professional colleges............................................728
369. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2007.07.005.
Yulya Guro-Frolova, Tatyana Migunova

Theoretical analysis of the approaches to offender profiling development...........................................................735
Yuliya Makyeshyna
Images of mothers in the mass-media discourse....................................................................................................741
Yakov Lensu
Peculiarities of dwellings f prehistoric people.....................................................................................................748
Lane Perry, Krystina R. Stoner, Lee Stoner, Daniel Wadsworth, Rachel Page, Michael A. Tarrant
The Importance of Global Citizenship to Higher Education: The Role of Short-Term Study Abroad................754
Winnie Mucherah, Andrea D. Frazier
How Teachers Perceive Their Classroom Environments and Student Goal Orientation:
A Look into High School Biology Classrooms in Kenya.......................................................................................770
Medicine, Pharmacy, Biology & Chemistry

Parag Deepak Dabir and Jens Johannes Christiansen,
Regional Hospital of Randers, Institute of Pathology, Randers, Denmark
Not to be Missed Entity: Dieulafoy's Lesion!

ABSTRACT
Clinically missed Dieulafoy's lesion is a significant cause of gastro-intestinal
bleeding with a poor prognosis. We hereby compare an autopsy case of a similar
nature; thereby highlighting the importance of autopsy. 69 years old male living in a
retirement home was being managed for anemia. He was admitted with a preliminary
diagnosis of septicemia with deteriorating renal function. He was found dead and
referred for autopsy to our institute. At autopsy, 3 small defects at the gastroesophageal junction measuring about 5-7 mm were seen, which on microscopy
revealed a relatively large artery at the submocosal level with rupture. There was
about 2 liters of blood in the stomach. This was a Dieulafoy's lesion, the cause of
sudden massive gastrointestinal bleeding and subsequent shock. This signifies that
autopsy still holds its value in this modern era of diagnostics.
Keywords: dieulafoys lesion; gastro-intestinal bleeding; NSAIDs; autopsy.

1. INTRODUCTION
In a recent publication, Christoffersen RK et al. [1] reported a case of sudden
and unexpected death in a previously healthy male due to Dieulafoys lesion
(DL) of the esophagus. They concluded that DL is rarely seen in the autopsy room
and emphasized the importance of autopsy. We would like to add one more case,
wherein an autopsy in the investigation of sudden death revealed massive internal
hemorrhage as a consequence of a ruptured DL. In our case too, bleeding from a DL
proved to be fatal and highlighted the valuable contribution of autopsy in retrospective
diagnosis creating awareness about this missed lesion.
DL is a well known form for arteriovenous malformation. It is in the differential
diagnosis list of unsuspected gastro-intestinal bleeding, and is not easily recognized
[2]. This may be due to lack of awareness, inaccessible site or size [3], and an
overlapping clinical presentation with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
intake, peptic ulcer or alcohol abuse [4].
10
2. CLINICAL SCENARIO
69 years old male with previous two episodes of apoplexy and lumbar L4/L5
disc prolaps was known to have single right-sided kidney. He was living in a retirement
home and was being treated for chronic anemia of normocytic normochromic type.
He was admitted in the Department of Medicine with a confused state of mind and
a preliminary diagnosis of septicemia. He had a high C-reactive protein and
peripheral blood smear examination revealed neutrophilic leucocytosis. He was
initially treated with Ciprofloxacin and later with Tazocin, as Gram positive bacteria
were cultured in his blood with an unknown focus. He was regularly on antiplatelet
medicines (Aspirin, Dipyridamole), antihypertensive drugs (Amlodipine, Losartan) and
hypolipidemic drug (Simvastatin). He used to consume about 1-2 alcoholic drinks daily.
He had deteriorating renal function with rising creatinine and a low Glomerular
Filtration Rate. He had no abdominal complaints and was hemodynamically stable.
He was found dead in his bed. He was referred for autopsy to our institute in order to
determine the exact cause of death.
At autopsy, about 2 liters of fresh blood were found in the stomach and 3 small
defects at the gastroesophageal junction measuring about 5-7 mm were noted. On
microscopy, one of the sections revealed a large ruptured artery (size 2.15 mm) at
the submucosal level with a thrombus-like material (Fig. 1). DL was the cause of
sudden massive bleeding leading to hypovolemic shock and death. Other autopsy
findings included atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries and the aorta, lung
congestion, liver steatosis, and a single right-sided kidney with nephrosclerosis.
dieulafoys
Fig. 1. Ruptured dieulafoy
s lesion x 2 haematoxylin & eosin stain
stain
and weigert-Van
weigert-Van gieson
gieson stain
11
3. DISCUSSION
A DL was diagnosed as the underlying cause of death. This was in accordance
with the case report by Christoffersen RK et al. [1] and using established pathological
diagnostic criteria such as the presence of a relatively large artery at the level of
muscularis mucosae or higher accompanied by a vein of similar caliber with a
significant risk of ulceration and bleeding [5]. In the literature, this is also described
as a histologically normal vessel that has an abnormally large diameter (1-3 mm)
and runs a tortuous course within the submucosa protruding through a small
mucosal defect varying from 2-5 mm, with a fibrinoid necrotic base [3]. Importantly,
there is an absence of inflammation at the edge of the mucosal defect in contrast to
that present in peptic ulcer disease [6].
DL can be clinically diagnosed by endoscopy and by using Dys criteria,
angiography or red cell scanning [3] with a clinical presentation of massive
hemorrhage which is often recurrent. But in our case there were neither episodes of
bleeding, nor abdominal pain, which was similar to the clinical presentation in the
publication [1].
The pathogenesis in DL may be related to peptic ulcer disease, alcohol abuse
and/or drugs such as NSAIDs, warfarin or aspirin [2]. Despite a lack of direct evidence
that the presentation of this lesion is caused by mucosal erosions due to use of aspirin,
coumadin, or NSAIDs, the use of these medications has been reported in more than
DLininour
ourcase.
case.The
The
rupture
ulcer was
was not
not seen
seenalong
alongwith
withDL
50% of patients. Peptic ulcer
rupture
of
of DL
was
visualizedhistologically
histologicallyinincontrast
contrast toto the
the publication
publication [1]. Comorbidities
DL
was
visualized
particularly cardiovascular disease, hypertension, chronic renal failure, diabetes, and

excessive use of alcohol have
havebeen
been described
described in
in almost
almost 90%
90% of
of the patients [6].
More than one of these factors were present in our patient s clinical history and this
lesion could also be one of the contributing causes for chronic anemia in our patient.
This was in contradiction to the case report, which involved a healthy male with
unremarkable medical history [1].

It is aptly quoted in the publication that, awareness of this condition is a key to
accurate diagnosis [1]. But it can be easily overlooked at endoscopy [4]. Before
the advent of endoscopy, the diagnosis was basically made during autopsies or
surgeries [7]. It is underdiagnosed rather than being a rare disease [2]. In our patient,
there was no clinical suspicion of such condition.
12
therefore clinically
clinically important
important to
toreport
reportthis
thissecond
secondcase
caseofofmissed
missedDL,
DL,asas
It is therefore
a
a potentially
threatening
entity.
We would
also conclude
thatautopsy
these autopsy
potentially
life life
threatening
entity.
We would
also conclude
that these
findings
findings
are valuable
contribution
the retrospective
diagnosis
and autopsy
holds
are
valuable
contribution
to the to
retrospective
diagnosis
and autopsy
still still
holds
its
its value
in this
modern
of diagnostics.
value
in this
modern
eraera
of diagnostics.
CONSENT
Autopsy consent was given by the dead persons sister. The manuscript is
anonymous.
ETHICAL APPROVAL
Not applicable.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
REFERENCES:
1. Christoffersen RK, Nielsen TS, Vesterby A. Dieulafoy lesion of the esophagus
causing massive upper gastrointestinal bleeding and death: a case report. Am J
Forensic Med Pathol. 2012;33(2):186-187.
2. Treesaranuwattana S, Khemtai C. Dieulafoys Lesion: Pathology, Diagnosis
and Treatment. Thai Journal of Surgery. 2002;23:87-96.
3. Baxter M, Aly EH. Dieulafoy's lesion: current trends in diagnosis and management. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2010;92(7):548-554.
4. Njeru M, Seifi A, Salam Z, Ognibene L. Dieulafoy lesion: a rare cause of gastrointestinal bleeding. South Med J. 2009;102:336-337.
Dielafoyss Lesion / Caliber

Caliber Persistent
Persistent Artery.
Artery. Accessed
Accessed January
January 12,
12,
5. Rouse RV. Dielafoy
2014. Available on: http://surgpathcriteria.stanford.edu/gi/dieulafoy-caliber-persistent.
6. Lee YT, Walmsley RS, Leong RW, Sung JJ. Dieulafoy's lesion. Gastrointest
Endosc. 2003;58:236-243.
7. Linhares MM, Filho BH, Schraibman V, Goitia-Duran MB, Grande JC, Sato NY,
et al. Dieulafoy lesion: endoscopic and surgical management. Surg Laparosc
Endosc Percutan Tech. 2006;16:1-3.
13
EbtesamM.
M.Al-Zabedi,
Al-Zabedi,Mahmoud
MahmoudA.
A.Ogaili,
Ogaili,Mohamed
MohamedT.
T.Al-Maktari
Al-Maktari,
Ebtesam
and Mohamed S. Noman,
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine
and Health Sciences, Sanaa University, Sana'a, Yemen,
Department of Medical Laboratories, Faculty of Medical Sciences,
Hodeidah University, Hodeidah, Yemen,
National Centre of the Public Health Laboratories (NCPHL), Sana'a, Yemen,
Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine
and Health Sciences, Sanaa University, Sana'a, Yemen,
Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine
and Health Sciences, Sana'a University, Sanaa, Yemen
Hepatitis B Virus Seropositivity among

Schistosomiasis and Diabetes Mellitus Patients
in Sana'a City, Yemen
ABSTRACT
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major public health problem worldwide,
often coexisting with other illnesses like parasitic infections and other chronic
diseases. Data on the association of HBV infection with schistosomiasis and diabetes
mellitus (DM) is limited. This case-control study was conducted to investigate the
seropositivity rate and potential risk factors of HBV, and to examine the association
between HBV and schistosomiasis with or without super added DM.
Three hundred patients presented themselves to internal medical departments and diabetes centres at different public and private hospitals in Sana a city,
Yemen. Those recruited were then split in to six groups, those being type 1 DM,
type 2 DM, schistosomal hepatic fibrosis (SHF), type 1 DM+SHF, type 2 DM+SHF
and the control group. Overall, 20% (60/300) of the participants were positive when
tested for hepatitis B core total antibody (HBcAb) by ELISA test. There were no
significant differences in the positivity rate in terms of group, age or gender of the
participants.
14
Univariate and multivariate analyses showed significant associations between

HBV seropositivity and a history of jaundice, familial history of SHF, familial history of
liver cirrhosis, personal history of schistosomiasisa and a history of using parenteral
antischistosomal drugs. On the other hand, no significant association was reported
between HBV seropositivity and any DM-related variables. It was also reported that
no additional risk was added to the association between HBV seropositivity and SHF
when the analysis stratified for DM.
In conclusion, HBV is still a highly prevalent infection and support is urgently
needed in order to implement effective and integrated preventive measures among the
people most likely to be affected. Further studies are required in order to investigate
the epidemiology of HBV infection among various communities, and to evaluate its
relationship with other diseases.
Keywords: Hepatitis B virus; schistosomiasis; diabetes; Yemen.

1. INTRODUCTION
Hepatitis B is a life threatining liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus
(HBV) which afflicts more than two billion people worldwide [1]. It is a major
growing global health problem, with about 350 million people suffering from chronic
liver infection, resulting in about 600,000 annual deaths due to acute or chronic
complications of hepatitis B, including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma
(one of the five major cancers worldwide) [2]. It is estimated that up to 60% of liver
cancers can be attributed to HBV chronic infection, with about one million deaths
worldwide annually [3]. About half of the world s population lives in chronic hepatitis B
endemic areas in South East Asia, China, Africa, the Pacific region, the Amazon Basin,
parts of the Middle East and across America [4].
Schistosomiasis, among the most prevalent of the neglected tropical diseases,
is a major public health problem in many developing countries, with about 240 million
infected people and 700 million people worldwide living in endemic areas at risk of
infection [5]. Clinical manifestations of schistosomiasis are associated with the species
causing the problem and the intensity of infection. Urinary schistosomiasis caused by
Schistosoma haematobium is characterized by haematuria as a classical sign. In
chronic infection, the patient may suffer bladder and uretral fibrosis, sandy patches in
the bladder mucosa and hydronephrosis, while bladder cancer is reported as a late
15
stage complication [6]. Similarly, intestinal schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma

mansoni or Schistosoma japonicum is usually associated with abdominal pain and
appearance of blood flakes in the stool. In chronic infection, hepatosplenomegaly is
commonly reported with ascites and other signs of portal hypertension [7].
Diabetes mellitus (DM), one of the largest growing threats to human health, is
a clinical syndrome associated with a deficiency of insulin secretion or action. The
disease is classified into two types, namely type 1 DM (previously called insulindependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or juvenile-onset diabetes) and type 2 DM
(previously called non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset
diabetes). Type 2 DM, which is characterized by insulin resistance, pancreatic betacell dysfunction and excessive glucose production by the liver, accounts for about
95% of all cases of diabetes. The other 5% of cases are of type 1 [8]. Besides the
classical complications of the disease, DM has been associated with severe
complications including heart disease, blindness, kidney failure and lower-extremity
amputations. The disease also increases susceptibility to infections by reducing
the immunity of patients through reduced response of T cells, neutrophil function and
disorders of humoral immunity [9]. Recent estimates revealed that the total number of
people with diabetes is expected to rise to 380 million in 2025, of those an estimated
3.4 million people will die as a consequences of high fasting blood sugar, with more
than 80% of diabetes deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries
[10,11]. Many factors contribute to the increasing number of people with diabetes,
such as urbanization, population growth, aging, as well as increasing prevalence
rates of obesity and physical inactivity [12].
The concurrent presence of both HBV infection and schistosomiasis is of
significant concern as patients with coinfections have been shown to have higher
incidences of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, as well as higher mortality rates
than patients suffering from a single infection. Moreover, patients diagnosed with
hepatosplenic schistosomiasis have increased susceptibilities to additional infections
and medical abnormalities such as coinfection with HBV when compared to healthy
controls [13]. Many studies have investigated the relationship between HBV and other
diseases including DM and schistosomiasis, and have yielded a variety of results.
Some studies have reported a higher prevalence of HBV infections among diabetic
patients compared with healthy controls [14,15], while others have found no
association [16]. Moreover, a higher prevalence of HBV infection have also been
16
reported among diabetic patients who share a blood glucose meter, which has been
attributed to a limited awareness of the high risk for HBV transmission during
fingerprick blood glucose monitoring [17]. Some studies have suggested that
schistosomiasis increases HBV and HGV morbidity and chronicity, and have
identifyed hepatitis as a significant factor influencing the severity of schistosomiasis
[18,19]. That said, other studies have found that schistosomiasis does not affect the
outcome of HGV infection [20]. A recent study reported a higher prevalence of
serological markers for HBV and a lower prevalence of anti-HGV among patients
diagnosed with a hepatosplenic form of schistosomiasis [12]. HBV is a subject of some
controversy when discussing its role as a risk factor for developing DM, as the disease
is known have multiple etiologies and a pandemic image. Therefore, further studies
are needed in order to clarify these questionable associations.
Yemen is classified among areas of intermediate endemicity for HBV infection,
with previous studies revealing that the prevalence of HBV chronic infection in
different Yemeni cities ranges from 1.8% to 34% [21-25]. Moreover, schistosomiasis
is considered as the second most frequent cause of death in Yemen, after malaria,
with both urinary schistosomiasis due to S. haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis due to S. mansoni being prevalent [26]. Recent estimates showed that
more than 3 million people in the region are infected, with at least three-quarters of a
million suffering from severe, chronic morbidity. A recent study revealed that 59% of
the squamous cell carcinoma reported in 53 Yemeni patients with urinary bladder
cancer was associated with chronic infection by S. hematobium [27]. With regards to
diabetes, the prevalence of type 2 DM in Yemen ranges between 4.6% and 9.8% [2830]. As such, the association between HBV and other diseases that affect a large
sector of the Yemeni population is an important issue to address. Hence, the aims of
the present study were to investigate the seroprevalence and potential risk factors of
HBV infection, and to examine the possible association of HBV infection with
diabetes mellitus, as well as looking at schistosomal hepatic fibrosis (SHF) with or
without super added diabetes mellitus.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study Design
This hospital-based case-control study was carried out in Sanaa city, the
capital of Yemen. All patients attending internal medical departments and diabetes
17
centres in Sanaa city public and private hospitals between January and July 2012
were invited to participate in this study.
2.2 Study Subjects
The minimum sample size required for this study was calculated according to
the formula provided by Lwanga and Lemeshow [31]. At a 5% level of significance
and a 95% confidence level, the minimum number of participants required for the
study was estimated at 288, assuming that the prevalence of HBV infection in
Yemen was about 25% as previously reported [32]. Overall, a total of 300 individuals
aged between 10 and 82 years of age (160 males and 140 females) agreed to take
part in this study. The participants were recruited into 6 different groups based on final
clinical diagnosis, with 50 individuals per group (Fig. 1). The groups were type 1
diabetes mellitus (Group 1),
1), type
type 22diabetes
diabetesmellitus
mellitus(Group
(Group 2),
2),schistosomal
schistosomalhepatic
hepafibrosis
(Group
3), type
1 diabetes
mellitus
and schistosomal
hepatichepatic
fibrosisfibrosis
(group
tic
fibrosis
(Group
3), type
1 diabetes
mellitus
and schistosomal
4), type4),2 type
diabetes
mellitus
and schistosomal
hepatic
fibrosis
(Group
5), and
the
(group
2 diabetes
mellitus
and schistosomal
hepatic
fibrosis
(Group
5), and
control
group
(Group
6) which
involved
individuals
apparently
free free
fromfrom
diabetes
with
the
control
group
(Group
6) which
involved
individuals
apparently
diabetes
with
no hepatitis
B related
history
or schistosomal
infection
background.
no hepatitis
B related
history
or schistosomal
infection
background.
2.3 Questionnaire
All subjects of the present study were asked to fill out a questionnaire regarding
their personal and demographic data (e.g. age, sex, and residence), socioeconomic
data (e.g. marital status, occupation, educational level, incom etc), habitual information (e.g. smoking, alcohol intake, addiction etc), health history related to diabetes
mellitus (e.g. type, age of onset, complications, medications etc), health history
related to schistosomiasis (e.g. type, course, any complication, medications
etc),
history of jaundice (e.g. probable type, duration, laboratory investigation results,

complications, medications, history of jaundice affecting other household members
etc), and a complete history relating to the possible risk factors of hepatitis B virus
infection (e.g. blood transfusion, surgical operations, tattooing, dental manipulations,
type and frequency of parenteral injections, HBV infection among household
members, history of hepatitis B vaccination etc).
18
Fig. 1. Flow chart of the participation in the present study

2.4 Clinical Examination
The participants underwent full clinical examination including examination of the
heart, chest, abdomen, neurological, and dermatological systems. This was done to
assess the presence of possible diabetic or schistosomiasis complications.
2.5 Urine and Stool Examination
Urine samples were collected from all participants and examined by
microscopy for the presence of Schistosoma haematobium ova, and by dipstick

(Auction sticks, A. Menarini Diagnostics, Florence, Italy) for the detection of glucose,
proteinuria (Similarly,
stool samples
samples were collected and examined by
acetone and proteinuria.
Similarly, stool
using formalin ether sedimentation technique for the detection of Schistosoma

mansoni ova and ova/cyst of other intestinal parasitic infections [33].
2.6 Haematological and Biochemical Analysis
AM after
after an overnight
Blood samples were
were collected
collected between
between 8.00
8.00 and
and 10.00
10.00AM
fasting. For diabetic patients, 2 hours postprandial samples were also collected. About
10 ml of venous blood were obtained from each participant by venipuncture; 0.5 ml of

the blood was evacuated into a plastic tube containing EDTA for glyco-haemoglobin
measurements. The rest of the blood sample was evacuated into a plain tube and
19
allowed to clot at room temperature before serum was collected. The serum sample
was divided into 2 portions; one portion was stored at 20C to be used for ELISA
test and the other portion was used for the other biochemical analyses. Moreover, the
2 hours post-prandial serum glucose level for the diabetic patients was measured by
using Bio-Analytical Kit (enzymatic colorimetric method according to Trinder). The
normal value is <180 mg/dl. Furthermore, oral glucose tolerance test was done for all
non-diabetic cases. A fasting blood sample was collected and then the subject was
given a drink of 75 gm glucose in 300 ml water over a course of 5 minutes. Another
blood sample was collected 2 hours after the test load. The patients with fasting
blood sugar value of >126 mg/dl or 2 hours after glucose load value of >200 mg/dl
were considered diabetic while those with fasting blood sugar value of >110 and
<126 mg/dl or 2 hours after glucose load value of >140 and <200 mg/dl were
considered having impaired glucose tolerance.
On the other hand, glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) for the diabetic patients
was measured by using ion-exchange chromatography according to StanbioGlycohaemoglobin procedure No. 0350. The percentage of HbA1c was determined
and the values of 6.0-8.0%, 7.5-8.9%, 9.0-10.0% and >10.0% were considered as
normal range, good control, fair control and poor control.
2.7 Serological Analysis
Detection of hepatitis B core total antibody (Anti-HBV) was performed using
TM
rd
DETECT-HBV (3 generation) ELlSA kits using Biochem lmmuno Systems DetectHBV (BioChem lmmuno Systems lnc., Montreal, Canada).
2.8 Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis of the collected data was done using SPSS (version 13,
2004; SPSS, lnc., Chicago, lL, USA) and EPl-lnfo for windows 2002 software (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA). The distribution of
quantitative variables was examined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. For descriptive analysis, a proportion was used to present the prevalence of categorical
variables in the form of mean and standard deviation (SD). For inferential statistical
analysis, a Chi-square test was used to assess the influence of different categorized
variables on hepatitis B virus seropositivity. Unadjusted odd ratios (OR) with 95%
confidence intervals (Cl) were also computed. Moreover, a multiple logistic regression
model was used to investigate the association between dependent variables and
20
independent variables, taking into consideration the effects of potential confounding

factors. All tests were considered significant at P<0.05.
3. RESULTS
3.1 General Characteristics of Participants
Three hundred participants (53.3% males and 46.7% females), with a mean
age of 43.97 years (14.38), participated voluntairly in this study and were recruited
into 6 different groups of equal sample size (n=50). The general characteristics of the
subjects in different groups are shown in Table 1. The mean age was highest among
the type 2 DM patient group with a mean age of 54.6 years (10.23), the lowest was
among the type 1 DM patient group with a mean age of 34.04 years (11.62). The
table also shows that females are predominant in the type 2 DM group, while males
predominate the three schistosomiasis groups and the control group.
The majority of participants in groups 1 and 2 were from urban areas, while
almost all participants in groups 3, 4 and 5 are from rural areas with the majority of
them being either farmers or unemployed.
3.2 Seroprevalence of HBV Infection
Among the 300 serum samples collected from the participants, 60 (20%, 95%
Cl=15.9, 24.9) were positive for HBcAb. As shown in Table 1, the participants in
group 2 showed the highest frequency of HBV positive patients at 14 (28%), while
group 1 showed the lowest with only 6 (12%) cases. The frequency in most groups
was higher than the control (reference) group, but the differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05). Higher seropositivity rate was noted among participants
aged >50 (26.3%) when compared to their younger counterparts.
3.3 Risk Factors of HBV Seropositivity
The results of the univariate analysis for factors associated with HBV
seropositivity are shown in Tables 2, 3 and 4.
3.3.1 Demographic, socioeconomic, past medical history and personal
habit factors
Table 2 illustrates the evaluation of different socio-demographic characteristics
as being possible risk factors for HBV seropositivity. Categorical representation of age
into three ascending groups (D30, 31-50, and >50) shows that there was an increased
risk of HBV seropositivity with age. There was no significant association with gender,
21
as both sexes had 20% anti-HBV positive enzyme immunoassay (ElA) results. With
regards to residence, it is noted that the rural population is exposed to an increased
risk for being HBV seropositive compared to those from urban areas (21.5% vs 16.8%;
OR=1.35; 95% Cl=0.69, 2.67). Similarly, socioeconomic class showed as having
an influence on the risk of disease development, a step ladder pattern of increasing
risk was noted when directed toward the poorer lower classes compared to individuals
in the high class (33.3% vs 13.3%; OR=3.25; 95% Cl=0.68, 15.83). However, these
differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05).
Other variables showed no remarkable signs of additional risk, as in general
none of the other socio-demographic variables reached a statistically significant value
(P>0.05).
The relationship between past medical history and the risk of developing a
hepatitis B viral infection was also investigated. lt is clear that a past history of clinically
manifested jaundice was significantly associated with the risk of being HBV
seropositive (OR=2.51, 95% Cl=1.30, 4.85), as people who had previously suffered
from jaundice showed a significantly higher seropositivity compared to individuals
without such a history. ln addition, a history of using glass syringes (OR=2.05; 95%
Cl=0.94, 4.50) doubled the risk of HBV seropositivity.
Other variables including a family history of jaundice, a past history of surgical
intervention, repeated parenteral injections, occasional or infrequent dental
manipulations, a history of blood transfusion, dental visits on a regular bases, as
well as a host of medical illnesses (e.g. Rheuamtoid artheritis, systemic lupus
erythematosus, renal insuffeciency, fascioliasis, amoebic dysentry etc) showed no
additional risk or significant association with HBV seropositivity.
Table 2 further shows the possible relationship between some personal habits
and the risk of hepatitis B viral seropositivity. A higher risk of acquiring HBV was
noted among 110 individuals who had a history of smoking when compared to non
smokers (22.7% vs 18.4%). Similarly, those with a history of addiction (i.e. cannabis
and/or alcohol) faced double the odds of being HBV seropositive (OR=2.47, 95%
Cl=0.45, 12.34). However, these differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05).
Group name
Sample size
Age (years) (MeanSD)
Males
Females
Hepatitis B seropositivity
Working
Urban
Married
Low socioeconomic level
Smoking
Blood transfusion
Jaundice
Variables
Group 2
DM type 2
50
54.610.2
7 (14)
43 (86)
8 (16)
2 (4)
34 (68)
38 (76)
14 (28)
8 (16)
1 (2)
1 (2)
Group 3
SHF
50
40.314.
36
4 (72)
14 (28)
12 (24)
1 (2)
1 (2.0)
40 (80)
31 (62)
26 (52)
13 (26)
15 (30)
Groups
Group 4
DM type 1+SHF
50
42.212.4
44 (88)
6 (12)
13 (26)
5 (10)
0 (0.0)
46 (92)
45 (90)
26 (52)
5 (10)
11 (22)
DM: Diabetes mellitus; SHF: Schistosomal hepatic fibrosis
Group 1
DM type 1
50
34.011.6
25 (50)
25 (50)
6 (12)
9 (18)
34 (68)
34 (68)
15 (30)
12 (24)
8 (16)
7 (14)
Group 5
DM type 2+SHF
50
51.510.0
29 (58)
21 (42)
14 (28)
4 (8)
2 (4.0)
43 (86)
20 (40)
23 (46)
7 (14)
13 (26)
Table 1. General characteristics of study participants according to study groups

Group 6
Control
50
44.516.1
28 (56)
22 (44)
7 (14)
6 (12)
24 (48)
28 (56)
29 (58)
15 (30)
5 (10)
6 (12)
22
23
3.3.2 Aspects of schistosomal illness

Table 3 shows the association between the different aspects of schistosomal
illness with the HBV seropositive EIA test. The results show that there are 82 cases
that have a history of a household member suffering from schistosomal hepatic
fibrosis (SHF), with 29 of them (35.4%) being anti-HBV EIA positive. The history of
such illness
illnesswas
was
significantly
associated
withrisk
the
HBV seropositivity
significantly
associated
with the
of risk
HBV ofseropositivity
(OR=3.72;
(OR=3.72;
95% 7.23).
CI=1.92,
7.23). Furthermore,
liver cirrhosis
theofodds
HBV
95% CI=1.92,
Furthermore,
liver cirrhosis
doubleddoubled
the odds
HBVof seroseropositivity,
butassociation
the association
not statistically
significant
(OR=2.91;
95%
positivity, but the
was notwas
statistically
significant
(OR=2.91;
95% CI=0.90,
CI=0.90,
9.13).
9.13).
Table 2. Associations of hepatitis B virus seropositivity with
demographic, socioeconomic, past medical history and personal
habits factors (n=300)
Variables
Socio-demographic factors
Sociodemographic
Age in years
030
31 50
>50
Sex
Male
Female
Residence
Urban
Rural
Marital status
Single
Married
Widowed
Occupation
Not farmer
Farmer
Socioeconomic class
High
Middle
Low
Very low
Past medical history
Blood transfusion
No
Yes
Surgery
No
Yes
AntiHBV EIA
OR (95% CI)
No. examined Positive N (%)

No. examined Positive N (%)
49
152
99
8 (16.3)
26 (17.1)
26 (26.3)
1.0
1.06 (0.42, 2.77)
1.83 (0.71, 4.85)
160
140
32 (20.0)
28 (20.0)
1.0
1.00 (0.57, 1.76)
95
205
16 (16.8)
44 (21.5)
1.0
1.35 (0.69, 2.67)
45
229
26
10 (22.2)
43 (18.8)
7 (26.9)
1.0
0.81 (0.35, 1.90)
1.29 (0.37, 4.49)
219
81
43 (19.6)
17 (21.0)
1.0
1.09 (0.55, 2.13)
45
154
86
15
6 (13.3)
28 (18.2)
21 (24.2)
5 (33.3)
1.0
1.44 (0.52,
(0.52, 4.21)
4.21)
1.44
2.10 (0.72, 6.40)
2.10
3.25 (0.72,
(0.68, 6.40)
3.25
(0.68, 15.83)
15.83)
261
39
53 (20.3)
7 (17.9)
1.0
0.86 (0.33, 2.18)
134
166
25 (18.7)
35 (21.1)
1.0
1.16 (0.63, 2.15)
24
Table 2 Continued...
Continued
..
Parental injection
No
Yes
Glass syringes usage
Dental manipulation
No
lnfrequent
Regular
Family history of jaundice
No
Yes
Personal history of jaundice
No
Yes
Associated diseases**
No
Yes
Personal habits
Smoking
No
Yes
Addiction
No
Yes (Cannabis and/or
alcohol)
104
115
81
16 (15.4)
55 (19.1)
22 (27.2)
1.0
1.30 (0.61, 2.80)
2.05 (0.94, 4.50)
101
136
63
18 (17.8)
33 (24.3)
9 (14.3)
1.0
1.48 (0.74, 2.96)
0.77 (0.29, 1.97)
221
79
42 (19.0)
18 (22.8)
1.0
1.26 (0.67, 2.35)
247
53
42 (17.0)
18 (34.0)
1.0
2.51 (1.30, 4.85)*
156
144
32 (20.5)
28 (19.4)
1.0
0.94 (0.53, 1.65)
190
110
35 (18.4)
25 (22.7)
1.0
1.30 (0.70, 2.41)
292
8
57 (19.5)
3 (37.5)
1.0
2.47 (0.45,
10.66)
OR: Odds ratio; Cl: Confidence interval, *Significant association (P < 0.05), ** Associated diseases include
rheumatoid artheritis, systemic lupus erythematosis, renal insufficiency, fascioliasis, amoebic
dysentery etc.
etc
dysentery
One half (n=150) of the participants had a history of schistosomiasis with or

without super added diabetes mellitus. Of those, 39 cases (26%) were anti-HBV ElA
positive compared to only 21 (14%) positive cases among non-schistosomal
individuals, with the difference being statistically significant (OR=2.16; 95% Cl=1.20,
3.89). A past history of using the anti-schistosomal tartar emetic or potassium antimony tartrate drug significantly tripled the risk of anti-HBV ElA positive results
(OR=3.22; 95% Cl=1.16, 9.40) when compared to other schistosomal patients denied
the intake of such medication.
The history of long standing schistosomal infection (10 years or more) was
noted in most schistosomal patients (141 cases; 94%). This resulted in a higher risk
of HBV seropositivity (OR=2.95; 95% Cl=0.35, 64.99) when compared to other
patients with a more recent relationship with their schistosomal infection (less than
10 years), although the difference was not statistically significant. Furthermore,
complications with hepatosplenic types of schistosomiasis (e.g. organomegaly,
oesophageal varices with or without haematemesis, ascitis etc) were found to
increase the risk of HBV seropositivity. Among these complications, ascitis was
25
reported to have the highest risk (OR=1.91; 95% Cl=0.85, 4.29), however it was not
statistically significant.
3.3.3 Aspects of diabetes mellitus
Table 4 shows the association between diabetes mellitus and the risk of HBV
seropositivity. The results reveal that the presence of either type 1 or type 2 DM
apply no extra risk of being HBV seropositive when compared with non-diabetic
cases. Although a higher risk of acquiring HBV was reported in cases with poor control
for blood glucose (OR=2.05; 95% Cl=0.67, 6.71), among those with a history of
gestational diabetes (OR=1.93; 95% Cl=0.68, 5.42) and in those who developed DM
after the age of 40 (OR=1.52; 95% Cl=0.76, 3.02), the differences were not statistically
significant. Likewise, associations of HBV seropositivity in terms of a family history of
DM, duration of diabetic illness, the presence of secondary causes contributing to the
development of DM, and the presence of diabetic complications were not statistically
significant.
Table 3. Associations of hepatitis B virus seropositivity with factors related to
schistosomiasis (n=300)
Variables
AntiHBV
EIA
Anti-HBV
EIA
No. examined
Family history of liver
Diseases
No
195
Cirrhosis
20
SHF
82
Others**
3
Personal history of schistosomiasis
No
150
Yes
150
Schistosomiasis duration
<=10 years
9
>10 years
141
Schistosomiasis course
Stationary
100
Progressive
50
Ascitis
No
114
Yes
36
History of lV anti-schistosomal drugs
No
47
Yes
103
OR (95% CI)
Positive
Positive N
N (%)
(%)
25 (12.8)
6 (30.0)
29 (35.4)
0 (0.0)
1.0
2.91 (0.90, 9.13)
3.72 (1.92,7.23)*
-
21 (14.0)
39 (26.0)
1.0
2.16 (1.20,3.89)*
1 (11.1)
38 (27.0)
1.0
2.95 (0.35,64.99)
24
15
24.0
30.0
1.0
1.36 (0.64, 2.90)
26 (22.8)
13 (36.1)
1.0
1.91 (0.85, 4.29)
6 (12.8)
33 (32.0)
1.0
3.22 (1.16,9.40)*
OR: Odds ratio; Cl: Confidence interval; SHF: Schistosomal hepatic fibrosis,* Significant association
(P<0.05), ** Two cases with family history of chronic hepatitis and one with HCC, Ascitis was selected out
of other complications of hepatosplenic schistosomiasis e.g. organomegaly, oesophageal varices with or
without
treatment
without haematemesis
haematemesis
etc,
etc, Past
Past history
history of
of parenteral
parenteral tartar
tartar emetic
emetic anti-schistosomal
anti-schistosomal drug
drug treatment.
26
Analysisfor
for the
the risk
Riskfactors
Factors
HBV
seropositivity
3.3.4 Multivariate analysis
ofof
HBV
seropositivity
The results of a multiple logistic regression analysis for the different possible
risk factors that contribute to the development of HBV seropositivity revealed four
variables that were retained in the final model as significant risk factors for HBV
seropositivity. Those variables are a family history of a household member suffering
with cirrhosis (OR=4.34; 95% Cl=1.98, 6.94), family history of a household member
suffering with SHF (OR=3.41; 95% CL=1.16, 11.23), a personal history of jaundice
(OR=1.94; 95% Cl=1.12, 5.57) and a personal history of schistosomal illness
(OR=1.88; 95% Cl=1.09, 12.14). Other factors including a personal history of dental
manipulations, multiple parenteral injections, diabetes and the subjects socioeconomic class were removed from the final logistic regression model.
3.4 Further Analyses for The Association of Schistosomiasis and
Diabetes with HBV Seropositivity
The distribution of the studied population according to their age group, their
history of schistosomiasis and the results of the EIA anti-HBV seropositivity were
analyzed further with the results being shown in Table 5.
It was found that the percentages of HBV seropositivity increased significantly
with age among those who had a history of schistosomiasis, with the percentages
among those aged <=30, 31-50, and >50 years being 12.8%, 35.9%, and 51.3%,
respectively (P<0.002). On the other hand, the pattern of association between HBV
seropositivity and age among the non schistosomal cases was not statistically
significant (P=0.343).
Table 4. Associations of hepatitis B virus seropositivity with factors related to
diabetes mellitus (n=300)
Variables
Variables
Family history of DM
No
Yes
Personal history of DM
No
DM type 1
DM type 2
Age of onset
<= 40 years
> 40 years
AntiHBV EIA
AntiHBV EIA
OR (95% CI)
OR (95% CI)
No. examined
Positive N (%)
176
124
38 (21.6)
22 (17.7)
1.0
0.78 (0.44, 1.40)
81
81
78
19 (19.0)
19 (19.0)
22 (22.0)
1.0
1.00 (0.47, 2.15)
1.20 (0.57, 2.53)
94
65
20 (17.5)
21 (24.4)
1.0
1.52 (0.76, 3.02)
27
Duration
<= 10 years
97
> 10 years
62
Secondary cause of DM
No
153
Yes
6
Gestational diabetes
No
146
Yes
13
Control of DM (Glycated Hb A1c)
Good
32
Fair
46
Poor
81
Diabetic complications
No
19
Yes
140
30 (23.6)
11 (15.1)
1.0
0.57 (0.25, 1.30)
40 (20.7)
1 (14.3)
1.0
0.64 (0.07, 5.45)
35 (19.3)
6 (31.6)
1.0
1.93 (0.68, 5.42)
5 (13.5)
10 (17.9)
26 (24.3)
1.0
1.39 (0.39, 5.23)
2.05 (0.67, 6.71)
8 (29.6)
33 (19.1)
1.0
0.56 (0.23, 1.39)
OR: Odds ratio; Cl: Confidence interval, Secondary causes of DM e.g. steroids intake, Diabetic
complications: (infection, microangiopathy, and macroangiopathy)
With regards to the diabetes illness aspects, the mean values of blood glucose
among the studied population in relation to anti-HBcAb EIA results were compared
(Table 6). Among non diabetic cases, the mean values of fasting blood glucose and
glucose levels after 2 hours of 75 gm oral glucose challenge were found to be lower
in anti-HBV EIA positive cases than their negative counterparts, however the
differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Among 200 diabetic cases,
almost similar levels of 2 hours post prandial mean glucose were found among HBV
seropositive and negative cases (275.85 mg/dl vs 271.33 mg/dl).
When the 100 cases with a history of both schistosomiasis and diabetes
mellitus illnesses were compared with the 50 individuals free from both diseases
(control/reference), the results showed that 27 (27%) individuals were anti-HBV EIA
seropositive in those with a history of both illnesses, compared to only 7 individuals
(14%) in the control group. The risk of being HBV positive was higher in the illness
group (OR=2.27; 95% CI=0.85, 6.29) compared to the control group, however the
difference was not statistically significant.
Finally, the fraction attributable risk of the most influential risk factors for
developing an HBV seropositive was calculated. It is evident that the highest values
of attributable fraction were due to a family history of a household member with chronic
liver disease (SHF or cirrhosis) (61.6%), followed by being a member of the very low
socioeconomic class (60.0%), with a personal history of jaundice (50.0%) also being
a significant indicator of risk. The lowest value of attributable fraction was due to the
presence of diabetes mellitus (7.3%).
28
Finally, the fraction attributable risk of the most influential risk factors for developing an HBV
seropositive was calculated. It is evident that the highest values of attributable fraction were
due to a family history of a household member with chronic liver disease (SHF or cirrhosis)
Cambridge
Journal
of Education
and Science
(61.6%), followed by being
a member
of the
very low socioeconomic
class (60.0%), with a
personal history of jaundice (50.0%) also being a significant indicator of risk. The lowest
value of attributable fraction was due to the presence of diabetes mellitus (7.3%).
Table 5. Distribution of the studied population according to their HBcAb

Table 5.EIA
Distribution
of thehistory
studiedofpopulation
according
their
HBcAb EIA
seropositivity,
schistosomiasis
and to
age
group
EIA seropositivity,
history of
schistosomiasis
and
age
group
seropositivity, history of schistosomiasis and age group
Age group
(years)
N
<= 30
31-50
> 50
2
0
P-value
Schistosomiasis
Negative (N=150)
Positive (N=150)
-ve HBcAb EIA
+ve HBcAb EIA
-ve HBcAb EIA +ve HBcAb EIA
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
129
21
111
39
29 (22.5)
3 (14.3)
12 (10.8)
5 (12.8)
52 (40.3)
12 (57.1)
74 (66.6)
14 (35.9)
48 (37.2)
6 (28.6)
25 (22.5)
20 (51.3)
2.14
12.72
0.343
0.002
Table 6. Comparison of blood glucose levels between studied cases according

toHBcAb EIA seropositivity
HBcAb EIA
Negative (n=240)
Positive (n=60)
t-value
P-value
FBG*
(MeanSD)
89.4719.49
82.2615.08
1.51
0.135
PGL**
(MeanSD)
140.2730.12
136.4220.76
0.53
0.599
2PPG***
(MeanSD)
271.33100.69
275.85106.91
0.25
0.800
*Fasting blood glucose measurement done for non-diabetic cases; **Two hours after 75 gm oral
glucose challenge (Load) done for non-diabetic cases; ***Two hours post prandial serum glucose
assessment done for diabetic patients
4. DISCUSSION
Hepatitis B virus infection, schistosomiasis and diabetes mellitus are major
global public health problems, especially in developing countries. The interactions
between these diseases are still unclear and of great interest.
The findings of the present study show that 20% of the participants tested
positive using the total HBcAb EIA test. Many previous studies conducted in Yemen
revealed that the prevalence of HBV infection ranges between 1.8% and 34% based
on the subjects being studied. A community-based study in Ibb, Gacche and Kaid
found that the prevalence of HBV among 554 participants was 1.8% when examined
for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) [34]. However, a recent community-based
study conducted in the Taiz province showed a higher HBsAg prevalence at 16.9%
[35]. A similar level of prevalence (16%) was reported by a hospital-based study in
Aden city based on anti-HBV core antibodies (antiHBc) and HBsAg [23]. However,
a comparable higher prevalence was reported among liver disease patients (33.6%)
and among blood donors (28.8%) [36,37]. Moreover, a lower HBsAg prevalence was
reported among schoolchildren in Taiz (10.6%), pregnant women in Sanaa (10.8%)
and among mothers and their infants in Sanaa (13.2% and 4%, respectively)
29
[21,26,38]. In agreement with previous studies, our findings confirm that Yemen is an
area of intermediate endemicity for HBV infection (10%-60%). Moreover, only 5% of
the patients recruited to the present study had declared prior hepatitis B vaccination.
The findings of the current study also show that the seropositivity of HBV based
on total HBcAb was higher among participants aged >50 years when compared to
younger participants, however the difference is not statistically significant. Previous
studies from Yemen and other countries showed that the prevalence of HBV has an
age-dependency factor, with infection patterns increasing with age, the highest
prevalence being among subjects aged >40 years [23,24,35,39].
We found similar levels of HBcAb seropositivity among both male and female
participants, which is in agreement with previous studies conducted in Yemen
[34,35]. However, it is worth noting that some studies in Yemen and other countries
have shown a significantly higher prevalence of HBV among males than females
[24,40]. On the other hand, a WHO collaborative study on HBV in which 20 countries
participated did not find a statistically significant difference in the prevalence of HBsAg
between males and females [41].
Furthermore, the present study investigated the possible factors associated
with HBcAb seropositivity among the participants and revealed that a personal history
of juandice, a family history of schistosomal hepatic fibrosis (SHF), as well as a
personal history of schistosomiasis and using IV anti-schistosomal drugs were key
factors found to be associated with HBV seropositive results. Participants who had a
history of juandice were at higher risk of HBV seropositivity than their counterparts.
These finding are consistent with results reported previously in Thailand, Morocco and
Bangladesh [40,42,43]. Juandice is a classical sign of liver diseases, therefore a
history of juandice may indicate the high succeptablitity of individuals to these
diseases.
In addition, our findings show that participants who live in houses with family
members who have a history of SHF were at 3 folds higher risk of being HBcAb
seropositive. This is in agreement with previous reports from other countries [44]. The
results of the logistic regression also show that a history of household members
having liver cirrhosis increases the risk of participants being infected with HBV.
Although liver cirrhosis is present in the majority of patients with HBV, an increased
risk for hepatitis B-related liver cirrhosis in relatives of patients with hepatocellular
30
carcinoma was reported in Taiwan, which may indicate familial clustering of hepatitis
B-related liver cirrhosis [45].
An earlier serological survey for hepatitis B markers was carried out in Yemen
among 654 individuals (243 pregnant females, 294 male blood donors and 108
patients with chronic liver disease), which found that the detection rate of HBsAg was
significantly higher among patients with chronic liver diseases (including liver cirrhosis)
compared to healthy individuals (24.1% vs 18.5%). There was also significantly higher
evidence of HBV infection among the chronic liver diseases patients than their healthy
counterparts (75.9% vs 59.8%) [46].
The findings of the present study show significant associations between the
high prevalence of HBV seropositivity and several aspects of schistosomiasis,
including history of schistosomiasis onset and the use of intravenous schistosomiasis
treatment. We found that participants with a history of being infected with Schistosoma
species are at double the risk of HBV seropositivity compared to those never infected
with Schistosoma. Co-infection of HBV and Schistosoma is of significant concern, as
patients with both infections have been shown to have increased histological activity,
as well as higher incidences of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC),
with a greater mortality rate when compared with patients suffering from only a single
infection [47].
It has been previously reported that patients with hepatosplenic schisto-somiasis were at an increased risk from other infections, including a 10-fold higher risk for
co-infection with HBV, as well as an increased frequency of liver failure when
compared to healthy individuals [12,48]. Similarly, Pereira et al. reported that coinfection of Schistosoma mansoni and other liver disease, particularly HBV or HCV
infections, will trigger the progression of hepatic fibrosis into cirrhosis and
hepatocellular carcinomacan, occuring within a few years [49]. Such co-infections
were reported in Egypt and Brazil [47,50,51]. Furthermore, HCV but not HBV has
been reported to influence the severity of schistosomiasis among Egyptian patients
[52]. In Yemen, the only study on the co-infection of schistosomiasis and HBV
was conducted in Taiz and reported that 10.6% of schoolchildren diagnosed as having
schistosomiasis were also found to be positive for HBV, though it is worth noting that
the percentage was as high as 22.2% in some areas [38].
31
In contrast, previous studies found no association between these two

diseases [44,53]. Interestingly, when the association between HBcAb seropositivity
and a history of schistosomiasis was stratified with age our findings revealed that the
frequency of
withwith
a history
of schiof HBcAb
HBcAb seropositivity
seropositivity among
amongparticipants
participants
a history
of
stosomiasis
increased
significantly
withwith
age.
This
might
bebeattributed
schistosomiasis
increased
significantly
age.
This
might
attributedtoto the
the agedependency pattern of both diseases.
Our findings also show that participants with a history of using intravenous
schistosomal drug (tartar emetic or potassium antimony tartrate) were at 3-folds
higher risk of HBV seropositivity compared to their counterparts. The underlying
association could be attributed to the concomitant schistosomiasis or to the risk of
HBV transmission due to contaminated needles. Using IV tartar emetic to treat
schistosomiasis has been implicated as the primary factor behind the high prevalence
rates of HBV and HCV in Egypt, where this drug was used by the schistosomiasis
control programme between the 1950s and 1980s, the ultimate result of which was
that the hepatitis viruses has now replaced schistosomiasis as the predominant cause
of chronic liver disease [54,55].
With regards to diabetes mellitus, none of the diabetes-related factors showed
a significant association with the HBcAb seropositivity. Many previous studies have
examined the relationship between HBV and DM, but the results were not consistent.
For instance, some studies have reported blood glucose abnormalities [13] while
others have not [15]. An indirect explanation for the association between HBcAb
seropositivity and DM was suggested as being because during the course of their
disease diabetic patients would be subjected to frequent intravenous and
subcutaneous injections (for the purpose of blood testing and insulin therapy), which
may possibly increase risk of exposure to HBV.
A previous study among 210 Nigerian diabetics and 210 non-diabetic controls
found a significantly higher detection rate of HBsAg among diabetic participants than
controls, which was attributed to the common practice of injudicious administration of
insulin injections among Nigerian diabetics [56]. In contrast, other reports showed no
association [57,58]. On the other hand, the unexpected lower prevalence of HBsAg in
diabetic patients than in controls was reported by a large-scale study of 2,465
individuals in Italy [59].
32
Our findings show that diabetic patients with poor control of blood glucose are
at almost double risk of HBcAb seropositivity when compared to those with good or
fair control levels. However, the difference was not significant. This is in agreement
with a previous study from Nigeria [56]. We also compared the level of blood glucose
between HBcAb seropositive and negative participants, and found no significant
difference between both groups. In the present study, the results of the multivariate
logistic regression analysis confirmed that a family history of a household member
suffering cirrhosis, a family history of a household member suffering with SHF, a
personal history of jaundice, and a personal history of schistosomiasis were the
significant risk factors of anti-HBV EIA positive results among these participants.
The findings of the present study further revealed that the presence of
concomitant schistosomiasis and DM did increase the risk of HBcAb seropositivity
by more than 48%, and the increment was greatly attributed to the schistosomal
impact of this association. We also found a higher anti-HBV EIA positivity (28%)
among type 2 dieabetic participants who also had SHF (group 5), followed by those
with type 1 DM and SHF (group 4), when compared with the lowest positivity rate of
12% among participants with type 1 DM (group 1). However, these differences were
not statistically significant when compared with the control group.
Although the interaction between schistosomiasis and DM is still unclear,
previous studies revealed a protective role for Schistosoma infection, reporting a lower
prevalence of diabetes and a better metabolic profile among Chinese participants with
previous schistosome infection [60]. Moreover, a previous study showed that
S. mansoni soluble egg antigens can profoundly regulate the immune system of the
infected host and thus can be used to prevent type 1 diabetes in non-obese diabetic
mice [61].
The findings of the present study should be interpreted with caution due to few
limitations. First, this study had to rely on the results of total HBcAb while HBsAg was
not examined. Data for HBsAg detection would be essential in order to identify positive
patients as those with past or current HBV infection. Second, majority of the
participants were from rural areas this could explain the absence of prior hepatitis B
vaccination. Third, the hospital-based design limits the interpretation of our findings,
and a community-based study is required.
33
5. CONCLUSION
The findings of this study revealed high HBV seropositivity among the
participants. Schistosomiasis was found to be associated with HBV, particularly
among individuals who are older in age, received parenteral anti-schistosomal
treatment, have a history of clinical jaundice, and have a household member with a
history of SHF. There was no association between HBV and DM among the subjects,
with no additional risk being reported when DM was considered in examining the
relationship between schistosomiasis and HBV. Large-scale community-based studies
are needed to investigate the epidemiology of HBV infection and to evaluate its
relationship with other diseases. Proper attention should be given to the high
seropositivity rate of HBV, and effective measures should be implemented in order to
reduce the prevalence of this life-threatining infection in Yemen.
CONSENT
All participants agreed that their participation in the research is voluntary and
they may withdraw from the research at any time without citing the reasons. Written
and signed or thumb-printed informed consents were obtained from the participants.
ETHICAL APPROVAL
The protocol of this study was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of
the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sanaa University, Yemen and
permissions were also given from the related hospitals.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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hepatic periportal
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39
Hamid Soori, Ali Nasermoadeli and Elaheh Ainy,

Rodney P. Jones,
Safety Promotion and lnjury Prevention
Research
Center
and
Health
School
of Shahid
Healthcare Analysis & Forecasting,
Camberley,
UK
Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, lran,
Infectious-like
an Agent
to 2,
Safety
Promotion and lnjurySpread
Preventionof
Research
Center, Leading
7th Floor, Building
Beheshti University
of Medical
Sciences, Evin,and
Chamran
Highway,
lran
Shahid
Increased
Medical
Admissions
Deaths
inTehran,
Wigan
(England), during 2011 and 2012
ABSTRACT
The
Role of Graduated Drivers' Licensing on

Aims: To demonstrate
infectious-like
spreadTraffic
of an agent
leading toina Iran
period of
Incidence
and Severity
of Road
Injuries
higher death and medical admissions in the Wigan local authority, part of the greater
Manchester
area of England, during 2011 and 2012.
ABSTRACT
Study
Longitudinal
study
of deaths
hospital drivers
admissions.
Aims: Design:
This study
investigated
the
role of and
graduated
licensing, imPlace
Duration
of of
Study:
Deaths
(all-cause
mortality)
for the resident
plemented
byand
the Traffic
Police
Iran, on
reducing
the severity
and incidence
of road
population
of Wigan from January 2006 to February 2014. Patients admitted to the
traffic
injuries.
Design:
It acute
was an
evaluation
the effectiveness
of intervention
by
Wigan Study
Infirmary,
a large
hospital
on theofoutskirts
of Manchester,
England, belooking
at theand
data2013.
before
and after intervention.
tween 2008
Methodology:
Running twelve month totals for deaths and
Place
and Duration
of Study:
Data
on roadincreases
traffic crashes
andfactors.
injuries Addifrom
medical
admissions
were used
to detect
step-like
in these
one
before,
afterofand
two
years
after the of
implementation
tionalyear
analysis
byone
age,year
length
stay
and
for clusters
persons livingofineducated
over 40
drivers
licensing
were
obtained
from Iran
Traffic
Police database
in 2010.
small areas
(called
mid
super output
areas)
containing
approximately
5,000 popula-
Methodology: In this study the effectiveness of provisional license intervention

tion within Wigan and surrounds.
by looking at the data before and after intervention was evaluated.
Results: A step-like increase in total deaths can be seen for all-cause mortality
After data cleaning and stratification of traffic injuries and mortalities, the postin Wigan commencing around February of 2012. Medical admissions to the hospital
education records of drivers, in their early years of driving experience, were compared
also show a step-like increase at this point. Deaths and medical admissions remain
against their pre-education driving experience.
high for around 15 months before beginning to abate. Infectious-like spread of medical
Results: Drivers under 23 years of age were involved in 22.8% of total road
admissions
can(RTIs)
be observed
withinprior
40 small
area
population groups
in Wigan drivers
during
traffic
injuries
in the year
to the
implementation
of graduated
the periodThis
January
2011
2012.
appear
be aflicensing.
measure
felltotoApril
15.5%
and Certain
16.1% inmedical
the firstconditions
and second
years to
following
fected
earlier than
others,
the pattern
of increased
show(p<0.001).
evidence of
the
intervention
among
theand
holders
of provisional
81 typeadmissions
driving license
saw-tooth
behavior with
age, which
antigenic
original
and which
Conclusion:
Intervention
is is
anindicative
effective ofway
of reducing
thesinnumber
and
severity
traffic
injuries, particularly
among
the young
and novice
has alsoofbeen
demonstrated
for deaths
in England
and Wales
duringdrivers
2012. are at a
greaterConclusion:
risk of RTIs.
Such
drivers
particularly
benefit infectious
from graduated
The
spread
of a can
previously
unidentified
agent isdrivers
implilicensing
program
which is
proven toinreduce
the incidence
and severity ofand
road
synchronous
increases
death (both
in- and out-of-hospital)
in traffic
medcated
in the
injuries.
ical
admissions (some of which result in death). This is not the first occurrence of an
Keywords: traffic injuries; graduated drivers licensing; accident; transport; fatal.
outbreak of this agent and urgent research is required to identify both the agent and
clarify its mode of action which appears to be via immune modulation. The ubiquitous
40
1. INTRODUCTION
Road traffic injuries constitute a major cause of death and disability globally,
with a disproportionate number occurring in developing countries. In 1998, developing
countries accounted for more than 85% of all deaths due to road traffic crashes globally
and for 96% of all children killed. Moreover, about 90% of disability-adjusted lives
worldwide, due to road traffic injuries, occur in developing countries [1,2]. Meanwhile,
human factors, according to some studies, have had the most influence on the
occurrence of road traffic injury. These factors include drivers behavior, high speed,
violation of the traffic laws, insufficient driving skill, decentralization, fatigue, and physical disability [3]. Graduated drivers licensing is designed to delay full licensure
while allowing teens to get their initial driving experience under low-risk conditions.
It allows beginners to get their initial experience under controlled conditions with lower
risk, while gradually exposing them to more complex driving conditions.
Educated drivers licensing was first proposed in the early 1970s by Waller in
response to the over representation of young drivers in car crashes in North Carolina
[4]. Graduated drivers' licensing framework included three stages. In the first stage,
the learner period, all driving occurs under supervision. Given this period's relative
safety, recent initiatives have tried to encourage the learner to experience a wide
range of driving conditions as frequently as possible. In the second stage, the
intermediate or provisional licensing period, driving is allowed without supervision. The
third stage, full licensing, occurs when the first two stages have been completed [5].
''A three-stage graduated driver licensing (GDL) system that applied to all new
drivers aged 15-24 years was studied by Begg and Stephenson. Component of GDL
were a 6-month learner license (supervised driving) and an 18-month restricted
license stage (with restrictions on night driving and carrying passengers). Findings
suggested that GDL restrictions had contributed to the reduction in crashes among
young people and that it was not simply a case of reduced exposure to risk. This
suggests that the impact of GDL has not diminished over time'' [6]. The impact of the
new road traffic safety law in Serbia showed 26.5% reduction in road traffic fatality
after intervention [7]. The study specifically investigated the role of educated drivers
licensing in reducing the frequency and intensity of injuries (fatal or non-fatal) in Iran.
In this regard, the current study was conducted, as an external evaluation, to
examine the level of success of the scheme (intervention) carried out by the Traffic
Police in Iran.
41

In this study the effectiveness of provisional license intervention by looking at
the data before and after intervention was evaluated. Data on traffic accidents and
injuries from one year before till two years after the implementation of educated
drivers licensing (2004-2007) were obtained from the Center of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) of Traffic Police Department of Iran, where the age
of person to license is 18 years old. Provisional licensing law was performed by the
Traffic Police as an educational program in Iran in 2005 in an attempt to reduce human
error in driving. 81 driving license was issued for one year (provisional license= 81
license). In this period the driver is subjected to certain limitations under special
conditions; the drivers are expected not to commit any offence for issues such as
limited driving light, driving speed and alcohol consumption. If the driver does not
commit any such offence for one year, following the initial license, he could receive a
permanent license. Within one year of temporary license (graduated drivers licensing),
if they have committed a great offence during mentioned period, this period will be
extended for another year, otherwise ten years certificate will be granted after one
year. The cut off point for the participants' age was 23. Accidents committed by drivers
less than 23 years of age, during the law enforcement period, were included in 81
license records as interventional group; whereas accidents happening before the law
enforcement act, by those more than 23 years of age, were included in type 2 driving
license records as (control group, they have not had, a temporary license experienced). Cases that were injured or killed due to offensive drivers were excluded.
After data cleaning and stratification of traffic injuries and mortalities, the data
belonging to the implementation of graduated drivers licensing were compared with
those belonging to drivers in their early years of driving experience. Chi square test
was used to compare the accident ratio and fatal and non-fatal injuries happening prior
to and after the implementation of educated drivers licensing in 81 and type 2 groups.
The statistical packages used to analyze the data were SPSS (version 13) and STATA.
3. RESULTS
According to the results, the number of accidents dropped from a total of 71607
to 63642 cases in three years, i.e. from a year before and to two years after the
implementation of educated drivers licensing. A significant reduction (7.0%) of
accidents was observed in drivers under 23 years after the law enforcement (p<0.001,
Table 1) policies.
3. RESULTS
42
According to the results, the number of accidents dropped from a total of 71607 to 63642
Cambridge
of Education
cases in three years, i.e.
from a Journal
year before
and to and
two Science
years after the implementation of
educated drivers licensing. A significant reduction (7.0%) of accidents was observed in
drivers under 23 years after the law enforcement (p<0.001, Table 1) policies.
1. Frequency(%)
of total
accidents
in inner
and outer
city roads,
TableTable
1. Frequency
(%) of total
accidents
in inner
and outer
city roads,
from a
year before
to
two
years
after
the
implementation
of
temporary
educated
drivers
from a year before to two years after the implementation of temporary
licensing
licensing 81, based on driver's
age and type of driving license
Time of law
enforcement
Temporary driving
license
Type 2 driving license of those

81 and type 2 driving license
more than 23 years
of those under 23 years
Outer city
Inner city
Outer city
Total
Inner city
Total
roads
roads
roads
roads
Number (percent)
Number (percent)
One year before
17708
3426
21134
52137
19470
71607
Oneenforcing
year before
3426(15.0)
21134
71607
temporary 17708
(25.4)
(22.8)52137
(74.06) 19470
(85)
(77.2)
enforcing
(25.4)
(15.0)
(22.8)
(74.06)
(85)
(77.2)
drivingtemporary
license
driving
license
One
year after the
10231
433
10664
54572
3401
57973
Oneenforcement
year after theof
10231
10664
57973
(15.8) * 433 (13.3)
(15.5)54572
(84.02) 3401(88.7)
(84.5)
enforcement
ofdriving (15.8) *
(13.3)
(15.5)
(84.02)
(88.7)
(84.5)
temporary
temporary
licensedriving
license
Two years after the
12118
126
12244
62864
778
63642
Twoenforcement
years after the
12118
12244
778 (86.1)
63642
of
(16.2)** 126 (13.9)
(16.1)62864
(83.8)
(83.9)
enforcement
ofdriving (16.2)**
(13.9)
(16.1)
(83.8)
(86.1)
(83.9)
temporary
temporary
licensedriving
license
Total
20057
3985
44042
169573
23649
193222
Total
20057
3985(14.4)
44042
23649
193222
(19.1)
(18.6)169573
(80.9)
(85.6)
(81.4)
(19.1)
(14.4)
(18.6)
(80.9)
(85.6)
(81.4)
*P< 0.001 Comparing data for one year and two years after the law enforcement policies; **numbers in
*P< 0.001 Comparing data for one year
and twoare
years
after theinlaw
enforcement policies; **numbers in
parenthesis
presented
percent
parenthesis are presented in percent
Further comparisons revealed a noticeable reduction in accidents committed

by drivers with 81 and type 2 driving licenses (i.e. 12.7% and 13.4% decrease) during
comparisons
revealed
a noticeable
accidents committed
the Further
first and
second years
after
enforcingreduction
the lawin(p<0.001,
Table 2). by drivers with
81 and type 2 driving licenses (i.e. 12.7% and 13.4% decrease) during the first and second
years after enforcing the law (p<0.001, Table 2).
Table 2. Frequency (%) of accidents from one year before to two years after the
implementationof
of temporary
temporaryeducated
educated drivers
drivers licensing
licensing 81,
81, as
as measured
measured by
by
implementation
driver's
driver's offender
offenderfor
for age
age and
and type
type of
of driving
driving license
license
Time of implementing
Temporary driving license
81 and type 2 driving

Type 2 driving license
license of those under
of those more than
23 years
23 years
Offender
Non-offender
Offender Non-offender
Number (percent)
Number (percent)
One year before enforcing
15021
6113
57331
14275
Number
temporary driving license Number
(20.8) (percent)
(30.0)**
(79.2) (percent)
(70.0)
One year after enforcing
7109
3554
48671
9302
temporary driving license
(12.7)*
(27.6)
(87.3)
(72.4)
One year before enforcing 15021
6113
57331
14275
Two
years
after
enforcing
8143
4101
52517
11125
(20.8)
(30.0)**
(79.2)
(70.0)
temporary
driving
license
(13.4)
(26.9)
(86.6)
(73.1)
7109
3554
48671
9302
Total
30273
13768
158519
34702
(12.7)
(27.6)
(87.3)
(72.4)
(69.0)
(31.0)
(82.0)
(18.0)
*
Two years after enforcing
8143
4101
52517
11125

8143
4101
52517
11125
temporary
driving license
(13.4)
(26.9)
(86.6)
(73.1)
*P < 0.001 compares
one year before
and two years
after enforcing the
new regulations;
**numbers in
Total
30273 are presented
13768 in percent 158519
34702
parenthesis
(69.0)
(31.0)
(82.0)
(18.0)
There was also a significant reduction in fatal and non-fatal injuries in drivers under 23 years,
following
thecompares
enforcement
of the
lawand
(p <0.001,
3).
*P < 0.001
one year
before
two yearsTable
after enforcing
the new regulations; **numbers in
Fatal injuries significantly varied according to sex of the drivers (4.2% males and 1.6%
females) in the first and second years after the implementation of law enforcement policies (p
<0.001, Table 4).
Table 3. Frequency(%) of total accidents in one year before to two years after
temporary educated drivers licensing 81 based on driver's age, type of driving
license and type of accident
Time of law enforcement for
81 and type 2 driving

license of those

of those more than 23

(20.8)
(30.0)**
(79.2)
7109
3554
48671
(12.7)*
(27.6)
(87.3)
Cambridge
Journal of Education
and Science
8143
4101
52517
(13.4)
(26.9)
(86.6)
Total
30273
13768
158519
(69.0)
(31.0)
(82.0)
(70.0)
9302
(72.4)
11125
(73.1)
34702
(18.0)
43
There was also a significant reduction in fatal and non-fatal injuries in drivers
< 0.001 compares one year before and two years after enforcing the new regulations; **numbers in
under*P23
years, following the enforcement
of the law
(p <0.001, Table 3).
parenthesis are presented
in percent
Fatal injuries significantly varied according to sex of the drivers (4.2% males
and
There was also a significant reduction in fatal and non-fatal injuries in drivers under 23 years,
following
the enforcement
the law
(p <0.001,
Table
3). after the implementation of law
1.6% females)
in theof first
and
second
years
Fatal injuries
significantly
variedTable
according
(p <0.001,
4). to sex of the drivers (4.2% males and 1.6%
enforcement
policies
females) in the first and second years after the implementation of law enforcement policies (p
<0.001, Table 4).
Table
(%) of
after
Table3.3.Frequency
Frequency(%)
of total
total accidents
accidents in
in one
one year
year before
before to
to two
two years
years after
temporary
temporary educated
educated drivers
drivers licensing
licensing 81
81 based
based on
on driver's
driver's age,
age, type
type of
of driving
driving
license
license and
and type
type of
of accident
accident
81 and type 2 driving Type 2 driving license

license of those
of those more than
under 23 years
23 years
Non-fatal
Fatal
Fatal
Non-fatal
Number
(percent) Number
Number
(percent)
Number
(percent)
(percent)
One year before enforcing the
19119
1754
58967
11377
(25.4)*
(13.3)* (75.5)
(86.7)*
Oneyear
yearbefore
after enforcing
temporary
10119
444
50194
7123
One
enforcing
the
19119
1754
58967
11377
driving license
(16.8)
(5.9) (75.5)
(83.2)
(94.1)
(25.4)
(13.3)
temporary
driving license
(86.7)*
* 11321
* 808
Twoyear
years
after
enforcingtemporary
temporary 10119
54800
8354
One
after
enforcing
444
50194
7123
driving
license
(17.1)
(8.8) (83.2)
(82.9)
(91.2)
driving
license
(16.8)
(5.9)
(94.1)
Total
40559
3006 54800
163961
26864
Two
years after enforcing
11321
808
8354
temporary
(93.0)
(7)
(86.0)
(14.0)
driving license
(17.1)
(8.8)
(82.9)
(91.2)
Total
40559
3006
16396
26864
*P < 0.001 compares one year before and two

years after enforcing
**numbers in
1new regulations;(14.0)
(93.0)
(7) the (86.0)
*P < 0.001 compares one year before and two years after enforcing the new regulations;**numbers in
Table 4. Frequency (%) of total accidents from one year before to two years
Table 4. Frequency (%) of total accidents from one year before to two years
after enforcing temporary educated drivers licensing 81, based on driver's
after enforcing temporary educated drivers licensing 81, based on driver's
age, sex and type of driving license
age, sex and type of driving license
81 and type 2
driving license of
those under 23 years
Female
Number (percent)
Non-fatal
Fatal
Number (percent)
Oneyear
yearbefore
before enforcing
enforcing the
520
One
the
520
2929
temporary
(94.7)*
(5.3)
temporarydriving
driving license
license
(94.7)*
(5.3)
One
temporary 190
1414
Oneyear
yearafter
after enforcing
enforcing temporary
190
drivinglicense
license
(93.1)
(6.9)
driving
(93.1)
(6.9)
Two
2424
Twoyears
yearsafter
after enforcing
enforcing temporary 312
312
temporary
(92.9)*
driving
(7.1)
drivinglicense
license
(92.9)**
(7.1)
*1022
Total
6767
Total
1022
(93.8)
(6.2)
(93.8)
(6.2)

of those more than
23 years
Male
Number Fatal
(percent)
Non-fatal
Number (percent)
18570
1710
18570
1710
(91.6)
(8.4)
(91.6)
(8.4)
9916
431
9916
431
(95.8)
(4.2)* *
(95.8)
(4.2)
10993
783
10993
783
(93.4)
(6.6)
(93.4)
(6.6)
39479
2924
39479
2924
(93.1)
(6.9)
(93.1)
(6.9)
*P < 0.001, Difference in injury reduction one year before, and one to two years after law enforcement,
with gender
**numbers
in parenthesis
are
presented
in percent
*P < 0.001, Difference
in matched;
injury reduction
one year
before, and
one
to two years
after law enforcement,
with gender matched; **numbers in parenthesis are presented in percent
4. DISCUSSION
This study shows the noticeable effect of B1 type drivers licensing education in reducing
traffic injuries. A significant reduction in accidents and fatal and non-fatal injuries was
observed among drivers under 23 years after enforcement of the new regulations. Likewise,
there was a significant reduction in accidents between drivers with B1 and those with type 2
driving licenses in the first and second year after the new law regulations. Rate of fatal
injuries by sex in the first and second years after law enforcement policies showed significant
differences between men and women drivers. In general, reduction in the number of injuries
was apparently accounted for by two main reasons: reduction in risk factors and safer
driving. Some major risk factors that were subjected to certain restrictions were as follows:
44
4. DISCUSSION
This study shows the noticeable effect of B1 type drivers licensing education
in reducing traffic injuries. A significant reduction in accidents and fatal and nonfatal injuries was observed among drivers under 23 years after enforcement of the
new regulations. Likewise, there was a significant reduction in accidents between
drivers with B1 and those with type 2 driving licenses in the first and second year
after the new law regulations. Rate of fatal injuries by sex in the first and second
years after law enforcement policies showed significant differences between men and
women drivers. In general, reduction in the number of injuries was apparently
accounted for by two main reasons: reduction in risk factors and safer driving.
Some major risk factors that were subjected to certain restrictions were as follows:
Overnight traffic light, drivers' age and skill, driving speed and alcohol use. The risk of
overnight poor light was removed by abandoning driving in poor light; this was
quite significant as driving under inadequate light could cause fatigue as well;
additionally very young or novice drivers were not allowed to drive; speeding
restrictions and alcohol prohibition also helped to reduce the number of injuries. Safe
driving the second major cause for fewer injuries mainly dealt with ways of
encountering those violating driving regulations. For example driving license could just
be issued for those who did not violate traffic (driving) rules. The results are in line with
some studies like Hasselberg according to which, compared to control groups, in the
experimental groups with parent accompanying their young children, the novice drivers
underwent more restrictions [8].
Despite the new restrictions, some people were still likely to drive without having
any driving license; this indicates the need for heavy presence of the Traffic Police on
the one hand and introduction of driving tips on the other. Based on seven published
evaluations, dealing with the impact of graduated licensing and driving restrictions on
young driver crashes, educated drivers licensing reduced all types of crashes by 7%
and injury crashes by 9%, with both reductions being statistically significant [9]. In line
with such measures, driving license was issued in New Zealand in 1997 in three
stages. In the first stage, after passing a theory test and an eye sight check-up, novice
drivers might drive with an observer in his 20s or more, with a two-year-old permanent
driving license. This period would take nearly six months, after which a conditional
driving license with 18 months duration would be issued. There were restrictions for
45
driving at night; passenger under 20 years of age and those with blood alcohol levels
up to 0.03 per 100 mg in this period were not allowed to drive. A permanent license
would then be issued at the end of this period, after passing a driving exam. The
intervention in New Zealand reduced injuries by 18% in five years. Of course this
reduction implies a decrease in risk factors as well. According to a review of thirteen
educated drivers licensing evaluations, carried out in the US, Canada, New Zealand
and Australia, crash reduction among young first year drivers ranged from 26% to 41%
[10]. In Frith's report, there were no significant differences in rate of injuries before
and after law enforcement of temporary driving license [11]. Reduction of injuries
after law enforcement might be due to fewer driving hours by those with a temporary
driving license. To clarify the truth of this claim, the number of accidents per distance
should have been calculated, but there was not any such information. To solve the
problem, the driver might be forced to drive in the presence of an observer, within a
certain time period. Before obtaining a permanent driving license, it would be an
opportunity for the novice drivers to experience the traffic environment under a
controlled condition. They would be able to gain some valuable experience in a
difficult driving condition. Comparison of novice drivers, fewer than 20 years,
with older ones indicated that the former had fewer accident risks, although they
had less ability to evaluate such risks [12-14]. Begg findings showed the impact of
graduated driver licensing has not diminished over time [6]. The impact of the new
road traffic safety law in Serbia showed road traffic fatality reduction [7]. Antic finding
showed "new RTSL implementation in Belgrade and Serbia caused by the new
legislation decrees and increased fines, in 2010 which was the first year of new
RTSL implementation led to positive effects manifested by the previously described
decrease in the number of traffic accidents casualties" [15]. Other studies,
however, came to a different conclusion. Male young drivers caused more severe
problems than female young drivers, indicating higher risk propensity in male drivers
[16-19]. The number of fatality among males dropped from 1710 a year before to 431
and 783 during the first and second years after enforcing the law respectively. This
feature among females was 29, 14 and 24 respectively. The number of non-fatality
among males dropped from 18570 a year before to 9916 and 10993 during the first
and second years after enforcing the law respectively. This feature among females
was 520, 190 and 312 respectively. Overtime, effect of intervention was reduced
46
in the second year after enforcing. Not permission to driving in outer city roads and
risk taking behavior looked to be reason of high non fatal injuries among males. First
year was baseline in the study. Overtime effect of intervention was reduced in the
second years after enforcing.
One of the strengths of this study was the number of participants; it was the first
study on this subject in Iran. However, the data collected by the Traffic Police at the
scenes of accidents included a limited number of items, without going into details for
closer look at the impact of intervention; so, as part of the weakness of this study, it
is difficult to say how much of this reduction in injuries or fatalities is just due to the
intervention. Further studies should be done to show the role of fatigue and lack of
concentration on novice drivers with temporary driving license. Continuous
assessment system for temporary driving license and restriction for novice drivers are
recommended. It seems that the continuation of a conditional driving license,
cancellation of driving credit of violators and inclusion of negative points for violators
would be effective in preventing traffic injuries.
5. CONCLUSION
The efficiency of intervention in reducing the intensity of traffic injuries is well
obvious; likewise, the benefits of educated drivers licensing in reducing the crude
number of traffic injuries are well documented. Nonetheless, further interventions such
as demerit points, license suspension and vehicle confiscation might also be
implemented to prevent RTIs in long term.
CONSENT
All authors declare that 'written informed consent was obtained from the patient
(or other approved parties) for publication of this case report and accompanying
images.
ETHICAL APPROVAL
All authors hereby declare that all experiments have been examined and
approved by the appropriate ethics committee and have therefore been performed in
accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.
47
FUNDING
This project was supported financially by World Health Organization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the personals at the
Information and Communication Technology of Traffic Police Department. They also
thank the Traffic Police Department in Tehran for financially supporting this project
which was jointly carried out by the Rahvar Research Center of Islamic Republic of
Iran's Security Forces (NAJA) and the Safety Promotion and Injury Prevention
Research Center of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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139-46.
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does, doesn't, or could address them. Journal of Safety Research. 2003;34(1):
71-7.
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graduated driver licensing program. Traffic injury prevention. 2010;11(1):1-7.
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law on the number of traffic casualties in Serbia. Scientific Research and Essays. 2011;6(29):6176-6184.
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18. Laapotti S, Keskinen E. Has the difference in accident patterns between male and
female drivers changed between 1984 and 2000? Accident Analysis &
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49
P. S. Pastides and W. S. Khan,

University College London Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal
Sciences, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore,
Middlesex, United Kingdom
Cell-Based Therapies in Musculoskeletal Injuries:

The Evolving Role of Bone Marrow-Derived
Mesenchymal Stem Cells
ABSTRACT
Aims: There is considerable interest in the potential of bone marrowderived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) in the management of musculoskeletal injuries. This review aims to summarise the information in the literature
on the evolving role of these cells in the management of these complex heterogenous injuries.
Study design: Review Article.
Place and Duration of Study: University College London Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital,
Stanmore, Middlesex, HA7 4LP, United Kingdom.
Methodology: We reviewed the literature to identify studies on the use of
BM-MSCs for the management of musculoskeletal injuries.
Results: There is an increasing and encouraging body of evidence to suggest that BM-MSCs have a significant role in the management of musculoskeletal
injuries involving muscles, tendons, ligaments, bone, cartilage, menisci and nervous tissue.
Conclusion: Several characteristics of BM-MSCs make them ideal
candidates in managing musculoskeletal injuries. Bone marrow is easy to obtain
requiring minimal donor site morbidity, invasiveness and anaesthetic. Their
autologous nature eliminates the issue of immunoreactions and ethical problems. The majority of studies in the literature however use small animal models,
and further work in larger animals and ultimately ethically approved clinical trials
should be explored before any significant clinical relevance can be assessed.
50
Keywords: musculoskeletal; bone marrow; mesenchymal stem cells; scaffold; injection; cell culture; differentiation; integration.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tissue engineering is an exciting strategy being explored to deal with
damaged or lost tissue. Tissue engineering can include the use of cells, scaffolds
and growth factors in any combination (Mahapatra and Khan 2011; Nannaparaju
et al., 2011). Stem cells are a self-renewing, slow-cycling cell population that
exhibit high clonogenity, low cellular proliferation and the ability to undergo multilineage differentiation. Stem cells can be derived from a number of sources
and are able to undergo chondrogenic, osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation (Pittenger et al., 1999). These cells are identified by a number of cell surface
markers that they express on their cell surface including CD105 as shown in Figure 1. These cells are often used with scaffolds that provide a three-dimensional
structural template. Scaffolds are natural (e.g. collagen and alginate) or synthetic
(e.g. polyglycolic acid and polyacrylonitrile polyvinyl chloride) materials used for
cell attachment and proliferation. The ideal scaffold is biocompatible and meets
the biological needs of growing tissue.
Bone marrow derived stem cells have been widely studied and there
is a wealth of information in literature concerning those (Mafi et al., 2011). Adult
mammalian bone marrow contains two discrete stem cell populations, haematopoietic stem cells and MSCs (Pittinger et al., 1999; Short et al., 2003). Protocols
for the culture (Freidenstein et al., 1970) and, chondrogenic, steogenic and adipogenic differentiation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) have been described (Johnstone et al, 1998; Pittenger et al, 1999; Sekiya
et al., 2002; Thanabalasundaram et al., in press). BM-MSCs have been associated with the repair and regeneration of musculoskeletal injuries.
Musculoskeletal injury can involve muscle, tendon, ligament, bone, meniscus and cartilage. The high incidence of such injuries highlights the need for novel,
more effective treatments. Currently a lot of research is being carried out into this
area. The use of BM-MSCs is one such option (Tucker et al., in press) and the
aim of this review is to critique and clarify their findings.
51
Figure 1: Cell surface epitope characterisation of mesenchymal stem cells

using cell surface staining with a primary antibody that recognises CD105
and a fluorescent secondary antibody that shows up green.
The nuclei are counterstained with a blue dye. The figure shows strong
staining for CD105, a mesenchymal stem cell marker
2. METHODOLOGY
A thorough literature review was conducted and articles relating to the use
of BM-MSCs for the treatment of musculoskeletal injuries were identified. The
searched primarily focused on the use of the cells to treat common conditions
affecting muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, meniscii, cartilage and their role in
osteoarthiritis.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Muscle
Increased musculoskeletal activities can exert abnormal biomechanical
environments onto muscle which can lead to injuries such as muscular strain and
tears which can sufficiently hinder the patients mobility. The incidence of such
injuries in the professional sporting setting is considerable and troublesome for
both sporting professionals and their teams (Elliott et al., 2011).
Following muscular injury, repair and regeneration is triggered by local
multipotent stem cells. BM-MSCs act as a reserve for muscle precursors and
aid in its repair by migrating physiologically into the regenerating muscle. Ferrari
et al. (1998) however showed that when BM-MSCs were administered systemically
52
in immunodeficient mice, they had minimal impact on muscular regeneration.

However, in cases of extended damage, they maintained the population of more
differentiated, muscle-forming precursors (Ferrari et al., 1998).
3.2 Tendon
Tendons act to both transmit muscular forces but also as a store of elastic
energy (Fukashiro et al., 1995; Oragui et al., 2011). Thus repetitive cyclical loading, such as that exhibited in the Achilles tendon may result in overuse injury
(Kvist, 1994), and consequently tendon rupture.
The role of BM-MSCs cells in the treatment of tendinitis has been a subject
of investigation (Khan and Longo, 2011). Two recent studies evaluated the
efficacy of intralesional BM-MSCs injections into equine flexor tendons (Godwin
et al., 2011; Schnabel et al., 2009). Both studies reported excellent clinical, radiological and histological improvement in tendons treated with this method and
so, provide an incentive for further evaluation in both animal and human models.
One study (Chong et al., 2007) looking at rabbit Achilles tendon using a
fibrin gel into which BM-MSCs were seeded, demonstrated an increased modulus
of elasticity by 32% and an increased proportion of collagen type I compared to
the fibrin gel alone group at 3 weeks. However, after 6 and 12 weeks no difference was observed between groups. In a second study looking at rabbit Achilles
tendon injuries, Ouyang et al. (2003) used 3 groups: group 1 received BM-MSCs
seeded onto a poly-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) scaffold; group 2, a PLGA scaffold alone and group 3 received no laceration to act as a control. Group 1
exhibited greater tissue formation and remodelling compared to group 2. Both
groups 1 and 2 had similar histological appearance to native tendon by 12 weeks.
The tensile stiffness and modulus in group 1 was 87% and 62.6% respectively of
a normal tendon whereas in group 2 they were 56.4% and 52.9% respectively
suggestive of a potential benefit for these types of injuries.
In another study, incised rabbit patella tendons where treated with a collagen gel-BM-MSC composite (treatment group) or simply a collagen gel (control
group) (Awad et al., 1999). Histologically, only 40% of the treatment group
expressed more physiological, well integrated collagen types, whilst the remainders showed comparable collagen integration types to the control group.
However, there was a demonstrable biomechanical advantage in the treatment
53
group; tendon stiffness, modulus of elasticity, maximum stress and strain energy
increased by 15%, 7%, 16% and 32% respectively as compared to the control
group. This may suggest an advantageous biomechanical effect which is not apparent histologically and may simply be due to an increased cross sectional area
provided by the cells.
Damage at the tendon bone interface in rabbits was also explored
(Ouyang et al., 2004) using fibrin glue with and without BM-MSCs. Both groups
showed evidence of perpendicular collagen type fibre formation. However, the
control group had type I and III fibres only while the treatment group had a higher
proportion of fibres and consisted of collagen type I, II and III. This demonstrates
the ability of BM-MSCs to promote fibrocartilage-like tissue formation and thus
aids in the healing process.
The results from these studies show improved biomechanical properties and
healing rates of tendons when BM-MSCs are inserted.
3.3 Ligament
Ligaments stabilize joints and control their movements. During sporting
activities, they are subjected to higher stress and strain rates as the joints are
subjected to more forceful and exaggerated movements. Additionally, they help
coordinate the
complex movements required during sporting activities via a
proprioceptive input into the nervous system (Frank, 2004).

The cruciate ligaments are probably the most famous and one of the commonest ligaments that can be damaged. Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears
can be caused by torsional forces created at the knee whilst the foot is firmly
planted on the ground or upon landing or by direct blows to the outside of the
knee. Damage to ligaments can also disrupt the physiological loads and movements of joints which may predispose to osteoarthritis (OA) (Muthuri et al., 2011).
Effective treatment is essential for the successful recovery from these injuries (Laboute et al., 2010). In cases of severe tears or complete rupture, surgery
is a viable option, where the debate on how to repair still rages. This may involve
either primary repair by suturing the ligament (Gobbi et al., 2009) or reconstruction using extra- or intra-articular tendon grafts therefore causing donor site morbidity (Streich et al., 2010). BM-MSCs potentially enhance the efficacy of some of
the current treatments (Lim et al., 2004) or may act as a treatment in their own
54
right (Al-Rashid and Khan, 2011). Kanaya et al. (2007) injected BM-MSCs into
partial torn rat anterior cruciate ligaments and found that this appeared to accelerate their healing and concluded that they may be a viable treatment option.
The ultimate failure load of the femur-ACL-tibia complex of the BM-MSC treated
group was significantly higher than the control group. The transected area of the
ACLs in the BM-MSC group demonstrated no retraction and a better histological
grading score. The BM-MSCs survived the intra-articular environment and enhanced the healing of partial tears resulting in more biomechanically and histologically viable results.
This potential benefit is supported by other studies (Oe et al., 2011; Wei et
al., 2011). In fact, Wei et al concluded that not only do BM-MSCs promote ligamentous healing, but expression of TGF1 and VEGF(165) within these cells significantly promoted angiogenesis of the reconstructed ligament at 3, 6, 12 weeks,
with the best mechanical properties being achieved at 24 weeks.
Bilateral ACL reconstructions using hamstring tendon autografts were carried out on rabbits to investigate whether the use of BM-MSCs would reduce
the incidence of early tendon autograft pull out following ligament reconstruction
(Lim et al., 2004). The treatment limb autograft was coated with autologous BMMSCs within a fibrin glue carrier. The control limb autograft received only fibrin
glue. At 8 weeks post surgery the control had a distinct fibrous interface with the
bone, containing collagen type I and III with occasional fibres resembling
Sharpeys fibres bridging the gap. Conversely the treatment group had matured
zones of cartilage rich in collagen type II resembling normal entheses. The overall
mean failure load and stiffness where 66% and 51% respectively, which was statistically significantly higher in the BM-MSC group. Despite this benefit, 44% of
BM-MSC limbs failed by pullout highlighting that although the resulting
biomechanical properties are apparent, more work is needed to evaluate this
benefit.
BM-MSCs appear to be the optimum cell sources for ligament repair and
produce better results biomechanically, histologically and physiologically.
3.4 Bone
The management of bone defects is challenging. Although bone defects
commonly occur after musculoskeletal injury, they can also be caused by surgery
or disease (Khan et al., 2009). Non-union is a significant problem affecting up
55
to 10% of fractures (Axelrad et al., 2007). Any approach to deal with bone defects
need to address three fundamental features for bone repair: osteoconduction,
osteoinduction and osteogenesis. The current gold standard autologous cancellous bone grafting is limited by tissue availability and donor site morbidity. Allogenic bone grafting has the potential for disease transmission. The use of
growth factors including BMPs has shown promising results (Friedlaender et al.,
2001) but their role is limited in the absence of an osteoconductive and osteogenic
component.
A possible alternative is to use BM-MSCs (Gidado et al., 2009). Some
clinical sites are deficient in MSCs and may benefit from BM-MSCs to reactivate fracture healing. The therapeutic options include the use of bone marrow,
the use of selected but unexpanded BM-MSCs, or the use of expanded BM-MSCs
(Chimutengwende-Gordon et al., in press).
Petite et al. (2000) investigated the results of using a coral scaffold with
and without BM-MSCs, and with fresh bone marrow (FBM) in sheep. The BMMSC seeded scaffold allowed bone deposition at the same rate as scaffold degradation. It was the only composite that resembled physiological bone and allowed bony union to occur after 16 weeks. Although the coral scaffold was osteoconductive resulting in bone deposition in the medullary centre, scaffold
degradation outweighed bone deposition in coral and FBM scaffolds.
A different study evaluating the effect of BM-MSCs in healing rates of
femoral fractures in rats, a porous hydroxyapatite-tricalcium phosphate ceramic
cylinder was used. In one leg the rat received the cylinder alone and in the contralateral leg received the cylinder embedded with BM-MSCs. By 12 weeks union
was complete in the BM-MSC group with bony ingrowth into the pores of the
scaffold displaying increased strength (215%), stiffness (245%) and torsional
energy absorbed (212%) compared to the scaffold side (Bruder et al., 1998b).
In a similarly designed study by Bruder et al. (1998a), a ceramic cylinder
composed of hydroxyapatite and -tricalcium phosphate was used to investigate
fracture healing in a canine model. The dogs received a cylinder with or without
BM-MSCs. In the dogs with cell-free cylinders union occurred between the implant
and the bone cortex in ten of twelve dogs by 16 weeks however no callus was
visible and most of the pores were filled with fibrous tissue. In the BM-MSC
group, bone was distributed evenly throughout the implant and integrated well
56
with the host bone. By 8 weeks solid union had occurred in all 12 bone implant
interfaces with a continuous bridge of mineralized bone surrounding the defect.
An osseous callus formed around the implant and the adjacent host bone in 84%
of specimens. The implant pores were filled with woven or lamellar bone in direct
contact with the ceramic (Bruder et al., 1998a). This finding is supported by
another study using mice models and fracture of the tibia (Granero-Molto et al.,
2009).
The preferred treatment for large bone defects is currently autologous bone
grafts. However, the supply of suitable bone is limited and its collection is painful,
with a risk of infection, nerve damage, and a loss of function (Calori GM et al
2011). Hence BM-MSC embedded scaffolds offer a safer, less destructive alternative with good results (Khaled et al., 2011).
3.5 Meniscus
The meniscus is a vital part of the joint. It acts to prevent the deterioration
and degeneration of articular cartilage and the onset and development of
osteoarthritis. For this reason, research into meniscus repair has been the
recipient of particular interest from the orthopedic and bioengineering communities. They also function to absorb shock during dynamic loading and have a
major role in the tribological properties of the knee joint (Makris et al., 2011).
Meniscal tears often occur in conjunction with ACL injuries (Noyes et al.,
1980). Although lesions in the peripheral vascular region of the meniscus heal
well but lesions in the central avascular area fail to do so (Klompmaker et al.,
1996). The results with allograft are variable. Isolating meniscal cells from the
resected region is another option that has been explored but the quantity and
quality of these cells limits applications (Ha et al., 2011). Prosthetic replacement
has received promising results from early animal studies but further studies are
needed.
Another approach currently being investigated is the use of BM-MSCs
seeded scaffolds. Fibrin glue scaffolds were inserted into meniscal lesions in rats
with and without BM-MSCs.
At 12 weeks, the cell-free scaffold group had many small round cells within
the fibrin glue that were synthesising ECM in 25% of the specimens. The BMMSC group at that stage contained an abundance of round cells within the
57
scaffold which were surrounded completely by ECM in 75% specimens. In

addition, cartilage-like tissue could also be seen (Izuta et al., 2001).
Walsh et al. (1999) investigated the effect of cell-seeded collagen type I
scaffolds in rabbits. The rabbits underwent bilateral partial menisectomy and
then either no treatment, autogenous periosteal graft, type I collagen sponge
or a type I collagen sponge with BM-MSCs. Time-dependant osteoarthritic
changes developed in all groups. These changes were greater in the autogenous
periosteal graft group and fewer in the collagen scaffold group, especially when
used with BM-MSCs. The addition of BM-MSCs to the scaffold enhanced fibrocartilage regeneration with evidence of mature bundles of collagen and proteoglycan.
In another study, rabbits with meniscal resection of the pars intermedia
received either a hyaluronon/gelatine scaffold with or without BM-MSCs, or received no treatment. The BM-MSC knees had high cellularity of chondrocytelike morphology and extensive ECM resembling that of normal meniscus. There
was nearly complete filling of the defects with good integration of the scaffold.
The amount of fibrocartilage seen was significantly greater than in the cell-free
scaffold. The cell-free scaffold group had a partially filled defect with good repair
tissue integration but t extracellular matrix produced did not contain any type II
collagen. The defect in the control was, in the majority, unfilled (Angele et al., 2008).
The effect of BM-MSCs when applied within a blood clot by sutures to a
defected middle third of meniscus was investigated using a goat model. The
goats were divided into four groups; Group 1 received only sutures, group 2 sutures and a blood clot, group 3 sutures, a blood clot and BM-MSCs and group 4
received nothing. Group 1 had 4 healed and 4 partially healed knees (3 at 75%
and 1 at 50%) with no failed repairs. In group 2, 5 defects were healed and 2
partially healed (by 50%) and 1 failed repair. The repaired sections were more
organised with less cellularity compared to group 1. Group 3 had 3 healed, 1 partially healed (25%) and 4 failed repairs. The repair site had reduced cellularity,
increased matrix and increased orientation of the matrix. Finally, Group 4 had
7 knees with no healing and 1 partial healing (25%). This study therefore
proved that BM-MSCs were detrimental to meniscal healing (Port et al., 1996).
Most of these studies show the positive effects of BM-MSCs on mensical
healing. These cells have an ability to withstand the avascular meniscal conditions
58
and appear well-suited to defects within this area. In vitro studies have demonstrated that the matrix forming phenotype of human meniscus cells can be
enhanced by expansion in growth factors and altering the oxygen tension
(Adesida et al., 2006; Adesida et al., 2007) and further work on these aspects is
ongoing.
3.6 Cartilage
Articular cartilage is intregral to the tribological properties of joints. Cartilage lesions are common in sporting activities, with some studies showing up
to 49% of injuries associated with athletic activity (Aroen et al., 2004). Their
high load bearing and shock absorbing capacity help to withstand the mechanical
force exerted across joints during sporting activity (Williams et al., 2007). Once
damaged cartilage, is vulnerable due to its poor ability to heal, even small defects
may degenerate over time, ultimately causing osteoarthritis (Redman et al., 2005).
Articular cartilage is particularly suitable for tissue engineering applications
as it is avascular, aneural and alymphatic (Khan and Hardingham, 2009). Articular
cartilage shows a limited capacity for repair following injury. Cartilage injuries
that extend to the subchondral bone show some signs of repair due to the release
of BM-MSCs from the subchondral bone, and this principle is employed in microfractures (Punwar and Khan, 2011). Current treatments such as arthroscopic
management, autologous osteochondral transfer and autologous chondrocyte
implantation (ACI) have all shown positive results. However a systematic review
comparing autologous chondrocyte implantation, osteochondral autograft transfer, matrix-induced autologous chondrocyte implantation and microfracture failed
to identify a single technique consistently showing superior results compared
with the others. It did however find that outcomes for microfracture tended to be
worse in larger lesions (Magnussen et al., 2008).
Im et al. investigated the ability of BM-MSCs to treat cartilage defects (Im et
al., 2001). They suspended BM-MSCs in Ham F-12 medium before injecting
into full thickness cartilage defects in the patellar groove of rabbits. The control
group received cell free medium. At 14 weeks the BM-MSC group contained reparative tissue resembling articular cartilage with a fully repaired subchondral
bone layer. However, the reparative tissue of the control defects was thin, irregular
and undifferentiated with less matrix collagen type II. Histological grading scores
59
indicated the treatment group performed significantly better than the control (14.8
vs 8.9). Thus, the findings suggest the use of BM-MSCs in this way enhances
cartilage repair but does not guarantee cartilaginous healing.
Wakitani et al. (1994) used BM-MSCs or periosteum derived mesenchymal
stem cells (PD-MSCs) from rabbits and seeded them into a type 1 collagen gel.
They were then implanted into large (3x6 mm), full thickness osteochondral
defects located in the weight bearing surface of the medial femoral condyle.
The contralateral knee served as a control with its defect either left empty or
filled with collagen free gel. The BM-MSC group produced reparative tissue
more similar to hyaline cartilage with better integration by week 4. However by
week 24, the quality of this tissue progressively declined as the thickness of the
articular cartilage portion reduced below that of normal cartilage. The control group
showed markedly inferior repair throughout the assessment. PD-MSCs yielded
results very similar to BM-MSCs but in addition exhibited a progressive increase
in surface irregularity.
Hybrid designs for scaffolds have also been used. Shao et al. (2006) seeded
BM-MSCs into a Polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold for the cartilage portion and
a tricalcium phosphate-reinforced PCL scaffold for the bone portion. With fibrin
glue, the seeded scaffolds were implanted into large osteochondral defects in
the load bearing medial femoral condyle of rabbits. Controls received a cell free
scaffold. After 6 months, repair tissue from the BM-MSC group was well integrated
with host bone in all specimens. Most samples were hyaline like in nature with
identifiable collagen type II and glycosaminoglycan, and an almost normal
physiological stiffness. Defects in the control group were incompletely filled
with fibrous repair tissue with little resemblance to cartilage or bone. However,
some repair tissues in the BM-MSC
group
also
experienced
fissures
and
cracks at the integration site and microscopically demonstrated a lack of typical

zonal arrangement (Shao et al., 2006).
Similar to Shao et al. (2006), Uematsu et al. used poly-lactic-glycolic acid
(PLGA) scaffolds seeded with BM-MSCs (Uematsu et al., 2005) to treat full thickness osteochondral defects in the femoropatellar groove of rabbit knees. Control
defects were treated with cell free PLGA scaffolds or left empty. The findings of
this study supported the findings by Shao et al. but they were able to show signs
60
of zonal organization within the newly formed cartilage were similar to the previous scaffold studies. Although in support of Wakitani et al. (1994), it did not,
however, report the trend in thinning of the reparative cartilage at 12 weeks.
Unlike Shao et al there were signs of zonal organisation of the newly formed cartilage. Additionally, the PLGA scaffold was able to prevent leakage of the injected
cells away from the defect, as reported by Im et al. (2001).
It is clear that BM-MSCs do have a role to play in the treatment of osteochondral defects, however it is an area of research that must be investigated
further. The use of scaffolds, growth factors and altered culture conditions for in
vitro expansion are synergistic factors that also require further evaluation (Khan
et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2008).
3.7 Spinal Cord and Nerve Tissue
Spinal cord injuries have a significant socioeconomic impact on patients and
on society as a whole. Even though endogenous stem cells are present in the
spinal cord, recovery from spinal cord injuries is unpredictable. Sanchez-Ramos
et al. (2000) have shown that BM-MSCs can successfully differentiate down the
neuronal lineage in vitro. In a spinal cord injury animal model, Akiyama et al.
(2002) have shown that BM-MSC implantation results in the formation of neural
and myelin-producing cells, axonal regeneration and functional recovery. There
have only been limited studies in humans. Park et al. (2005) showed that intralesional injections of bone marrow mononuclear cell fraction in five patients with
acute spinal cord injury resulted in improvement in sensory and motor functions.
Sykova et al. (2006) found similar results in 20 patients who were given intravenous injections in the acute post-injury period.
Nerve tissue is currently routinely replaced using autografts that results
in variable regeneration and is associated with donor site morbidity. Current
tissue engineering strategies are exploring nerve guidance conduits, and cultureexpanded Schwann cells with polylactic acid and polylactic-co-glycolic acid scaffolds for regeneration through the conduit (Hadlock et al., 1998; Hadlock et al.,
1999). There are currently no randomised controlled trials and better quality studies are needed before any definitive conclusions can be drawn on the role of stem
cells in spinal cord and nerve tissue repair (Khan et al., 2009).
61
4. CONCLUSION
Unlike other sources of stem cells, bone marrow is easy to obtain requiring
minimal donor site morbidity, invasiveness and anaesthetic and these properties make BM-MSCs an appropriate choice for musculoskeletal injuries (Kennard
et al., 2011; Malik and Khan, 2011). For example, to obtain ACL fibroblasts an
arthroscopy is required in an already injured knee, whereas BM-MSCs can be
aspirated from the iliac crest. BM-MSCs can be isolated with relative ease due
to their superior ability to bind to tissue culture plastic relative to other bone marrow
cells (Petite et al., 2000). Once isolated, BM-MSCs can be easily proliferated in
vitro without losing their capacity for differentiation. Due to their multi-lineage potential, repair of complex injuries is possible. For example, when injected into a
knee joint with injuries to the ACL, medial meniscus and cartilage of the femoral
condyles, BM-MSCs mobilize to affected areas and contribute to regeneration
(Agung et al., 2006).
Bone marrow derived cells appear to have several advantages over other
mesenchymal cells (Khan et al., 2010). They undergo a higher degree of mineralisation when differentiating down an osteogenic lineage compared with aminiotic
fluid (AF-MSC) and equine umbilical cord MSCs (EUC-MSC) (Lovati et al., 2011).
In addition, their autologous nature eliminates the issue of immunoreactions and
ethical problems.
Any successful future therapy is likely to involve the use of scaffolds has
been shown to be efficacious. They provide architectural support and prevent leakage of cells from the defect.
The limitation of the evidence to date is that most of the studies involve
small numbers of animal models with inflicted injuries; this does mean that they
findings may not be translated to trauma patients or human subjects. Further work
in larger animal and ultimately ethically approved clinical trials should be explored
before any clinical relevance can be assessed.
Key Points:
(i) Damage to musculoskeletal tissues can be treated with BM-MSCs.
(ii) BM-MSCs can be administered directly into the tissue defects via
injection however there is a growing body of evidence to support the use of
scaffolds. When scaffolds are used, there is still inconclusive evidence to support one medium over another.
62
(iii) As a cell source for tissue engineering, BM-MSCs are autologous in

nature and hence eliminate the issue of immunoreactions and ethical problems.
They can be harvested aspiration and have a high in vitro proliferation rate
whilst maintaining their differentiating capacity.
(iv) The vast majority of these studies are at the small animal stage and
therefore further work using larger animal models, and ideally humans is required.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Author has declared that no competing interests exist.
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71
Yu.V. Odinets,
Kharkiv National Medical University, Professor,
Doctor of Medical Sciences, Department of Pediatrics 2,
N.I. Makieieva,
Kharkiv National Medical University, Professor,
Doctor of Medical Sciences, Department of Pediatrics 2,
V.A. Golovachova,
Kharkiv National Medical University, Assistant,
Candidate of Medical Sciences, Department of Pediatrics 2,
K.K. Iarova,
Kharkiv National Medical University, Assistant Professor,
Candidate of Medical Sciences, Department of Pediatrics 2,
N.P. Alyeksyeyeva,
Kharkiv National Medical University, Assistant Professor,
Candidate of Medical Sciences, Department of Pediatrics 2
Macro- and microelement composition of blood

and hair and ecological related renal pathology
in children
Abstract: 142 children with renal pathology who live in regions with different
levels of environmental pollution were examined in order to investigate the action of
ecological factors on the macro- and microelements of blood serum. The carried out
research have shown that most expressing change were found in children with
nephropathies from ecological "polluted" cluster vs those from "clean" cluster that is
indicative of action of disadvantage ecological factors on development of nephropathy.
Keywords: macro- and microelements, ecological factors, renal pathology,
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, , . 1, 2.
1
,
,
(m)

,
n=34
, n=34
I, n=15
I, n=19
1
2
1
2
n=11
n=8
n=7
n=8
, n=26
I, n=11
I, n=15
n=7
n=4
n=10
n=5
,
/
3,87
0,16
3,96
0,21
4,12
0,1
3,5
0,53
4,36
0,25
4,14
0,52
4,02
0,24
3,69
0,2
4,61
0,8
Na,
/
Ca,
/
143,16
3,35
2,53
0,06
134,7
2,81
2,26
0,15
135,2
2,91
2,21
0,2
131,5
4,98
1,98
0,16
**
138,4
3,82
2,07
0,14
***
143
3,21
2,01
0,08
*
139,6
6,99
2,09
0,08
***
135,6
2,3
2,16
0,2
***
149,7
12,4
2,09
0,2
***
76
Mg,
/
0,83
0,05
0,88
0,13
0,86
0,06
0,87
0,06
0,78
0,16
0,85
0,09
1,18
0,35
Zn,
/
27,17
0,75
23,1
1,97
22,5
2,59
28,6
8,74
17,88
0,79
18,71
3,04
19,18
1,32
14,1
1,15
*
23,81
2,79***
22,5
2,11
Cu,
/
16,37
0,88
Fe,
/
17,93
0,48
18,65
0,43
18,86
1,32
14,9
2,15
*
33,91
2,07
*
18,34
0,78
18,07
0,87
20,67
2,06
Mn,
/
0,21
0,01
0,2
0,03
0,25
0,02
0,19
0,03
0,21
0,03
0,25
0,01
17,71
0,74
*
23,51
2,7
***
0,17
0,05
1,26
0,2
***
12,6
0,8
*
29,97
2,3
*
18,85
1,0
1,91
0,1
*
12,0
1,3
*
35,09
2,7
*
16,49
1,1
0,14
0,01
*
0,13
0,03*
**
: :
1. * - <0,001 ;
2. ** - <0,01 ;
3. *** - <0,02 ;
4. - <0,001 , I;
5. - <0,01 , I;
6. - <0,05 , I;
7. - <0,01 2 ;
8. ;
9. Na ;
10. Ca ;
11. Mg ;
12. Zn ;
13. Cu ;
14. Fe ;
15. Mn .
2
,
,
(m, /)

, n=34
,
n=14
I, n=15
1
2
n=8
n=7
, n=26
I, n=19
1
2
n=11
n=8
I, n=11
1
2
n=7
n=4
I, n=15
1
2
n=10
n=5
319,4
21,6
352,5
20,5
312,8
20,7
391,8
68,1
361,7
40,9
296,0
11,9
327,1
31,4
309,1
12,4
315,2
48
Na
604,3
27,7
2437,4
142
673,6
94,1
2478,3
344
572,6
29,7
3081,5
608
679
48,4
2962,5
305
642,4
42,7
2815,7
262
571,4
11,1
2647
304
130,4
9,81
173,4
146
12
168,9
572,5
23,3
3015,9
256
***
144,9
14,3
175
626,8
91,9
2716
442
131,9
6,12
148,4
579,2
50,3
3871
666,7
***
109,3
27,1
189,6
128,5
9,54
163,8
149
11
172,4
152
9,6
174,8
Ca
Mg
Zn
115,8
9,04
186,8
77

10
8,3
0,48
0,66
0,11
8,1
1,35
4,3
**
6,2
2,34
1,08
0,14**
8,89
1,43
5,3
3,99
0,44
0,31
7
1,83
Pb
0,03
0,02
0,12
0,05
0,13
0,09
Fe
22,0
1,2
36,2
6,6
**
20
1,78
Cu
Mn
Ni
9,5
25,3
**
7,6
1,04
0,74
0,49
13,73
0,75*
6,2
*
7,6
1,42
0,56
0,25
10,85
2,01
7,3
***
8,2
0,28
0,71
0,3
9,1
1,04
14,2
8,3
8,9
1,55
0,9
0,21
8,84
1,48
8,2
0,9
1,11
0,1**
11,99
1,5**
4,8
**
7,5
0,4
1,05
0,1**
13,4
0,8*
0,34
0,1
*
14,8
3,04
***
0,27
0,06
*
21,4
3,01
0,03
0,02
0,03
0,02
19,8
2,73
18,9
4,17
0,18
0,04
*
28,9
4,6
0,26
0,09
**
20,9
1,1
: :
1. * - <0,01 ;
2. ** - <0,02 ;
3. *** - <0,05 ;
4. - <0,01 , I;
5. - <0,05 , I;
6. - <0,02 2 .
,
, ,
. 3, 4.
3
,
, (m)

,
n=34
, n=34
I, n=13
II, n=21
4,020,1
138,81,8
2,070,1*
0,670,03***
11,030,5*
30,41,55
****
15,40,7
, /
Na, /
Ca, /
Mg, /
Zn, /
Cu, /
3,870,16
143,163,35
2,530,06
0,830,05
27,170,75
17,880,79
4,270,21
143,11,9
2,230,1***
0,670,03***
22,81,14**
17,40,81
Fe, /
17,930,48
21,11,6
Mn, /
0,210,01
0,230,01
: :
1. * - <0,001 ;
2. ** - <0,01 ;
3. *** - <0,02 ;
4. ****- <0,05 ;
5. - <0,001 , I.
0,270,02
***
78
4
,
,
(m, /)

Na
Ca
Mg
Zn
Cu
Mn
Ni
Pb
Fe
,
n=14
319,421,6
604,327,7
2437,4142
131,96,12
148,410
8,30,48
0,660,11
8,11,35
0,030,02
22,01,2
, n=34
I, n=13
II, n=21
310,915,8
643,614,7
2690161
149,75,9***
161,72,9
8,90,4
0,390,1
6,41,4
0,0080,03
19,91,0
334,512,3
597,513,4
2719,8109
146,97,4
176,22,4**
10,40,4*
0,90,1
12,30,4**
0,150,04**
23,92,2
: :
1. * - <0,01 ;
2. ** - <0,02 ;
3. ***- <0,05 ;
4. - <0,001 , I;
5. - <0,02 , I.
: , , , II,
,
(. 1), , I
.
,
II, , ,
, , ,

[6],
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, II, ,
I, .

79
, II, , I,
.

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.
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.
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,
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.

- .
,
.
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, II. (. 3, 4). ,
,
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. (<0,02) ,
, II, ,
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(<0,001)
80
, II, ,
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II,
, , , I, .

, II, , I, .
, ,
II.

, , .
:
, ,
(, )
(, , , .)
.
, .
- ,
, ,
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.
:
1. .. .
, 5, 2007. . 45-47.
81
2. .. ,
. , 6(9),
2007. . 82-87.
3. ..
. , 6, 2007. . 613.
4. . - . ,
1976. . 368.
5. .. . , 1978. . 296.
6. Oelzner P., Lehmann G., Eidner . et al. Hypercalcemia in rheumatoid arthritis:
relationship with disease activity and bone metabolism. Rheumatol. Int., N26,
Issue 10, 2006. P. 908-915.
82
Vladimir Gryn,
Higher State Educational Institution of Ukraine
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy,
Docent, Candidate of Medical Sciences, Cathedra of Human Anatomy
The structure of the appendix fetuses, infants,

people chest age, mature and senile
Abstract: This article is devoted to the study morphological structure of the
appendix of people different ages. The publication focuses the lymphoid nodules,
cryptes, Paneth cells and the function of the appendix.
Keywords: fetus, newborn, appendix, lymphoid nodule, Paneth cells.
,
,
, ,
,
, ,

:
.
, , .
: , , , ,
.
. , (
), ,
. ,
,
83
,
,

,
() . ,
3-4 [1, 2, 3]. ,
-
() .
, ,
, .
.
: 11 , 13-, 14-,
15,5 16- ; : 1 ,
2- 4- ; : 12, 14, 30 , 1,5
3,5 ; 15 40 90 ,
, .
, ,
( 96 18.09.2011 .).
10%
,
.

-812 (Epon 812, Fluka Chemie, Switzerland)
[4].
,
1% 1%
,
.
. , ,

84
, ,
[5].
, ,

, : , ;
, , ,
.
,
, ,
.
, ( )
,

.
,
.
( 40 )
( 5 )
.
,
.

, .
, -
. 3,5
,
, ,
.
,
.
85

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40 90 , (
), ,
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.
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( )

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,
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40 90

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.
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40- ,
86
[6]. , , .

73- , 82- 90-
.
. ,
,
. , ,

,
.
,
[7]; ,
, ,
(), , ,
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() , ,
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()
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, 3-4
[1]. ,
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.

,
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3,5-
. ,
,
87
[8].
.
[9], 40

. :
?
,
,

. (,
)

.
:
1. . / . , . , . .
.: , 2006. 320 .
2. ..
/ .. , .. //
. 2011. . 3 (89), . 3. . 6-9.
3. Zahid A. The Vermiform appendix: not a useless organ. J Coll Physician and
Surgeons, April 2004; 14(4): 256-8.
4. .. , , / .. , .. ,
.. . .: . 2007. 5. . 94-96.
5. Malas M.A. Development of the vermiform appendix during the fetal period /
M.A. Malas, A. Gkimen, O. Sulak // Surgery Radiologics Anatomy. 2004.
Vol. 26, 3. . 202-207.
6. Paul UK, Naushaba H, Begum T, Alam J. Position of vermiform appendix: a
postmortem study. Bangladesh Journal of Anatomy. 2009;7(1):3436.
88
7. ..
/ .. // . 2011. 8. . 140-143.
8. Searle AR, Ismail KA, Macgregor D, Hutson JM. Changes in the length and
diameter of the normal appendix throughout childhood. Journal of Pediatric
Surgery. 2013;48(7):15351539.
9. Rehman MM, Begum J, Khalid M, Latif SA, Nessa A, Jahan MK, Shafiquzzaman M, Parvin B, Akhunda AK. Histomorphological study of lymphoid follicle of
vermiform appendix. Mymensingh Med J, 2008 July; 17(2): 134-40.
89
Pronina Ye. N.,

Higher State Educational Establishment of Ukraine
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy, Poltava,
Professor, Doctor of Medical Sciences,
Department of Emergency Medicine with Operative Surgery
and Topographic Anatomy,
Dovbnya Yu. N.,
Graduate Student,
Department of Emergency Medicine with Operative Surgery
and Topographic Anatomy,
Yeroshenko G. A.,
Department of Histology, Cytology and Embryology
Morphological and functional features of human frontal

sinus anterior wall glands
Abstract
The paper studies features of structural organization of glands of anterior wall
of human frontal sinus.
It has been found that compound alveolar-tubular glands are located in submucous base of the human frontal sinus mucosa. Acines and duct system are formed
by glandular cells of cylindrical shape and small cambial epithelial cells. Migrant cells,
i.e., macrophages and lymphocytes were constantly found in the periacinar and
periductal connective tissues. The majority of mast cells were characterized by the
centrally disposed nucleolus, indicating about the prevalence of heparin, including into
secretory granules.
Keywords: frontal sinus, mucosa, glands.
90
Introduction. Topographoanatomical and morphofunctional features of

formations of facial part of the head still remain relevant for researchers of both
morphological and clinical specialties [1-3]. The nasal cavity with its paranasal sinuses,
presenting an integer system where each anatomical formation performs their specific
function have not been fully studied [4]. Study of the tumor processes in nose and its
paranasal sinuses showed that they originated from epithelial elements of various parts
of the glands mucosa [5]. Therefore, study of the structure of the various parts of the
glands and lining epithelial elements is crucial for the proper understanding of the
processes of lesion set on in the paranasal sinuses.
Purpose. The paper was aimed at the detail analysis of structural organization
of glands of anterior wall of human frontal sinus.
Materials and Methods. Mucous membrane of the anterior wall of the frontal
sinuses of people of both sex, aged from 22 to 86 years, died for the reasons not
associated with paranasal sinuses diseases, has been analyzed according to the
international regulations of conduct of biological research.
Fragments of mucous membrane of the anterior wall of the frontal sinuses were
fixed in 2,5% glutaraldehyde solution and poured in EPON-812 according to the
standard procedure [6]. Semi-thin sections were made on ultramicrotome of Sumy
Selmi UMTP-7 PA. The resulted sections were stained with 1% solution of toluidine
blue according to Lynn J.A. [7]. Microimaging of sites, selected for illustrations was
performed using a microscope with digital r 3 microphotohead with software
programs, adapted to these studies.
Results and Discussion. The analysis of semi-thin sections of mucous
membrane of the anterior wall of the frontal sinus revealed compound branched
alveolar-tubular glands, involving acines and duct system.
The acines wall consisted of cylindrical cells. Secretory granules were found in
the apical cytoplasm of epithelial cells. While staining with toluidine blue the granules
showed -reaction, indicating about the prevalence of proteins as their compound.
In acines of the anterior wall of the human frontal sinus cells were found at
different stages secretion, i.e., inflow of secretory products from the blood vessels,
secretion synthesis and accumulation, excretion, regeneration, indicating morphologically about the protein type of secretory products.
Two types of nuclei of secretory epithelial cells of acines of the anterior wall
were distinguished. In cells with optically clear cytoplasm nuclei were orbicular with
91
predominantly decondensed chromatin, indicating about their functional activity.

Nucleoli were centrally disposed. Nuclei with optically dark cytoplasm were prolate,
oriented perpendicularly to basal membrane, with predominant heterochromatin.
Cambial cells of small size, located on the basal membrane between the basal
parts of adjacent epithelial cells, were also found in the acines of the anterior wall
of the frontal sinus. Optically dark prolate nuclei, oriented perpendicularly to
basal membrane, were surrounded by rather narrow stripes of basophilic cytoplasm.
Acines lumens were filled with inhomogeneous secreta of medium optical
density.
Single intraepithelial lymphocytes were often found in epithelium of acines
wall, indicating about presence of local host defense system in the secretory
epithelium of glands of mucous membrane of human frontal sinus anterior wall.
Additional evidence of this fact was the presence of mast cells with centrally
disposed nuclei, found in the connective tissue, surrounding the acines.
The wall of excretory ducts of glands of mucous membrane of the anterior
wall of the frontal sinus was formed by the low-prismatic epithelial cells. Orbicular
nuclei with mostly decondensed chromatin were found in the basal parts of weakly
basophilic cytoplasm with low number of organelles, and single secretory granules, mostly arranged in one layer.
Sometimes cells were arranged in two layers in the wall. In this case the shape
of the cell layer, adjacent to the basal membrane, was prolate. Basophilic cytoplasm
was of anhistous form at the light-optic level. Mostly decondensed chromatin was
found in the prolate nuclei. Nucleoli were disposed eccentrically.
Weakly basophilic secreta were localized in ducts lumens, in which
undissolving basophilic secretory granules were sometimes found.
In the periductal connective tissue in the immediate vicinity from the basal
membrane, surrounding the ducts, vessels of capillary type and cells of leukocytic type,
i.e., macrophages, mast cells and, rarely, lymphocytes were located.
Conclusions. Compound alveolar-tubular glands are located in sub-mucous
base of the human frontal sinus mucosa. Acines and duct system are formed by
glandular cells of cylindrical shape and small cambial epithelial cells. Migrant cells, i.e.,
macrophages and lymphocytes were constantly found in the periacinar and periductal
connective tissues. The majority of mast cells were characterized by the centrally
92
disposed nucleolus, indicating about the prevalence of heparin, including into secretory
granules.
References:
1. .. -
/
.. , .. // . 2011.
. 2, . 1. . 38-41.
2. ..
- / .. //
. 2004. . 3, 1. . 62-64.
3. .. / .. // .
2005. . 5. . 62-63.
4. ..
/ .. // . 2004. . 7, 1. . 202-206.
5. / .. , .. ,
.. [ .] // . ., 2003. . 205.
6. .. / .. : ,
1984. 207 .
7. Lynn J. Rapid toluidine blue staning of Epon-embeded and mounted adjactnt
sections / J. Lynn // Am. J. Clin. Path. 1965. 44. H. 5758.
93
Maksudova Firuza Khurshidovna,

Tashkent Pharmaceutical Institute,
Assistant, Faculty of Industrial Pharmacy,
Karieva Ekut Saidkarimovna,
Assistant Professor, Doctor of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Faculty of Pharmacy
Application of the mathematical planning method for

creation of combined capsules of non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory action
Abstract: This article is dedicated to scientific substantiation of composition and
working out the technology of capsulated medicinal form of combined composition
using the method of the mathematical planning of the experiment. As active
substances have been selected the preparations of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
origin, derivatives of phenyl acetic aciddiclofenac sodium and benzketozone.
Keywords: diclofenac sodium, benzketozone, capsules, mathematical planning of the experiment, dissolution in vitro, number of capsules.
Creation of combined preparations one of the ways of improving therapeutic
opportunities. The conducted analysis of literature data shows the considerable
increasing of combined preparations assortment and their positive evaluation when
used in medical practice. According to literature data, the assortment of modern
medicinal preparations of combined composition is presented by preparations of
analgesic, antihypertensive, anti-cough action and etc. [1,2,3].
The main advantages of combined medicinal aids are versatility and
optimization opportunity (in most cases synergism) of pharmaceutical effect, rational
combination of active substances doses, strengthening of curing, and also
the
opportunity for decreasing the frequency of appearing adverse effects and toxicity of
medicinal aids, convenience of using regimen and profit from economical point of view.
With it all of no small importance is paid to the convenient medicinal form, rational
selection of auxiliary substances, ways of use and etc. [4,5,6].
94
Working out of combined medicinal preparations means the observance of

conditions number, such as rational approach to the selection of components,
particularly on pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic parameters, that allows
including to the composition of medicinal preparation several active substances under
the condition of their compatibility. The first task for working out of composition and
technology of any medicinal aid, both mono-active, and combined is the scientificallybased approach to the selection of various groups of auxiliary substances. Application
of the mathematical planning methods of the experiment allows to reduce considerably
the amount of conducted researches, that, correspondingly, involves the decreasing
of time and financial expenses [7,8,9].
The aim is the conduction of researches using the mathematical planning
method of the experiment according to the scientifically based selection of auxiliary
substances and working out the technology for capsules of combined composition,
containing as active substances diclofenac sodium and benzketozone.
Experimental part. To conduct researches the substances of benzketozone
(PhA 42 Uz-0850-2010) and diclofenac sodium have been used (, USP).
Therapeutic dose of active substances for capsules of combined action was 25 mg for
benzketozone and 25 mg for diclofenac sodium.
Study results of technological parameters of benzketozone and diclofenac
sodium substances, conducted according to SPh I methods and corresponding ND
[10], have shown that, practically all studied technological descriptions were
unsatisfied for coordinated work of capsule machines, and this fact, in its turn, requires
the introduction to incapsulated mass of auxiliary substances of various groups. For
scientifically-based approach to solving this problem, at first was the need to select the
proper size of capsules.
To determine capsules size, has been calculated the volume, occupied by
therapeutic doses of two active substances, taking into account the values of pour
density. The volume occupied by benzketozone substance was 0.096 cm 3, for
diclofenac sodium this value was equal to 0.047 cm 3. Therefore, therapeutic doses of
active substances in total occupy the volume equal to 0.143 cm3. In table 1 are given
volumes, occupied by therapeutic doses of substances and free volumes for various
capsules size.
95
Table 1
Results of selection capsules size
Benzketozone and
diclofenac sodium
Capsules number
Average volume of
capsules, cm3
Volume of
therapeutic
dose, %
Free volume,
%
5
0,13
4
0,21
3
0,30
2
0,37
1
0,5
0
0,68
00
0,95
000
1,37
> 100
68,1
47,7
38,6
28,6
21,0
15,1
10,4
31,9
52,3
61,4
71,4
79,0
84,9
89,6
As it can be seen from the data, given in table 1, capsules 5 dont contain
therapeutic dose of benzketozone and diclofenac sodium that excludes the use of this
capsules size in further researches. And in capsules 3, 2, 1, 0, 00, 000 active
substances take not less than 50% that involves groundless increase of the amount of
the applied auxiliary substances. Thus, more optimal capsules are of 4, in those the
therapeutic dose of substances occupies 68.1%, and the rest volume (31.9%) will be
for the complex of auxiliary substances.
The next stage of researches was directed to scientifically-based selection of
the type and amount of auxiliary substances, necessary for improving not positive
technological parameters benzketozone and diclofenac sodium substances.
As it is known nowadays the pharmaceutical industry uses a large amount of
auxiliary substances, differing in their origin, cost price, carried out function and etc.
Selection of auxiliary substances in this case was conducted taking into account their
ability do not to impede the release of active substances from the elaborated medicinal
form. Special attention was paid to pharmacological indifference, availability and cost
price of the substance itself.
Into the capsulated mass, containing two active substances (benzketozone and
diclofenac sodium) is necessary the introduction of the filler and binding substance.
Since both benzketozone and diclofenac sodium are chemically synthesized
substances, that unlike the substances of plant origin the introduction to the
composition the adsorbents mass is not required.
It has been decided in selection of auxiliary substances to use the method of
two-factors disperse analysis with repeated observations [11]. With it all it has been
studied the influence of fillers type (factor ) and moistening agent (factor ) for
releasing active substances in vitro experiments.
96
As fillers have been approved the following auxiliary substances: polyvinylpyrolidone (1), lactose (2), calcium carbonate (3), calcium phosphate doublesubstituted (4), and magnesium carbonate (5). As moistening agent have been
selected 5% gels of sodium carboxymethylcellulose (b1), methylcellulose (b2), 5%
starch paste (b3), 60% and 40% ethyl alcohol (b4 and b5).
The plan of experiment 55 and research results of combined capsules on
releasing of diclofenac sodium and benzketozone during 45 minutes are presented in
table 2.
The evaluation of the obtained results when studied the release of diclofenac
sodium allowed to reveal, that for the factor two effects were positive (3=3.59 and
5=4.80), the rest 3 effects had negative mark (1= -5.54; 2= -2.57 4= -0.28). For
the factor 2 effects had positive mark (b2=0.67 and b3=4.06), and 3 effects were
negative (b1= -0.25; b4= -1.35 and b5= -3.13). The response (% of the released active
substance) should be increased, therefore calcium carbonate (3) and magnesium
carbonate (5), and also 5% gel MC (b2) and 5 % starch paste (b3) increase the release
of diclofenac sodium from capsules. In consideration of interaction effects the positive
results give the following combinations of fillers and moistening agent: 1b2, 1b4, 1b5,
2b3, 2b4, 3b1, 3b4, 3b5, 4b1, 4b2, 4b3, 5b2, 5b4, 5b5. Interaction effects testify
to the complex influence of factors. For example, levels 3, 4 5 in average have
positive influence to response, but their action depends on combination with other
levels. So, for example, level 3 in complex with b1, b4, b5 increases the percentage of
dissolution and, correspondingly, the release of diclofenac sodium from medicinal
form.
Conduction of analogous calculations during the research of benzketozone
release allowed to reveal, that for the factor (type of filler) positive were the following
effects: 3=3.75, 4=0.29 and 5=5.31, the rest two effects had negative mark (1=
-6.37; 2=-2.98). For the factor 2 effects were positive (b2= 0.36 and b3= 4.34), and
3 effects had negative mark (b1= -0.39; b4= -1.04 and b5= -3.27). Therefore for the
release of benzketozone from medicinal form is useful to apply fillers calcium
carbonate (3), calcium phosphate double-substituted (4) and magnesium carbonate
(5), and moistening agent is advisable to select from 5% gel of MC (b2) and 5 % starch
paste (b3). Positive results give the following combinations of 2 factors 1b4, 1b5, 2b3,
2b4, 3b2, 3b4, 3b5, 4b1, 4b2, 4b3, 5b2, 5b4, 5b5.
Sums on
levels of
factor
Factor
b2
87,85
87,29
84,94
260,08
89,10
87,48
86,52
263,10
96,44
93,07
96,80
286,31
93,50
95,42
90,67
279,59
96,61
97,36
97,11
291,08
1380,16
b1
82,37
87,34
84,02
253,73
84,17
90,71
86,93
261,81
94,52
92,40
97,26
284,18
96,81
92,24
90,54
279,59
95,16
97,04
94,90
287,10
1366,41
1431,02
89,40
91,16
84,57
265,13
94,37
92,82
96,78
283,97
97,22
99,46
96,87
293,55
99,70
94,16
97,20
291,06
98,15
99,42
99,74
297,31
b3
b4
1349,80
86,88
83,19
86,93
257,00
91,74
89,04
87,68
268,46
96,32
92,03
95,72
284,07
85,32
83,75
85,10
254,17
93,12
95,40
97,58
286,10
Diclofenac sodium
Factor
1323,13
81,16
85,18
84,65
250,99
83,90
86,71
83,66
254,27
93,14
90,53
92,15
275,82
89,21
87,77
84,52
261,50
92,29
92,43
95,83
280,55
b5
6850,52
1442,14
1365,91
1423,93
1331,61
1286,93
Sums on
levels of
factor
Sums on
levels of
factor
Factor
3 repeated experiments %
1326,40
80,31
83,47
81,72
245,50
81,06
87,34
82,64
251,04
92,48
88,16
95,61
276,25
93,88
90,16
88,76
272,80
93,40
95,66
91,75
280,81
b1
1337,67
83,18
82,64
80,91
246,73
85,92
84,61
81,67
252,20
94,72
91,28
94,31
280,31
91,15
94,67
88,40
274,22
94,38
95,01
94,82
284,21
b2
1397,40
86,11
88,47
82,68
257,26
92,27
89,60
93,44
275,31
95,78
96,17
94,66
286,61
96,37
92,58
95,60
284,55
97,11
96,93
99,63
293,67
b3
b4
1316,66
83,25
80,34
82,19
245,78
89,51
87,36
87,06
263,93
94,13
88,49
93,70
276,32
83,92
81,16
85,37
250,45
90,53
94,28
95,37
280,18
Benzketozone
Factor
b5
1283,29
78,08
82,59
80,73
241,40
82,67
82,39
80,11
245,17
90,27
88,29
90,41
268,97
85,94
86,06
82,67
254,67
90,12
89,72
93,24
273,08
Release of diclofenac sodium and benzketozone from combined capsules in two-factors plan 55 with
6661,42
1411,95
1336,69
1388,46
1287,65
Sums on
levels of
factor
1236,67
Table 2
97
98
To check the homogeneity of disperses the criteria of Kochren has been applied.
Table value of Kochren criteria for f1=2 and f2=25 at significance level of =0.05, was
0.2354 for the both active substances, that is considerable than experimental value
(yex for diclofenac sodium equals to 0.1018, and for benzketozone 0.1189.). This ratio
confirms the equal exactness of experiments.
Disperse analysis of the obtained results is presented in table 3.
Table 3
Disperse analysis of experimental data on determination of release
of diclofenac sodium and benzketozone from capsules
Dispersion sources
Factor
Factor
-interaction
Error
Total sum
Factor
Factor
-interaction
Error
Total sum
Number of
Sum of
freedom
squares
degrees
Diclofenac sodium
4
1100,3
4
429,64
16
180,09
50
228,51
74
1938,54
Benzketozone
4
1377,07
4
463,22
16
180,16
50
235,49
74
2255,94
Average
squares
Fexp
Ftable
275,08
107,41
11,26
4,57
60,19
23,50
2,46
2,56
2,56
1,85
344,27
115,81
11,26
4,71
73,09
24,59
2,39
2,56
2,56
1,85
The obtained data, Fex > Ftable (60.19>2.56; 23.50>2.56; 2.46>1.85 for
diclofenac sodium, 73.09>2.56; 24.59>2.56; 2.39>1.85 for benzketozone) is the
confirmation of direct influence of fillers type and moistening agent on release ability
of active substances from the capsules.
With the applying of Dunkans multi rank criteria [11] have been conducted
researches on studying the difference of average values of release data for diclofenac
sodium and benzketozone from capsules. It has been revealed that, according to the
influence of fillers on completeness of diclofenac sodium release they can be arranged
in the following line: 5 (3) > 4 (2, 1), and for benzketozone the action
effectiveness of 5 fillers types is close in value, that is why in selecting the best one it
is necessary to head for availability and economy. The difference in the effectiveness
of moistening agents to the studied response, i.. to completeness of release of the
both active substances was not considerable.
99
In the result of the obtained researches, it will be purposeful to use calcium or

magnesium carbonate as fillers, and as moistening agents 5% starch paste proceeding
from availability and economic effectiveness.
The technology for obtaining capsules of combined composition, containing 2
active substances (diclofenac sodium and benzketozone) consists of the following:
beforehand grinded and filtered through the sieve with diameter of pores 150 mkm
diclofenac sodium and benzketozone substances, and also the filler magnesium
carbonate basic were mixed, moistened with 5% starch paste until the obtaining of
homogeneous mass with necessary value of dampness. The obtained mass was dried
at 40-500, granulated by rubbing method and repeatedly dried in the drying cabinet
until reaching the value of optimal residual dampness, that was determined in
moisture-meter of the Japanese firm Kett.
The obtained mass was prepacked into the capsules 4 by 0.102 g.
Conclusions. Thus, in the result of conducted researches with the use of the
mathematical planning of the experiment it has been ascertained that the type of the
applied filler have a significant influence on release of active substances from the
capsules of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory action of combined composition, that is
conformed to the famous biopharmaceutical concept of medicinal forms technology.
The influence of moistening agent type on release completeness of diclofenac sodium
and benzketozone was insignificant.
References:
1. .
// . 2014.- 11. - . 31-33.
2. .., .., .. // . - 2011. . 2, 2. . 111-114.
3. .., ..
// -
. - 2013. - 2. - . 125-130.
100
4. .., .., ..
// Advances in current
natural sciences. 2011. - 8 . . 110.
5.
.., .., .., ..

// . 2012. - 10-2. . 123-126.
6. ..
// . 2012 - 3. . 13-17.
7.
Maksudova F.H., Karieva E.S. The diclofenac sodium release kinetics

examination from 3% gel in vitro experiments // European journal of natural
history. - 2014. - 2. - . 23-25.
8. .., .., .., ..

- // i
. - 2013. - 2. - . 30-32.
9. .., .., .., .., .., ..

//
. - 2010. - 2. . 329-332.
10. XI, . 2. .: , 1990. - 398 .
11. .., .., ..
(
). - . - 1992. -187 .
101
Korobka O.V., Hasjuk N.I., Fastovets M.N.,

Rossocha Z.I., Kovalova O.M.
Association between the I/D polymorphism of the ACE

gene and the development of asphyxia in newborns
Abstract: This article studies the influence of ACE gene I/D polymorphism on
the asphyxia development in the term infants. It is shown that children with II genotype
of ACE gene are less odds ratio to develop birth asphyxia, and her severe. Heart rate,
blood pressure, urine output hourly, as well as the rate of dopamine use in children
with different genotypes of ACE gene is not different.
Keywords: newborn, asphyxia, ACE gene, I/D polymorphism, hemodynamics,
dopamine.
.., .., ..,
.., ..
I/D ACE

: I/D ACE
. ,
II
. , ,
,
.
: , , , I/D ,
, .
. , .
, -
102
2 [1].
,
, . , , ,
[2].

. ,

. - ACE

- [3], [4] [5] .
-
(angiotensin-converting
enzyme
) -,
I -
II, .
. I-
- ,
, [6,7].
(, I) (, D)
287 (bp) [8].
[9], [10].
, ,

.
. I/D .
. (n=108) 37 ,
2500 ,
2011-2013 .
103
( -10). : ,
, 37
, 2500 .
ACE .
(n=38), ,
.
:
(),
() , , , ,
, ,
, .
.
. ACE - .

EXCEL-2003 STATA 11
Windows (StataCorp, , ).
: ();
(m), () 95% ,
, - (
[Q1-Q3]). ,
- - ( U) 2 (-)
. <0,05
.
. ,
,
ACE

104
. 1
D/D, I/D.
I/I I/D
I/I (. 1).
1
,
ACE , +m
/
(n=17)

1 .
4,31,57

5 .
5,91,27
1-2
1-3
2-3
I/D
(n=62)
D/D
(n=22)
4,41,56
3,7/1,75
0,745
0,225
0,055
5,41,67
0,797
0,275
0,283
5,81,67

.
, , ,
, ACE .
/D
44,7% 57,41% , D/D
- 15,8% 25,0% (. 2).
/ 0,28
(95% 0,11-0,72), =0,005.
2

/
/D
D/D

(n=38), % (n)
39,5 (15)
44,7 (17)
15,8 (6)

(n=108), % (n)
15,74 (17)
57,41 (62)
25,0 (27)
(95%)
0,28 (0,11-0,72)
1,34 (0,59-3,02)
1,78 (0,63-5,75)
0,005
0,453
0,270
105
. 3, / 0,34, =0,037,
D/D 2,77, =0,055. , /
, , D/D
.
3

(n=38), % (n)
(n=38), % (n)
(95%)
39,5 (15)
41,2 (7)
0,34 (0,103-1,09)
0,037
/D
44,7 (17)
29,03 (18)
1,11 (0,41-3,02)
0,500
D/D
15,8 (6)
48,15 (13)
2,77 (0,83-10,09)
0,055

, ,
(, ) (. 4).
4

,
/
(n=17)
I/D
(n=62)
D/D
(n=27)
1-2
1-3
2-3
, . .,
(+m)
140,913,29
140,613,94
135,912,33
0,919
0,218
0,123
,
. ., (+m)
61,710,06
59,619,92
60,119,97
0,452
0,610
0,829
106
,
. ., (+m)
33,067,0
31,028,0
30,87,15
0,310
0,319
0,924
,
. ., (+m)
43,299,41
40,538,96
42,487,94
0,288
0,769
0,311
,
//, (+m)
1,331,0
1,581,05
1,240,91
0,378
0,770
0,138
, n (%)
6 (35,29)
25 (40,32)
12 (44,44)
0,707
0,548
0,717
.
. 5,
.
5

,

1-2
/1
I/D2
D/D3
(n=17)
(n=62)
(n=27)
29,41 (5)
41,94 (26)
44,44 (12)
2-3
0,349
0,319
, % / (n)

1-3
0,826
5,51,12
5,973,41
4,632,33
0,593
, //.,
0,332
(+m)
0,195

, (+m)
3,21,92
2,81,38
2,71,42
1,710
0,651
0,846
107

.

.
, ,

.
. I/I
, D/D
.
, ,

.
D/D -
, [11].
E.Sivas, D/D ACE
[12].
G.Dimitriou ACE
[13]. , ,

[14]. I/I ACE
, D/D - [11].
ACE , , , . , .
, ID/DD
.

,
.
108

.
:
1. http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/ru.
2. / .., .., .., .., .., .., .., .. : "", 2011. 451 .
3. Different
Mechanisms
for
the
Progression
of
CKD
with
ACE
Gene
Polymorphisms / Y. Nakayama, H. Nonoguchi, Y. Kohda et al // Nephron. Clin.

Pract. 2009. Vol. 111, 4. P. 240-246.
4. Rudnicki M. Significance of genetic polymorphisms of the renin-angiotensinaldosterone system in cardiovascular and renal disease / M. Rudnicki, G. Mayer //
Pharmacogenomics. 2009. Vol. 10, 3. P. 463-476.
5. Association between renin-angiotensin system gene polymorphism and recurrent
wheezing in Chinese children: a 4-year follow-up study / S. Guo, J.N. Zhang,
Y.D. Yan et al // J Int Med Res. 2009. Vol. 37, 2. P. 351-358.
6. /
.. , .. // . - 2008. 3. - . 12-16.
7. Insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene and
arterial oxygen saturation at high altitude / D.R. Woods, A.J. Pollard, D.J. Collier
et al // Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002. - Vol. 166, 3. . 362-366.
8. Jones A. Skeletal muscle RAS and exercise performance // A. Jones, D.R. Woods
// Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2003. Vol. 35, 6. . 855-866.
9. Evidence, from combined segregation and linkage analysis, that a variant of the
angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) gene controls plasma ACE levels / L. Tiret,
B. Rigat, S. Visvikis et al // Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1992. Vol. 51, 1. . 197205.
10. Angiotensin-converting enzyme in the human heart. Effect of the deletion/insertion
polymorphism / A.H. Danser, M.A. Schalekamp, W.A. Bax et al // Circulation
1995. Vol. 92(6). P. 1387-1388.
109
11. The angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) DD genotype is associated with worse
perinatal cardiorespiratory adaptation after preterm birth / D. Harding, S. Dhamrait,
N. Marlow et al // J Pediatr. 2003. Vol. 143. P. 746-749.
12. ACE gene deletion/deletion polymorphism may be a protective factor for
respiratory distress in preterm infants / E. Sivasl, M. Yurdakk, E. Babaolu // Turk
J Pediatr. 2007. Vol. 49. H. 69-74.
13. Association of circulating angiotensin converting enzyme activity with respiratory
muscle function in infants / G.l Dimitriou, D. Papakonstantinou, E.F. Stavrou // Respiratory Research. 2010. - Vol. 11. P. 57.
14. Role of angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism in persistent
pulmonary hypertension of the newborn / L.C. De Jesus, S.N. J Kazzi,
M.K. Dahmer // Acta Paediatrica. 2011. Vol. 100, Issue 10. H. 13261330.
110
Chernjavskaja Y., Artemova N., Kozakevitch E.,

Kovalova O., Pokhylko V.
4a/4b of the eNOS gene polymorphism is not associated

with systemic hemodynamic disorders in preterm infants
with early neonatal sepsis
Abstract: This article studies the influence of 4a/4b polymorphism of the eNOS
gene on the systemic hemodynamic disorders in preterm infants with early neonatal
sepsis. It is shown that the heart rate, blood pressure, hourly diuresis, the total level of
nitrates and nitrites in the urine, as well as a number of Doppler and ultrasound
indicators in infants with different genotypes of eNOS gene do not differ.
Keywords: preterm infants, early onset sepsis, eNOS gene, 4a/4b polymorphism, hemodynamics, total nitrates and nitrites.
.., .., ..,
.., ..
4a/4b eNOS

: 4a/4b
eNOS
. , ,
, ,
,
eNOS .
: , , eNOS, 4a/4b
, , .
111
. ,
, 34
.
23-25%, 40-60% [1].

,
. , .
-
. ,

. (NO).
NO
.
,
,
.
[2].
L-
NO- (NOS) [3]
[4].
eNOS ,
- 4 (eNOS 4a/4b
). - 4a/4b 4- eNOS 2
, 4 5 27
. 5 ( 4b),
4 (4a). 4a
NOS, .
NO
112

- . 4a
eNOS [5]. NO2 NO3 , NO
NO2, NO3 [3, 4].
NO2 NO3 (95%)
[6]. , eNOS
.
4a/4b eNOS .
.
, 120 , 57 () 61 .
. .

4a/4b eNOS.
,
,

4a eNOS .
:
(, , , , ,
, ) (
20109 5109 - )
. ,
, .

,
,
.
113
.
0,25 .
- . eNOS
BanII (Fermentas, ). 1,5 %
.
()
(m),
. 2 (-) .

STATA 11 Windows
(StataCorp, , ).
. 4a/4b eNOS
.
4a/4a , 4a/4b
56,25 % 4b/4b 43,75 % .
4a/4a 3,88 % (=0,577),
4a/4b 63,73 % ( 1,69, =0,235) 4b/4b 32,35 %
( 0,65, =0,422). 4a/4a
, 4 .
-
, eNOS ,
, ,
. 1 5 ,

4a/4a&4a/4b 4b/4b .
eNOS ,

114
a
.
,
1- 6- eNOS (. 1). ,
, , ,
;
4aa&4ab 4bb .
1

,
eNOS , Mm
4aa&4ab
4bb
=73
=47
1-
-
(. .)
152,71,55
154,32,32
0,569
(...)
53,81,03
54,81,34
0,557
(...)
26,00,89
27,11,11
0,434
(...)
32,50,82
33,71,21
0,412
(//.)
2,30,20
2,00,15
0,142
(. .)
154,61,43
153,32,15
0,612
(...)
61,10,87
63,20,77
0,067
(...)
30,80,80
33,10,98
0,066
(...)
37,30,75
39,30,93
0,088
(//.)
4,00,17
4,00,21
0,937
6-
, 4a/4b eNOS
.
. ,
4aa&4ab 4bb
(40 % 37,8% , =0,482),
(18,7 % 20 % , =0,519)
(4,1 % 0 , =0,176). ,
, (28,82,16
115
4aa&4ab 26,42,64 4bb (=0,495).

4aa&4ab, , 4bb 7,41,0 //.
6,10,75 //. (=0,276).
,
eNOS NO [4-5]
,
.

. , 1-2- 4aa&4ab
NO2+NO3 89,68,4 /, 4bb 68,5
12,7 /, =0,178; 6- 73,17,2 /
59,911,6 /, =0,345.

,
eNOS,
(. 2).
2
,

, eNOS , Mm
4aa&4ab
4bb
=73
=47
(/.)
569,839,9
627,458,0
0,418
(/.* )
3,70,27
4,60,44
0,101

(*./2)
1,30,12
1,70,23
0,112
(/.*2)
3,80,24
4,00,29
0,556
()
3,70,26
4,30,37
0,193
(%)
70,81,14
68,72,16
0,387
(%)
37,70,95
36,21,64
0,444

(*/5)
5329,7399
4650,1570
0,334
116
0,680,03
0,780,05
0,099
0,690,03
0,710,06
0,766
,
4a/4b eNOS
.
.
,
.
, , ,
. ,
, ,
30 ...,
,
[7-8]. ,

[9]
[10].

[11] .
,
NOS, ,
,
, , ,
- , .
:
1. Stefanovic I.M. Neonatal sepsis / I.M. Stefanovic // Biochemia Medica. 2011.
Vol. 21, 3. P. 276-281.
117
2. Plachta N. Nitric oxide is involved in establishing the balance between cell cycle
progression and cell death in the developing neural tube / N. Plachta, A. Traister,
M. Weil // Exp Cell Res. 2003. Vol. 288, 2. P. 354-362.
3. Mattila J.T. Nitric oxide synthase: non-canonical expression patterns / J.T. Mattila,
A.C. Thomas // Front Immunol. 2014. Vol. 5. P. 478.
4. Miyahara K. Cloning and structural characterization of the human endothelial nitricoxide-synthase gene / K. Miyahara, T. Kawamoto, K. Sase [et al.] // Eur J Biochem.
1994. Vol. 223, 3. P. 719-726.
5. Demirubuk A.G. Endothelial NOS gene Glu298Asp polymorphism in preterm
neonates with respiratory distress syndrome / A.G. Demirubuk, M.Y. Cokun,
S. Demiryrek [et al.] // Pediatr Pulmonol. 2013. Vol. 48, 10. P. 976-980.
6. Tsukada T. Evidence of association of the ecNOS gene polymorphism with plasma
NO metabolite levels in humans / T. Tsukada, K. Yokoyama, T. Arai [et al] //
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1998. Vol. 245. P. 190-193.
7. Evans N. Assessment and support of the preterm circulation / N. Evans // Early
Hum Dev. 2006. Vol. 82. P. 803-10.
8. Kluckow M. Low superior vena cava flow and intraventricular hemorrhage in
preterm infants / M. Kluckow, N. Evans // Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2000.
Vol. 82. P. 188-94.
9. Miall-Allen V.M. Mean arterial blood pressure and neonatal cerebral lesions /
V.M. Miall-Allen, L.S. de Vries, A.G. Whitelow // Arch Dis Child. 1987. Vol. 62.
P. 1068-9.
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preterm infants undergoing intensive care / L. Tyszczuk, J. Meek, C. Elwell [et al.]
// Pediatrics. 1998. Vol. 102. P. 337-41.
11. Dempsey E.M. Permissive hypotension in the extremely low birthweight infant with
signs of good perfusion / E.M. Dempsey, F. Hazzani, K.J. Barrington // Arch Dis
Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2009. Vol. 94. P. 241-4.
118
Ziyoda Fayzieva,
The Tashkent Pharmaceutical Institute,
Doctor of Medical Sciences,
The Faculty of Pharmacy,
Zakira Usmanova,
Assistnt, The Faculty of Pharmacy
The study of specific activity of diabenit,

glikoinuvit and stevil-50 on various models
of experimental hyperglycemia
Abstract: It was study of specific activity of diabenit, glikoinuvit and stevil-50 in
various models of experimental hyperglycemia. Acute hyperglycemia induced in rats
by a single intraperitoneal injection of hypertonic glucose solution at a dose 4.5 g/kg.
30 minutes before administration of glucose was administered test substances orally
by gavage as a 10% aqueous solution. After 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes to determine
the level of blood glucose by enzymatic method. The experiments were performed on
60 adult white rats weighing 140-165 g.
The results showed that the studied drugs diabenit, likoinuvit and stevil-50
learning a severe hypoglycemic action and other models of hyperglycemia. Based on
the experimental data one can conclude that diabenit, stevil 50, glikoinuvit a various
models of hyperglycemia have a pronounced hypoglycemic effect.
Keywords: type 2 diabetes, hypoglycemic effect, experimental hyperglycemia,
diabenit, glikoinuvit, Stevil-50.
It is known that in modern drug therapy of diabetes and insulin used oral
antidiabetic agents, sulfonylureas, biguanides, -glucosidase inhibitors, and others.
Most of these drugs are imported, they are expensive and have various side effects [4,
5, 6].
Based on this finding and pharmacological study of new hypoglycemic agents
based on local natural resources of the Republic is an extremely urgent task [1].
119
This work is devoted to the study of specific activity diabenit, glikoinuvita and
Stevo-50 in various experimental models of hyperglycemia.
ethods. Model of acute hyperglycemia caused by the procedure described in
the book O.V Remizov and T.L Kuraev [2]. In order to eliminate the effect of food on
the absorption of the test substance, animals stopped feeding for 4-6 hours prior to the
experiment. Longer fasting undesirable due to the fact that in this case is reduced the
severity hypoglycemic effect of the drug.
Experimental hyperglycaemia induced in rats by a single intraperitoneal
administration of hypertonic glucose solution at a dose 4.5 g/kg. 30 minutes before
administration of glucose was administered test substances orally by gavage as a 10%
aqueous solution. After 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes to determine the level of blood
glucose by enzymatic method [3].
On the model of acute hyperglycemia compared the activity diabenit, glikoinuvita
and Stevil-50 with known hypoglycemic agents - domestic glipil (50 mg/kg) and foreign
glibenclamide (5 mg/kg). For this diabenit used in a dose of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg,
Stevil-50 100 and 500 mg/kg, glikoinuvit 100 mg/kg. The experiments were performed
on 60 adult white rats weighing 140-165 g.
In a separate series of experiments to study the effect diabenit, glikoinuvit and
Stevil-50 for adrenaline hyperglycemia following the procedure described in the book
V.G. Baranov et al. [7]. Experiments were performed on 30 rats weighing 170-200 g
for animals of the experimental group were orally administered diabenit, glikoinuvit
50 mg/kg, stevil-50 100 mg/kg. Control animals received physiological saline in the
corresponding volume. After 30 minutes, epinephrine was administered at a dose of
50 mg/kg and blood sugar was determined by an enzymatic method dynamics. Before
the experiment the rats were fasted by the method for 8 hours.
Model of alloxan diabetes reproduced by the method described in the book
O.V Remizov and T.L Kuraev. For research use mature laboratory rats with normal
weight. Provided diabetogenic single intravenous dose of alloxan was 150 mg/kg. For
a full conviction to determine the level of sugar in the blood enzymatic method. On the
model of alloxan diabetes studied the effect diabenit, glikoinuvit and Stevil-50 on the
level of glucose in the blood of laboratory animals and compared with the effect of their
action Glipil and glibenclamide.
In these experiments, the hypoglycemic effect of drugs from Stevia, Rhodiola
and Helianthus tuberosus studied in a model of diabetes oksihinolinovogo. Diabetes is
120
reproduced by the method of [7] on 24 rabbits of both sexes, weighing 2.3-2.9 kg. To
confirm diabetes after 2 days, blood was collected from the ear vein and the glucose
level was determined by enzymatic method. Animals were treated by oral
administration diabenit, glikoinuvit 50 mg/kg, stevil-50 100 mg/kg as a 10% aqueous
solution. The experiment continued for 30 days; 15 and 30 days, blood glucose levels
were observed in the dynamics.
Results. Revealed that drugs used significantly reduces the level of glucose in
the blood (fig. 1).
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7,6*
6,42*
4,72
intact
diabenit 50
5,45^
5^ 5,12^
6,1 6,3*
6,8*
5,5* 5,3* 5,2* 5,3*
4,98* 5,1*
3,87
60
cont
diabenit 100
glipil 50
stevil-50 100
120
glibenclamid 5
stevil-50 500
4,25^ 4,4
5,15*
diabenit 25
glikoinuvit 100
Fig. 1. Blood glucose (mmol/l) in rats with acute alimentary hyperglycemia

during treatment with drugs.
* - P <0,05, ^ - P <0,05
Unlike Glipil and glibenclamide diabenit more markedly lowers blood glucose
levels relative to untreated group, while the action of stevil 50 glikoinuvit not different
from preparations of comparison. Blood glucose levels when administered to rats
diabenit 25 mg/kg decreased by 1.16 and 1.39 fold at 50 mg/kg - 1.2 and 1.52 times,
at a dose of 100 mg/kg - in 1.23 and 1.48 fold relative to the control group values at 30
and 90 min. However, in subsequent periods we noted a downward trend.
The action of Stevil-50 less manifested: in a dose of 100 mg/kg Glucose
lowering was 1.16; 1.25 and 1.29 times, at a dose of 500 mg/kg - 1.19; 1.21 and 1.25
times, respectively, over periods of 30, 60 and 90 minutes after administration of
hypertonic glucose solution. Glikoinuvit has even less effect than the drugs listed
above, lowering blood glucose level in just 1.14; 1.12 and 1.07 times, respectively
terms.
Therefore, from the most studied herbal preparations hypoglycemic activity had
diabenit and Stevil-50. Revealed some of their features: in particular, if the action was
121
fast diabenit, but a few short, the effect of stevil-50 was shown slowly and continuously.
It was therefore of interest to investigate the hypoglycemic properties diabenit with a
longer action.
10
8
6
4,96
4,96
4,96
4,96
6,8
8,3
7,5
5,6 5,4 5,3
5,45
5 5,12
5,3 4,98 5,1
5,9
5,25 5,1 5,25
4
2
0
intact
30 min
control
G+diabenit 25
60 min
G+diabenit 50
90 min
24 h
G+diabenit 100
Fig. 2. Blood glucose (mmol/l) in rats with acute alimentary

hyperglycemia during treatment with diabenit
As seen from the figure 2, in all studied doses it significantly reduced the blood
glucose level by 30-90 minutes and less influence later (24 hours after the playback
hyperglycemia). Apparently, this is due to the fact that on the one hand it has a
pronounced hypoglycemic activity, on the other - has a short-term action. Depending
on the dose we have not seen since the doses used in all diabenit have about the
same effect. In our view, it is preferable to use a dose of 50 mg/kg of the drug, so the
subsequent experiments, we used this particular dose.
The following studies showed that introduction diabenit 50 mg/kg resulted in a
significant decrease in blood glucose levels with 9,8 0,25 mmol/l to 6,4
0,1 mmol/l within 30 min after the administration of adrenaline and with 8,2 0,5 mmol/l
to 5.8 mmol/l - 60 min, ie the reduction was 1.53 (P <0.001) and 1.41 (P <0.01) times,
respectively terms.
Injection of Stevil-50 at a dose of 100 mg/kg is somewhat smaller effect: blood
glucose decreased to 1.38 (P <0.01) and 1.3 (P <0.05) times and totaled 7,1 0 2 and
6,3 0,3 mmol/l, respectively, after 30 and 60 min after the reproduction model. With
the introduction of glikoinuvit 50 mg/kg decreased the severity of hyperglycemia in 1.42
(P <0.001) and 1.61 (P <0.001) times and amounted to 6,9 0,25 and 5,1 0,4.
Given that the mechanism of the development of hyperglycemia under the
influence of adrenaline is enhanced glycogenolysis, it can be assumed that the used
drugs slowed the breakdown of glycogen, thereby reducing the severity of hyper-
122
glycemia. The action diabenit manifested more pronounced glikoinuvit has prolonged
action and Stevil-50 was less effective.
It should be said that the earlier models used hyperglycemia damage insular
apparatus of the pancreas did not occur and therefore the level of insulin in the
peripheral blood remained within the physiological range. However, the mechanism of
the development of type 1 diabetes is insulin deficiency, due to atrophy of the -cells
of the islets of Langerhans. It was therefore of interest to investigate the hypoglycemic
action of medicinal plants on the model of alloxan diabetes. Alloxan, activating the freeradical processes in -cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas, causing them
damage and necrosis apparatus insulinarnogo pancreas. The level of insulin in the
peripheral blood is sharply reduced, which slows the glucose transport system and
peripheral tissues in their intake of energy substrates, changes in cell metabolism.
Conducted studies in this respect have shown that in rats with alloxan diabetes
glucose level changes within wide limits, which allowed us to divide the animals into 2
groups: with mild to moderate degree of alloxan diabetes.
Analysis of the dynamics of change in blood glucose in rats with alloxan diabetes
mild prolonged administration of drugs it showed marked reduction, especially in their
20-day injection (Table 1).
Table 1
Glucose in the blood of rats with mild alloxan diabetes

during treatment with drugs
Preparations
After the
injection of
alloxan
Terms of research days of treatment

10
Glucose
mmoles/l
20
%
Glucose
mmoles/l
BP + fiz.r-p
11,90,7
11,10,9
100,0
10,51,0
100,0
BP + Glipil
12,30,9
10,10,8
91,0
7,750,7*
73,8
BP + glibenclamide
11,40,9
9,30,9
83,8
7,40,6*
70,5
BP + diabenit
12,01,3
9,21,6
82,9
7,70,5*
73,3
BP + Stevil-50
12,60,9
9,260,8
83,4
7,50,6*
71,4
BP + glikoinuvit
10,91,1
9,30,6
83,8
8,20,7*
78,1
Note: * - Differences with respect to the data of the control group significant (* - P <0,05)
123
So, at 10-day administration Glipil, glibenclamide diabenit, steviil-50 glikoinuvit

we observed a tendency to reduce high blood glucose levels. More clearly seen upon
the use of new drugs. Longer their introduction contributed to a significant decrease in
blood glucose levels, as compared with NIJ-control group. Thus, when applying Glipil
this reduction was 1.36 times, glibenclamide - 1.42 times, diabenit - 1.36, Stevil-50 1.4 times and glikoinuvit - 1.28 times compared to the control group of rats. Compared
with baseline before treatment, it was shown using Glipil and diabenit during all periods
of the study.
Analysis hypoglycemic properties of new drugs in animals with moderate shape
alloxan diabetes showed a marked decrease in blood glucose levels on day 10 of
treatment (Table 2).
Table 2
Blood glucose levels in rats with moderate form of alloxan diabetes
during treatment with drugs
BP + fiz.r-p
22,61,1
Terms of research days of treatment

10
20
Glucose
Glucose
%
%
mmol/l
mmol/l
21,31,1
100,0 18,51,3
100,0
BP + Glipil
23,00,9
18,91,0
88,7
15,11,2
81,6
BP + glibenclamide
21,61,0
17,81,4
83,6
13,51,2*
73,0
BP + diabenit
22,81,8
18,10,7*
85,0
13,90,8*
75,1
BP + Stevil-50
23,90,7
18,60,9
87,3
14,20,9*
76,7
BP + glikoinuvit
22,41,3
19,80,7
93,0
14,81,6
80,5
Groups
After the
injection of
alloxan
Note: * - Differences with respect to the data of the control group significant (* - P <0,05)
In this period of observation was compared with a control group of animals

treated with saline, we have not established significant differences among the drugs
used. Only when a long-term use of drugs, we observed a significant decrease in the
level of glycemia. Thus, if the application Glipil was a significant decrease in blood
glucose level 1.23 times that using glibenclamide - 1.37 times. Thus new drugs
diabenit, stevia and 50 glikoinuvit significantly lowered blood glucose in 1.33; 1.29 and
1.25 times, respectively, relative to the values of the control group of rats on the 20th
day of pharmacotherapy. If we consider the hypoglycemic properties of the studied
124
drugs in the initial values of alloxan diabetes, it should be noted a more pronounced
effect of the drugs glibenclamide and diabenit.
Consequently, new therapeutic compounds with insulin deficiency also exert a
hypoglycemic effect. Particularly promising in this respect is diabenit at a dose of
50 mg/kg for prolonged use.
Conclusions: thus diabenit herbal preparations, stevia glikoinuvit 50 and
various models of hyperglycemia have hypoglycemic action. All models hypoglycemic
effect diabenita exhibit more pronounced. If the action was fast diabenita a short
duration, the effect of stevia-50 was shown slowly, but more long-lasting. Drugs is
recommended for type 2 diabetes.
References:
1. Rakhmatullaeva M.M. Diss ... cand. Pharm. Sciences. - 2007. 135.
2. Remizov O.V., Kuraeva T.L. Experimental Laboratory. 2003; 3: 90-91.
3. Collection methods of clinical laboratory tests / Ed. Yunuskhodzhaev A.N. 2000.
703 p.
4. Shagazatova B.H., Babadjanov A.S. Medical Journal of Uzbekistan. 2003; 1: 110115.
5. Shagazatova B.X., Akbar Z.S., Ismailov S.I. Medical Journal of Uzbekistan. 2001;
1: 93-94.
6. Shamansurova Z.. Diabet in Uzbekistan. 2006; 4:2-3.
7. Experimental diabetes / Under. Ed. Baranov V.G., Sokoloverova I.M., Galkaryan E.G. et al. L. 1983. 240.
125
I. Sharipova, M.Kh. Tursunova, K.S. Makhmudjanova,

The Faculty of Technology of Dosage Forms, Uzbekistan, Tashkent
Data chronic toxicity of the preparation "Dragee Leoglisirflom"

Abstract: Degree of the chronic toxicity of a dragee "Leoglisirflom" of soothing
action prepared on the basis of three-component composition of raw materials of herbs
is for the first time studied investigated in internals (a brain, heart, kidneys, a gullet,
a stomach, an ovary) white mice and rats.
Keywords: acute toxicity, anti-inflammatory activity, dry extract dragee "Leoglisirflom".
Every year sedatives are widely used in all branches of traditional and folk
medicine (as sedatives in stress-sensitive patients, neurasthenia, nervousness,
anxiety, depression, irritability, sleep disorders, emotional disorders, and others) [1].
Sedative herbal drugs have priority over synthetic analogs because they have
extensive polytropic spectrum of pharmacological effects, dose-related effects were
studied for a long time. Low toxicity and safe is well tolerated by patients (especially in
elders), long-term use does not appeal addiction, mental and physical drug
dependence, and in many widely represented in the pharmaceutical market of
Uzbekistan and other countries in the world, economically accessible to the public.
One of the new combined phototherapeutic agents having sedative activity is a
herbal dragee "Leoglisirflom" worked out at the department "Technology of medicinal
forms" of the Tashkent Pharmaceutical Institute, which includes dry extracts of plants
such as grass motherwort, grass Jerusalem sage Regel, the root of Licorice.
The aim of research: there have studied chronic active dragee "Leoglisirflom",
worked out at the department "Technology of medicinal forms" of the Tashkent
Pharmaceutical Institute.
Materials and methods. Chronic toxicity dragee "Leoglisirflom" studied on
white rats [2,4]. White rats of both sexes with an initial mass of 120 - 130 g were divided
into 4 groups with 8 animals in each group (4 females and 4 males). Experimental
groups of animals were injected endogastric daily aqueous solution dragee
126
"Leoglisirflom" in doses of 25 mg/kg; 50 mg/kg and 250 mg/kg, respectively. Doses are
selected in relation to the dose of 50 mg/kg is effective therapeutic dose, however, we
studied dose 2 times smaller; 25 g/kg (minimum) and 5 times greater - 250 mg/kg
(highest). Control animals were injected with 1-2 ml distilled water.
Throughout the experiment, the animals were under daily observation; selected
food and water consumption, state of hair integument and mucous membranes
behavior. 1 times a week, animals were weighed regularly examined the functional
state of the cardiovascular, nervous, endocrine, excretory and digestive systems. Once
a month studying morphological and biochemical indices of blood and urine. All
animals that died during the experiment were subjected to autopsy to establish the
nature of the damaging effect of dragee "Leoglisirflom". After the end of the introduction
of dragee, "Leoglisirflom" carried out the most complete survey of experimental
animals using hematological, biochemical and physiological tests. Some of the animals
from each group were sacrificed for pathological studies. The weight of their bodies
and carried out a histological study [3].
For hematological studies in rat`s blood was collected from the tail vein before
the start of the experiment, after one, two and three months after the reference drug.
The peripheral blood hemoglobin content is determined, the number of erythrocytes,
leukocytes, platelets. The percentage of hemoglobin determined by the method of Sali
that the number of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets were determined by
microscopic method in the counting chamber of Goryaev [5].
For histological studies were taken internal organs (brain, heart, liver,
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, spleen, adrenal, kidney, gonads).
Studies were conducted on serial sections. The material was fixed in 10% formalin
neutral, followed by the standard wiring of alcohols of increasing concentration and
pouring paraffin. Sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin according to the
method of Van Gizon [6,7].
Statistical calculations were performed by the method of variation statistics with
the calculation of Student's t test [8].
The results. The effect of drage "Leoglisirflom" on indicators of the functional
state of white rats: It is found that the dragee "Leoglitsirflom" in doses of 25 mg/kg,
50 mg/kg and 250 mg/kg body weight daily endogastric administration of 90 adult rats
causes no death of the animals, does not have a damaging effect on the general state
of the rats. Throughout the experiment, the animals of the experimental groups in their
127
behavior and vernal view did not differ from control rats. All animals remained active,
readily eat the food and to adequately respond to external stimuli. Monitoring of the
body weight gain in rats showed that the animals in the groups receiving dragees
"Leoglisirflom". There was no difference with the control animals. By the end of the
experiment after prolonged endogastric administration dragees "Leoglisirflom" within
the peripheral blood of experimental groups of animals were observed physiological
changes (Table 1).
Table 1
The composition of the peripheral blood of white rats after prolonged
endogastric administration of dragee "Leoglitsirflom"
Indicators
Hemoglobin,
g/%
Doses of preparations, mg/kg
Before the
test
Control
100
500
14,4 0,3
14,7 0,2
14,9 0,3
14,5 0,3
26,85 0,2
7,05 0,2
7,0 0,3
7,3 0,2
Erythrocyte,
2
one million
1000
14,3 0,2
6,7 0,4
cells/mm
3
Platelets
736,8 6,4
728,7 2,4
732 5,0
736,2 5,4
741,83,7
Leukocytes
11 0,6
10,1 1,1
11,1 0,9
10,8 0,7
11,2 0,7
As seen from the tables to study the dynamics of content of hemoglobin,

erythrocytes, thrombocytes and leukocytes in the peripheral blood revealed no
statistically significant differences in the animals of experimental groups compared with
controls.
Results general examination of bodies of animals receiving dragees
"Leoglitsirflom" macroscopically recognizable showed no abnormalities compared to
control animals. All animals have the right physique, neat appearance, shiny wool
cover, pockets of balding or ulcers were found. Visible mucous membranes moist, pale
pink, shiny and smooth in appearance. The mammary glands of females with no tumor
formations and seals uniformly soft to the touch. External genitals of males had no
visible deformation or deviation from the control.
The chest - visceral and parietal pleura and thoracic organs without visible
changes. Light pale pink, air, unsealed or destructive changes. Heart of normal size,
with no evidence of ischemia or hypertrophy. Aorta and pulmonary artery smooth
128
malformations or aneurysms were detected. In the cavities of the heart contained a

small amount of liquid blood. Muscle infarction brownish color, turgor is saved.
In the abdominal cavity - liver is enlarged, normal shape; it has a soft texture
and smooth surface. Glisson capsule of thin, transparent, not tense. In the section histoarchitectonics liver is not changed the parenchyma is moderately full-blooded.
Stomach, pancreas, small and large loop of the intestine with no visible lesions.
Kidneys conventional size and shape, and thick brown palpation. In the context of
clearly delineated renal cortex and medulla, renal pelvis and calyx stones and no
pathological changes. Thymus, thyroid and adrenal glands do not have macroscopic
differences from the relevant bodies of the control animals. With the opening of the
skull - the brain grayish-white, moist, with no signs of pronounced edema. Pia tightly
adherent to the substance of the brain, sometimes there is a moderate expansion and
congestion venules and small veins. The ventricles of the brain is not increased in size,
contain a moderate amount of clear, colorless liquor.
Light optical microscopic examination of internal organs and brain of all the
experimental groups of animals regardless of the dose of the test drug showed
development similar changes.
The brain - in some cases, there was a moderate focal microcirculatory
disorders vascular pia mater as a spasm of arterioles, postcapillary venules expand
with stasis of blood in them. Intercellular substance of the cerebral cortex and
cerebellum places with small signs of edema. Cytoarchitectonics cerebral cortex and
cerebellum is well preserved, the density of neurons and the thickness of the individual
layers of the cortex do not have distinctive features compared to the control. Neurocyte
cortex generally uniformly painted, some cells slightly increased in volume.
Cytoplasmic neurocyte mostly fine-grained, with a different distribution chromatophilic
Nissl substance. Kernels neurocyte rounded, hyperchromic, with distinct, intensely
basophilic-stained nucleoli. Some neurocyte noted moderate swelling of nuclei. Often
around the vessels, pyramidal and cerebellar basket cells detected semilunar narrow,
unpainted areas. Neurons in the brain nuclei, cerebellar Purkinge cerebellum is pearshaped, and the gray matter of the brain gliocytes generally have their characteristic
structure. Unchecked also any pathological changes of the structural components of
the blood-brain barrier.
Lung - lung tissue of experimental groups of animals maintained their usual
histoarchitectonics. No evidence of pathological changes in inflammatory or
129
destructive nature is not revealed. The wall consists of intrapulmonary bronchi

respective tissue components inherent in large, medium and small bronchi.
Respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts without pathological changes. Alveolar
epithelial type I and II have their characteristic structure and tinctorial properties.
Interalveolar connective tissue without pathological changes in it and in the lumen of
the alveoli identified isolated macrophages with characteristic dense cytoplasmic
inclusions. In general, the microscopic structure of all parts of the lung significant
differences from the control does not have.
Heart - in the experimental groups of animals as well as in the control, clearly
different endocardial, myocardial and epicardial layer of the heart. Endocardial
endothelial lining is not broken, swollen and sometimes revealed an increase of
endothelial cells. Myocardium contains cardio myocytes, which form oriented muscular
fibers. The fibers are uniformly colored, transverse striations them well preserved. The
nuclei of cardio myocytes oval or elongated, hyperchromatic and have a central
location. Intercalated disks between cardio myocytes are defined clearly enough. No
signs of hypoxia and ischemia was not revealed. As a control, the muscle fibers
situated between the set of capillaries. There is not defined morphological signs of
pathological changes in the epicardium and pericardium.
Liver - experimental animals in the liver tissue expressed histopathological
changes were detected. The capsule of the liver is thickened comprises longitudinally
oriented bundles of collagen fibers. Liver parenchyma is formed by classic hepatic
lobule, consisting of radially oriented to the central vein of the hepatic plates or beams.
Interlobular connective tissue is weak, signs of inflammatory infiltration and fibrosis
were not found. Hepatocytes polygonal shape, with a centrally located nucleus, the
nucleolus is often determined. Quite often-binuclear hepatocytes. Tinctorial properties
of hepatocytes are not violated, hepatocytes with signs of fat or protein dystrophy were
not found. Sinusoids normal size in the lumen defined by individual red blood cells and
white blood cells. The wall sinusoidal hemocapillars and Disse space at high
magnification revealed isolated Kupffer cells with an intact structure. In some cases, it
noted moderate expansion and sinusoidal blood supply hemocapillars, central and
sublobular veins. Endothelial lining without destructive changes sometimes marked
swollen endothelial cells with hyperchromatic nuclei. Structure cholangioles and
interlobular bile ducts without pathological changes. All this indicates that the study
drug has no significant adverse effect on the microscopic structure of the liver.
130
Kidneys - histoarchitectonics kidneys in experimental animals unchanged. The

capsule is thin, with no signs of swelling and degradation. In the cortex are determined
by numerous renal corpuscles. Vascular glomeruli comprise mainly capillary loops
open. Hollow capsules Shymlanskaya in normal size, contains no blood cells or any
other pathological deposits. There have been sporadic renal corpuscles with the
expansion of the cavity of the capsule and mild hyperemia glomerular capillaries. The
epithelium of the proximal and distal portions of the thin nephron has a characteristic
structure of these parts, without signs of destructive changes. The epithelium of
collecting tubules and presented major intercalary cells in the normal ratio. The lumina
of the tubules of the nephron and collecting tubules were detected precipitates or other
pathological deposits. Connective tissue cortex and medulla of kidney tender, with no
signs of edema and inflammatory infiltrates. The microscopic changes in the kidney
compared to the control is not revealed.
Spleen - capsule and trabeculae are well developed, powerful enough to contain
bundles of smooth muscle cells. The parenchyma is clearly differentiated red and white
pulp, which are the usual ratio characteristic of adult animals. The white pulp is
presented lymph follicles of different sizes, on the periphery of which is determined by
the central artery. The structural zone of white pulp sufficiently differentiated part of the
lymph follicles containing germinal center or reactive. The reactive centers are often
found cells at different stages of the mitotic division. The red pulp is rich in red blood
cells, there are identified macrophages in the cytoplasm containing pigment hemosiderin. Generally, pathological changes in the spleen are not detected.
The pancreas - the capsule is thin, in the parenchyma clearly delineated
sections slices of different sizes. The bulk of the lobes occupy acinus composed of
acini cells. Homogeneous and zymogen area acinus clearly distinguishable. In each
lobe is defined by the islet of Langerhans, the size and topography of which vary quite
widely. Islets are mainly represented by basophil cells and located between the blood
vessels. Interlobular connective tissue contains ducts and blood vessels. Pancreas
experimental animals generally do not have significant differences compared with the
control.
The adrenal glands. In histological sections of the capsule body is not changed.
Degenerative changes in the glandular cells of the cortex and medulla of the adrenal
glands are missing. A typical value for glomerular, beam and reticular zones fully
131
preserved. The brain of the adrenal chromaffin cells retain the characteristic structure
and size. Venous sinuses are not changed or slightly extended.
Stomach - surface epithelium covered with a layer of mucus, which defines the
exfoliated cells. In the lamina propria found some lymphocytes, plasma cells of
lymphoid follicles. The glands of the stomach are the usual structure. Vessels
moderately full-blooded.
Small intestine - villi are covered with a single layer of prismatic epithelium,
among the cells which in large quantities - goblet cells. In the lamina propria of the
mucosa occur lymphocytes and plasma cells, and lymphoid follicles. There moderately
severe vascular congestion.
The colon without any pathological features. Crypt regular shape, are arranged
densely. The ratio of prismatic and goblet cells on the surface corresponds to the crypt.
Mostly found in the submucosal layer of the lymphoid system. Blood vessels are filled
with blood, marked perivascular edema.
Thus, as architectonic gastrointestinal mucosal and submucosal rat experimental groups correspond to the control animals.
Uterus. The endometrium is lined with a single layer of prismatic epithelium.
Good different functional and the basal layer of endothelium. There are different
lengths of uterine cancer, some of them expanded, low cylindrical epithelium glands,
cytoplasm is basophilic. The nuclei elongated, occupy most of the cells stained
intensely and homogeneously. Mitoses absent. The stroma is rich in cells and fibers
argyrophilic.
Ovary. Cortex and medulla are clearly distinguishable. Last formed coarse
connective tissue craters, major vessels, nerves. The cortical part of ovary follicles are
located primordial. Follicles are at different stages of development up to the breaks
graph bubbles. Degenerative changes were observed. Hemorrhage and no atrophy.
Growing follicles different maturity without pathological changes. The brain of the
ovarian connective tissue main vessels and nerves, multiple sclerosis, collagenization
and fragmentation were observed.
Testicle. Microscopy testicular tissue of rats did not reveal any pathological
changes in the tubules and the stroma. In the testes convoluted tubules epithelium
contain all stages of spermatogenesis. Well differentiated spermatogonia, spermaceti
1 and 11 orders, prespermatidis and spermatids. Also in a large number of sperm cells
in various stages of maturation. Basement membranes are thin. There is no signs of
132
degeneration of Setroli follicular cells and Leydig interstitial cells, the number
corresponding to their control. The inner diameter of the seminiferous tubules are not
reduced, sclerosis and ischemia basement membrane were observed. Convoluted
tubules are lined in the control animals, multicore epithelium, including a spermicide
first and second orders, prespermatotsidy, spermatids. Degenerative changes in the
cytoplasm of epithelial cells were observed. There were found Sertoli cells in small
quantities in the thickness seminiferous epithelium. Their number is about the same in
all cases studied. Interstitial Leydig cells are seen as a continuous band near the
capillaries. Recently expanded and filled with blood. In conclusion, it should be noted
that the dystrophic, necrobiotic and inflammatory changes in experimental animals, as
well as significant differences in the structure of the internal organs between the
experimental and control groups were found. Marked structural features of normal
tissues examined reflect the functional activity of internal organs.
Based on a comparative histological study of organs and tissues of control and
experimental animals can be concluded that prolonged endogastric administration
dragees "Leoglisirflom" for 90 days in doses of 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg and 250 mg/kg
body weight causes no pathological changes.
Conclusions. Dragee "Leoglisirflom" in doses of 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg and
250 mg/kg body weight at 3-monthly endogastric adult rats causes no death of the
animals, does not have a damaging effect on the general state of the rats of the body
weight, the cell the peripheral blood and histomorphological pattern of internal organs.
References:
1. Kiseleva T.L. Ancient tradition of folk medicine in modern sedatives and antianxiety
drugs. VIII Russian National Congress "Man and medicine". Materials from a
satellite symposium. - M.: Galena A S 2001. P. 8-21.
2. Guskov T.A. Toxicology medicaments, Moscow, 2008. - P. 27-30.
3. Golikov S.N., Sanotsky I.V., Tiunov L.A. General mechanisms of toxicological
action. L.: Medicine, 1986. - P. 279.
4. Guidelines for the Study of common toxicity of pharmacological substances / The
Manual on experimental (preclinical) study of new pharmacological substances.
Edited by corresponding Member of the Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor
R. U. Khabrieva. Second edition, revised and supplemented / M.: - 2005. - M.: OAA
"Publisher" Medicine", 2005. P. 41-54.
133
5. Guidelines for clinical laboratory diagnostics, Tashkent. P. 2007-278.

6. Preparation of histological cuts. Microscopic technique: Manual / Edited D.S. Sarkisova and Yu.L. Perova. - M.: Medicine, 1996. P. 432.
7. Shubnikov E.A. Functional tissue of morphology. MSU. 1981. P. 326.
8. Basic statistical treatment of results pharmacological experiments / The Manual on
experimental (preclinical) study of new pharmacological substances. Edited by
Corresponding Member of the Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor R.U. Khabrieva. Second edition, revised and supplemented / M.: - 2005 M.: OAA
"Publisher" Medicine", 2005. - P. 763-774.
134
Mahamadzarif Kadirov,
Tashkent Pharmaceutical Institute, Doctoral Candidate,
Ahmadhodja Yunuskhodjaev,
Tashkent Pharmaceutical Institute, Rector,
Doctor f Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Kamoliddin Shadmanov,
Assistant Professor, Faculty f Industrial Pharmacy
Coordination compound of cobalt(II) with

-amino acids showing blood-forming and antidote activity
Abstract: Coordination compound of Co(II) with N-replaced derivatives of
-amino acids, containing also ions of vitamin U are synthesized and analyzed.
Particularities of competitive coordination of multifunctional of ligands to the central
atom are studies by the way of infrared spectroscopy. Configurations of metal centers
mutually differing on the nature of coordinating ligands are established by research of
electronic spectra of diffusive reflection. It is defined, that the Oh-configuration is
specific for intra complex fragments whereas fragments with the molecular nature meet
d-symmetry. It is established that the received compounds possess high bloodforming and antidote activity.
Keywords: vitamin U, coordination compound, complex, antidote, spectroscopy, enzyme.
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
135
(II)
-,

: (II) N- -,
U.

.

. , Oh-,
d-. ,
.
: U, , ,
, , .
U (-S-, MemSClH)
[1].
,
,
, . [2,3].

: d-
. ,
,
, , ,
, - . [2,3].
(II) U,
(GluH2) I (II) - (KgaH2)
II.
136
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.
: -, -, - .
0,35%.

-
, .
- 1.

.
(
2).
.
1
(-1)

(-1)
()
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-
GluH2
1775,1720,
KgaH2
-
II
1405
as()
1590
1640
1645
s()
1380
1380
1410
(=)
1748
1715
(NH3+)
3007,2975
3200
(NH3+)
1642,1553
(NH2)
3350,
3320,
3200
3270
137
, (-1)
41g(4F)
42g(4F)
2g(4F)
41g(4)
6020
14200
18400
II
6320
14400
18900

:
I
H2O
CH3
H2
Cl S H2C H2C
HC N
CH3
OC=O
Co
O=C
O
H2O
II
H2
HOOC H2C H2C HC
N
O=CO
. 3H2O
N CH 2 2
H
2
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OC=O
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O = C - CH2 -CH2- COOH
H2

110-120 . . 20 /
5 . ( 6
):
138
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;
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I II
5 10 /,
. , , . ,
3.

,
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5 , 73%,
, 1,2
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5 .
( )
120-140 150 /.
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110,86,64
87,85,82
95,66,65
10
58,49,84
10
( 2)
101,310,2
127,89,98
( 1)
99,66.78
89,25,28
128,46,56
115,06,42
72,48,70
124,87,64
10
, /
111,29,86
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128,210,3
15
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, (n=6. Mm)
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, 1012 /
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, //

140
141
:
1 (). ,
;
2 3 ().
, I, 5 / 10 / ;
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. 7 , 4. . 4,
,
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,
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142
E.G. Shvarev, L.V. Dikareva, D.L. Ovodenko, A.K. Aupova, G.E. Shvarev,
Obstetrics and Gynecology Department,
Astrakhan State Medical Academy,
Astrakhan, Russia
Markers of Endometrial Biological Fluids in Inner

Genitalia Diseases Diagnostics
Abstract: The biochemical and structural characteristic of biological liquids
(serum of the blood, endometrial washes and menstrual blood) at inflammatory
diseases, benign and malignant adnexal tumors is given in the article. The results of
work are a substantiation for clinical application of a method of wedge-shaped
anhydratation of biological liquids and finding in them the markers of oxidation stress
the carbonyl proteins with the purpose to increase the efficiency of early diagnostics
of inflammatory adnexal diseases, benign and malignant ovarian tumors. The
evaluation of structural features of morphological picture of endometrial lavages and
menstrual fluid, as well as the showing the level of protein and lipid peroxide
modification markers allow to reveal with the help of the given approach the forming
tendencies of adnexal pathology at the preclinical stage.
Keywords: ovarian tumors, endometrial lavages, menstruation blood,
oxydative stress, peroxide protein oxidation, carbonyl proteins, structural microscopic
peculiarities of biological liquids.
In thirteen years an age-old anniversary of PAP-test, an effective and simple in
usage method of revealing precancer and early carcinoma of uterine cervix, so called
in honour of its creator, a Greek scientist Georgios Papanikolau, will be celebrated.
Since 1943 the test has saved lots of womens lives and it would have saved more if
the innovation, suggested by doctor Papanikolau in 1928, had been objectively and in
good time evaluated by doctors community instead of exposing to traditionally durable
scepticism.
Nowadays the problem of screening precancerous and cancerous diseases of
uterine body and appendages, which are increasing in population, is still unsolved.
143
What do we know about it? Do we use the given diagnostic opportunities for preserving
reproductive health and lives of our patients? It is the necessity of regular prophylactic
measures, in the aspect of forming the considered diseases, that consists in high
chances of their elimination just when they are early revealed.
As it is known, the problem of intensification and optimization of pre-hospital
diagnostics largely determines the success of treatment and is one of its most
important items. It is this approach that gives an opportunity for effective, preserving
organs, treatment and thus at most saves reproductive abilities of women. It wont be
an exaggeration to say that early and, furthermore, differential diagnosing diseases of
inner genitalia remains one of the most complicated problems of gynecology. It gains
peculiar significance while forming the concept of revealing precancer, early forms of
endometrial cancer and cancer of uterine appendages, when there are no symptoms
or they are very scarce and sizes of pathological tumors are minimal, and are not
spread on other organs (as it is known, in such cases, treatment is more sparing and
effective, and maximally favourable). WHO experts opinion of the absence of reliable
screening programs of precancerous and cancerous pathology of uterine body
(endometrial cancer) and appendages should be also mentioned.
And, meanwhile, statistical data of Russian and foreign scientists convincingly
testify not only steady increase of sick rate, but also rejuvenation of patients with
benign and malignant hormone-dependent tumors of reproductive organs. This fact is
explained not only by increase of an average life span, but also by the essential
increase in population of such diseases of civilization as adiposity, anovulation,
chronic hyperestrogeny, infertility, inflammatory diseases of uterine and appendages,
and also by repeated aggressive obstetrical and gynecological manipulations
[1, 2, 3]. That is why the necessity of forming a new approach to active search for
patients with precancerous and early cancerous diseases of inner genitalia should be
considered first of all from the position of elaborating the new screening test as one of
the most perspective methods of their second prevention [4].
It is known that at cancerous growth mitochondrial oxygenation is forced out by
glycolysis, more primitive way of energy supply. It is accompanied by active oxygen
forms and is the basis of stimulating free radical oxygenation in the organism. During
this process a state called the oxydative stress (OS) is developed and results in
accumulating the highly toxic combinations leading to morphological disturbances of
cells and tissues [5,6,7].
144
Free radicals hit all kinds of biological macromolecules, furthermore, the most
studied are processes of lipids peroxide oxygenation. However, only active forms of
oxygen also cause oxygenative destruction of proteins. It is considered that in a state
of OS lipids are not attacked by the active oxygen forms first and foremost, but proteins
of cells and biological fluids (BF) are. This process may also be the basic in structural
and functional disturbances of the reproductive system organs, including the
development of precancerous and cancerous transformation of endometrial and
ovarian tissues. However, it needs a considerable amount of pathologic deformation
of molecular ingredients of a cell and, consequently, a prolonged time interval, in the
final stage of which traditional cytologic and histologic methods of research are already
available. In it lies one of the reasons of the displacement of the forming clinical picture
and, consequently, the initiation of diagnostic measures of the disease for a later
period.
It is important to note that structural changes of endometrium (E), as a hormonedependent tissue, largely depend on the functional condition of ovaria. It is the
endometrial tissue that reacts most sensitively upon the changes of homeostasis of
the reproductive system organs, also including functional disturbances while forming
tumors of gonades. According to it, we should point out the ability of a number of
enzymes and their isoforms to accumulate during hyperplastic processes and cancer
of endometrium in the apical parts of glandular cells, and then to secrete into the
endometrial secretion [8]. It should be noted that besides blood and fragments of
sloughing endometrial tissue, endometrial and endocervical secretion is also included
into menstrual fluid (MF). By the drawn analogy the OS markers, among which the
earliest is the carbonyl group of proteins (CGP), may also be found with the help of
simple methods in MF and endometrial lavages (EL) of examined patients long before
appearing manifesting symptoms of the disease.
Choosing MF (and EL), as an object of research, is explained not only by
scientific curiosity (because they are poorly studied!), but also by the fact that once a
month this BF in enough volume for examining (from 10 to 80 ml in healthy women) is
spontaneously secreted from the uterine cavity and can be collected by patients
themselves (into sanitary napkins or special caps) for the laboratory examination.
Traditionally morphological research in medicine is mainly concentrated on
tissues and cellular elements whilst structural peculiarities of BF remain poorly studied.
In this respect microscopy of the structures of a dry drop (facies), forming in BF when
145
it turns into a solid state as a result of dehydration, is long-range. This new scientific
trend was called morphology of BF [2]. The essence of the new method of
diagnostics is in the fact that normally the microscopic picture of the examined drop of
BF has more or less homogeneous structure and by slight influence of different
damaging factors (oxidizing, toxic) the hydrate membranes of proteins change, and
processes of molecular aggregation start.
In professors V.N. Shabalina and S.N. Shatohina opinion (1995, 2007), facies
(F) is a structural portrait of molecular correlation in BF which allows to put deep
microprocesses on the macrolevel. A microscopic picture of F has structures which are
characteristic for every kind of human BF, connected with peculiarities of physiologic
and pathologic processes action in the organism.
Using technologies of the morphological analysis Lithos-system [10] one can
observe even the earliest pathologic changes of molecular structures immediately,
without incubation period, which is necessary at cellular, organic and/or systemic
levels. Therefore, the morphologic analysis of BF gives an opportunity for the earliest
diagnostics of the developing pathologic process.
We offer a quantitative content analysis of the OS markers with a simultaneous
defining structural microscopic peculiarities of the solid phase of MF and EL as a new
diagnostic (and prognostic) approach to evaluating the state of inner genitalia in
women of reproductive and (especially) perimenopausal ages.
The inner anatomical localization, complexity of the microscopic structures of
neoplasms of the female gonades, indistinct borders between the neoplasms of a
different maturation degree and diversity of their combinations all these complicate
the early revealing of ovarian tumors (OT) and hinder rational planning for patients
treatment.
As it was already told, endometrial tissue is extremely sensitive to
the homeostatic changes of the reproductive system organs also including the
increase of the OS markers content in EL , in particular, CGP by forming OT. Thus,
according to D.L. Ovodenko et al. (2008), women from the control group with the
normal ovarian structure had 0-1.9(0.9 +_0.14) nmol/mg. While increasing the index
up to 2.0 3.5 (2.8 _+ 0.28) nmol/mg in the majority of cases there were revealed
benign tumors (p<0.05) and at 3.6 4.9 (4.8 _+0.25) nmol/mg malignant OT
(p <0.01).
146
The CGP content in the MF of the patients with the benign ovarian tumors
(BOT) was higher than the patients with chronic inflammatory processes of uterine
appendages (CIPUA) and those from the control group had (p <0.01).
The microscopic picture of F of EL in the women from the control group was
characterized by sharply shaped zone borders. In the majority of cases there were two
zones peripheral with radial cracks and central, containing crystals of salts, more
rarely straight radial cracks as a prolongation of the peripheral zone cracks (fig. 1).
Besides that, in 24.8 % of the cases in F of EL of the women from this group appeared
the third intermediate zone, located between the two above mentioned zones,
containing three-rayed cracks.
Fig. 1. Facies of endometrial lavage of reference group patient ( 10):

a peripheral zone with radial cracks, b salt area
In the patients with CIPUA and during the aggravation of the process, the area
sizes of three-rayed and radial cracks didnt reliably differ from the analogous indexes
of the women from the control group. However, in these cases tongue structures
(markers of inflammation), twirls and wisp blocks (markers of hypoxia) appeared in
the picture of F.
F of EL in the patients with benign ovarian tumors and ovarian cancer were
rather different in their structure from those, which the women from the control group
had. Facies zones of EL remained in the patients with benign ovarian tumors of all age
groups, moreover, in 68.4% of cases they have already had the zone with three-rayed
cracks (fig. 2).
147
Fig. 2. Facies of endometrial lavage of patient with benign OT ( 10):

a peripheral zone with radial cracks, b three-beam cracks
In those patients, who had ovarian cancer, the area of the three-rayed cracks
zone on the surface of F markedly enlarged up to 2.2 +_ 0.10 mm2 (fig. 3), being
reliably different from the same in the control group (p <0.01) and in the group of
patients with benign ovarian tumors (p<0.05). The area of the peripheral zone with
radial cracks was 6.1 +_0.42 mm2 and in size it wasnt different from that, which the
women from the control group had [11].
Fig. 3. Facies of endometrial lavage of patient with malignant OT (10):

a peripheral zone with radial cracks, b three-beam cracks
The obtained results testify that the microscopic picture of F of EL and MF has
clear and distinctive peculiarities in patients with benign, frontier and malignant ovarian
tumors. Including methods of structural and biochemical analysis of EL and MF into a
diagnostic complex in the patients from risk groups of the OT development will allow
to increase sensibility and to rise specificity of the research.
148
An important advantage of the offered method of diagnostics is noninvasive and

autraumatic collecting of the researched material, the possibility of multiple repeating
the research in antenatal clinics, making analysis in laboratories of Health institutions.
The obtained results confirm the possibility of revealing ovarian cancer at early stages
of its development when organ-preserving surgery becomes the most realistic and,
thus preserving reproductive health of women.
References:
1. Bochman, Ya.V. Manual on Oncogynecology. Leningrad. Medicine. 1989.
P. 1518.
2. Vollenhoven, B.J. Introduction: the Epidemiology of Uterine Leiomyomas //
Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1998. Vol. 12 (2). P. 169176.
3. Schwartz, S.M., Marshall, L.M. et al. Epidemiologic contributions to Understanding
the Etiology of Uterine Leiomyomata // Chin Med J (Eng). 2000. P. 7578.
4. Urmancheeva, A.F., Kutushva, G.F., Ulrich, E.A. Ovarian Tumors. St. Petersburg.- 2012. P. 2830.
5. Inoue, M. Utsumi free radical theory of carcinogenesis: role of enhancedmutation
of mitochondrial genome in cancer pathogenesis [xt] / M. Inoue, M. Nishikawa,
Y. Kira, A. Park, E. Sato // Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species: Diagnostic,
Preventive and Therapaitic Values. International Symposium. St. Petersburg,
2002. P. 101.
6. Drummen, G.P. Mass spectrometric characterization of the oxidation of the
fluorescent lipid peroxidation reporter molecule Cll-BODIPY (581/591) [xt] /
G.P. Drummen, B.M. Gadella, J.A. Post, J.F. Brouwers // Free Radiac. Biol. Med.
2004. V. 36. 12. P. 16351644.
7. Halliwell, B. Oxidative stress, nutrition and health: experimental strategies for
optimization of nutritional antioxidant intake in humans [xt] / B. Halliwell,
M. Whiteman // Br.J. Pharmacol. 2004. Vol. 142. P. 261265.
8. Shvarev, E.G., Volodin, M.A. Clinical and Immunochemical Aspects of Endometrial
Carcinoma Diagnostics // European Journal of Gynaecological Oncology. 1991.
- Vol. XII. Supp. - P. 5455.
9. Shabalin, V.N. Character of Blood Crystallizationas an Integral Index of Organism
Homeostasis [xt] / V.N. Shabalin, S.N. Shatokhina, S.A. Yakovlev // Phys.
Chem. Biol. Med. 1995. T. 2. 1. P. 69.
149
10. Shabalin, V.N., Shatokhina, S.N. Diagnostics markers in the structures of human
biological liqulds // Singaporo Med. J. 2007. Vol. 48(5). - P. 440-446.
11. Ovodenko, D.L., Shvarev, E.G., Dikareva, L.V. Diagnostic value of identification of
carbonyl groups of proteins in biological fluids of patients with the ovarian tumors
// Journal of Obstetrics and Women Disease, vol. LVII, suppl. 3, St. Petersburg,
2008. P. 50-54.
150
Revazi Melkadze,
Institute of Machine Mechanics, Doctor f Technical Science, Professor,
Ketevan Kintsurashvili,
Akaki Tsereteli State University, Doctor f Technical Science, Professor
The Phenolic complex and antioxidant activity

of Caucasian Blackberry (Rubus caucasicus L) leaves
Abstract: Studied some physical and chemical characteristics and 6-sheet
blackberry shoot Caucasian (Rubus caucasicus L.). It was found that the minima of the
moisture content, the extract substances and phenolic compounds to the same period
of the beginning and end of the growing season of plants. The composition of phenolic
compounds represented by catechins, flavonols and leuco anthocyanidins. Highs
accumulation of phenolic compounds during the growing season are found in the
middle of the season (July-August).
Blackberry leaf and extract has high antioxidant activity.
Keywords: Herbal teas, Caucasian blackberry, physical and chemical
composition, phenolic substances, antioxidant activity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Based on the analysis of data on plants used for the preparation of herbal teas,
taking into account available resources and people's experience of their application,
we have as the object of study chosen blackberry leaves caucasian.
Blackberries belong to the subgenus Eubatus, genus Rubus L. of the family
Rosaceae, 50-150 cm tall shrub, with long rhizome and perennial aboveground stems,
covered with spines. In the Caucasus, found 33 species.
From these kinds of blackberries in Georgia is mainly spread Caucasian
blackberry (Rubus caucasicum L.).
The plant blooms from May to August, fruiting after about 1.5 months from
flowering. It grows in woods, ravines, among shrubs, clearings, along the banks of
rivers, streams, meadows, rocky slopes, orchards, gardens, roadsides. It forms large
thickets. The total area of blackberries in Georgia up to 300 thousand Ha.
151
A distinctive feature of Caucasian blackberry brambles from other species is a

little prickly education stems and leaves, which facilitates the collection of raw
materials.
What is essential is that the periods of vegetation Blackberry coincide with
periods of tea production season (April-October months), which is of great importance
in the industrial development of its production in enterprises of primary processing of
tea.
It should be noted that the information on the chemical composition of the plants
are scarce, except for works relating to the study of the texture of a 6-sheet escape
blackberry and individual phenolic compounds flesh elements [13].
The study of these questions will determine the purpose of the study.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
The objects of study were Caucasian blackberry leaves. The raw materials for
the growing season were studied: phenolic compounds - by Leventhal using conversion factor K = 4,16 [3-4], antioxidant activity - by method of Ferric Reducing Ability
of Plasma (FRAP) [18].
3. RESEARCH AND THEIR DISCUSSION
Phenolic and amino acid composition. In the production of tea phenolics play
a primary role, as their ability to be oxidized by enzymes to form a red-brown and the
reaction products, determined by inherent characteristics of the finished product
quality. Phenolic compounds in the manufacture of tea leaf tea undergo a deep and
diverse transformations that form the basis of the process of tea production. Therefore
it is clear the enormous work carried out by researchers in the study of the role and
significance of tea phenolic compounds [1-7, 9-12, 20-23].
In connection with the above, in the production of herbal tea is paramount study
phenolic compounds used or that the vegetable raw materials.
Especially interesting is the establishment of seasonal dynamics of phenolic
compounds during the growing season of the plant. As is known, the content of
phenolic compounds in tea leaves subject to change during the processing season for the Georgian tea plant the maximum of their savings in other similar conditions the
same as the middle of the season (July-August), when the daily total atmospheric
152
temperature is the highest. Details of the experiment conducted by us in blackberry

escape during the growing season (Table 1).
As a result, it was found that the nature of the accumulation of phenolic
compounds blackberry escape by month growing season is identical to the tea leaves.
The BlackBerry, as well as in tea leaves maximum accumulation of phenolic
substances comes to the middle of the growing season - the hottest period (JulyAugust). This once again confirms that the sheet of blackberry, as well as tea and other
plant materials. Fully complies to the basic laws of ontogeny of plants.
Table 1. Dynamics of phenolics blackberry escape during the growing season
The extent of the
##
Months
Phenolic compounds,% of dry weight
maximum accumulation
of phenolic compounds
in %
1.
May
16,700,24
82,1
2.
Jun
18,840,22
82,5
3.
Jul
19,610,33
96,4
4.
August
20,350,37
100,0
5.
September
16,650,21
81,8
Average
18,430,30
Antioxidant Activity. The Ferric Reducing Ability of Plasma (FRAP) assay was
used to measure the concentration of total anioxidants. UV/Vis spectrophotometer
M501 (Camspec Ltd, UK) was used for measurements of absorption changes that
appear when the TPTZ-Fe3+ complex reduces to the TPTZ-Fe2+ form in the presence
of antioxidants. An intense blue colour with absorption maximum at 593 nm develops.
Standard solutions of 5.7 mM ascorbic acid in deionised water were prepared. Diluted
standards or diluted extract samples were used on the day of preparation except the
ascorbic acid solutions, which were used within 1h of preparation. An aqueous solution
of 1000 mol/L FeSO4x7H2O was used for calibration of the instrument.
To measure FRAP value, 300 ml of freshly prepared FRAP reagent was warmed
to 37 C and a reagent blank reading is taken at 593 nm; then 10 ml of sample and
30 ml of water are added. Absorbance readings were taken after 0.5 s and every 15 s
until 4 min. The change of absorbance (A = A4min - A0min) is calculated and related to
153
A of a Fe (II) standard solution. A is linearly proportional to the concentration of

antioxidant. One FRAP unit is arbitrarily defined as the reduction of 1 mol of Fe (III) to
Fe (II). Antioxidant activity was expressed as an equivalent of ascorbic acid.
Table 2. The antioxidant activity of blackberry leaf and green tea
Antioxidant activity, mg/g
Sample
of ascorbic acid equivalent

Experience
Blackberry leaf fresh
1810
Blackberry leaf dried
10600
The dry extract of the blackberry leaf
11000
Control
Fresh tea leaves
1015
Dried tea leaves
6000
Dry green tea extract
6500
From Table 2 shows that in terms of antioxidant activity of leaf extract of

blackberry far exceeds commonly known green tea. This property blackberry leaf,
particularly blackberry Caucasian, puts him in the ranks of the most powerful plant
antioxidants.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Investigated the chemical composition of the 6-leaf blackberry escape linking
the growing season. It was found that the nature of the accumulation of volatile
phenolic compounds: their minimum content to the same period of the beginning and
end of the growing season (May and September).
Established the character changes in the content of individual phenolic
substances catechins, flavanols and leukoanthocyanidins blackberry leaf by month
growing season.
According to antioxidant activity much greater than the blackberry leaf green
tea.
154
References:
1. Bokuchava M.A. On the nature and significance of tannins tea leaves // Bioh. Tea.
Manuf. M. 1950 (in Russian).
2. Bokuchava M.A., Volkov A.G. The conversion of the different fractions of tannins
in the growth and development of tea leaves and its processing // Ref. Works
established. Dep. Biol. sci. USSR Academy of Sciences, M. 1946 (in Russian).
3. Bokuchava M.A. Novozhilov N.P. Taste properties of the individual fractions tea
tannin and to the quality of tea // Bioh of tea production. M. 1946 (in Russian).
4. Bohinsky R. Modern views in biochemistry: M.: 1987. - 544 p.
5. Goodwin T, Mercer E. Introduction plant biochemistry. In 2 volumes. M. Science,
1986, with V. 2. 312 p.
6. Dzhemukhadze K.M. Tea tannin in connection with the processing and quality of
tea // Biochem. Tea production. M.: 1940 (in Russian).
7. Dzhemukhadze K.M. Tanin substance and quality of the raw tea // Biochem. Tea
production. M. 1950 (in Russian).
8. Kretovich V.L. The Basics Biochemistry of plants. M.: Graduate School, 1971. 464 p.(in Russian).
9. Kursanov A.L. Determination of different forms of tannins in plants // Biochemistry,
M.: 1941 (in Russian).
10. Kursanov A.L. The transformation of tannins in the processing of tea leaves //
Biochemistry. M.: 1943 (in Russian).
11. Kursanov A.L. Tanin tea leaf material in connection with the problem of improving
the quality tea // AS USSR. Ser Biol. 1951 (in Russian).
12. Kursanov A.L. Synthesis and transformation of tannins in the tea plant // 7th
Bach reading. USSR Academy of Sciences. M. 1952 (in Russian).
13. Melkadze R., Chikovani N., Kachniashvili E. Characteristics of the Composition of
Caucasian Blackberry (Rubus caucasicus L.) Leaves as a Raw Material for Tea
Production, J. Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology, 2008.
14. Melkadze R.G. Research an elemental composition Blackberry of a sheet and
mining of thetechnological rules of effecting phytotea of products, Georgian
Academy of Sciences, Tbilisi, 2000.
15. Oparin A.I. Biochemical theory of tea production M.: Bioch. tea prod. 1935 (in
Russian).
155
16. Soboleva G.A. Quantification definition catechins using a Densitometer // Bioch.

Tea prod. M.: 1958 (in Russian).
17. Filippovich Y.B., Yegorov T.A., Sevastyanov G.A. Workshop on general
biochemistry. M.: Education, 1975. 318 p. (in Russian).
18. Benzie F.F., Strain J.J. The Ferric Reducing Ability of Plasma as a Measure of
Antioxidant Power: the FRAP Assay Analytical Biochemistry, 1996.
19. Bradfield A. Some recent developments in the chemistry of Tea // Chem and Ind.
1946.
20. Lame J. Research and the practical manufacture of Tea // j. of res. Inst. of Ceylon.
1937.
21. Oshima J., Nakabayashi T., Sakamoto J. Studies on the black tea tannin. Pt. 1.
Chemical changes of the Poly phenol compounds and aminoacids in the
manufacture of black tea // Ibid. 1954.
22. Roberts E. The fermentation process in tea manufacture // j. Biochem, 1939.
23. Roberts E. The fermentation process in tea manufacture // j. Biochem, 1943.
156
Michael Koptev,
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy, Assistant, Ph.D. in Medical
Sciences, Department of Operative Surgery and Topohraphic Anatomy,
Elena Pronina,
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy, Professor, Doctor of Medical
Sergey Bilash,
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy, Professor, Doctor of Biological
Angelina Prog-Zakaznikova,
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy, Associate Professor, Ph.D. in
Medical Sciences, Department of Operative Surgery and Topohraphic Anatomy,
Anatoly Bilych,
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy, Associate Professor, Ph.D. in
Medical Sciences, Department of Operative Surgery and Topohraphic Anatomy
Comparative characteristics of morphological changes in

the lungs and the heart of rats, caused by acute stress
Abstract: The aim of the research was to study on histological level the
exposure of acute immobilization stress on the heart and lungs of rat in the experiment.
Acute immobilization stress produces a pronounced adverse effect on the structure of
rats heart and lungs, causing significant hemorrhage, vascular plethora of
hemomicrocirculatory stream of heart and lungs with symptoms of blood stasis,
interstitial edema.
Keywords: heart, lung, morphology, stress, rats.
,
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:
1. European convention for the protection of vertebrate animals used for
experimental and other scientific purposes. Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 1986.
53 p.
2. 3447 IV
21.02.2006 ., 2006. 18 .
3. .. - : .
. . . : . 14.03.01
/ .. . , 2014. 179 .
4. ..
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: .
2014. . 14, 4 (48). . 229-231.
163
Olga Sermukhamedova, Zuriyadda Sakipova, Liliya Ibragimova,

Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University
Development and validation assessment of flavonoids

quantification technique in the grass of Leonurus
turkestanicus
Abstract: The validation characteristics of analytical methods of sum of
flavonoids quantitative determination in dried raw herb of Leonurus turkestanicus
have been studied. Validation results have shown that the analytical technique
satisfies the conditions of the tests for specificity, trueness, is characterized by a linear
dependence in the investigated range of application of the analytical technique,
proper accuracy and convergence of the results.
Keywords: Leonurus turkestanicus, quantification, UV spectrophotometry,
validation.
Introduction
In the system of pharmaceutical products quality assurance an important role
plays analytical control. According to the requirements of Republic of Kazakhstan State
Pharmacopoeia and pharmacopoeia of other countries, all analytical methods should
be validated [1]. Based on the results of the assessment pharmacopoeia level of
requirements for quality and safety of Leonurus turkestanicus herb in terms of
"quantification" has been set. The results obtained have been used to design the
analytical normative document "Leonurus turkestanicus herb".
The aim of this study was validating and reproduction of methods of sum of
flavonoids quantification in the Leonurus turkestanicus herb.
Materials and methods
In the experiment, the grass of Leonurus turkestanicus, collected in the foothills
of the Dzungarian Ala Tau in the flowering stage in June 2015. Used solutions of
reagents and solvents were analytically pure and prepared in accordance with the
requirements of the State Pharmacopoeia of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Spectrophotometric analysis was performed on an SF-2000 (CJSC "OKB SPECTR",
Russia), the data were collected and integrated using the software Microcal Origin and
164
Statistica 12. As the auxiliary equipment and materials were used: analytical scale
(Shimadzu, Japan).
Method of quantification. The test is performed by absorption spectrophotometry in the visible area [1, 2.2.25].
5.00 g of the powdered raw material poured with 80 ml of 70% ethanol and
heated under reflux on a boiling water bath for 30 minutes. Extraction cooled and
filtered into a volumetric flask of 100 ml, and adjusted the volume after extraction with
70% ethanol to the mark (solution A).
The test solution. 2 ml of the solution A placed in a volumetric flask of 25 ml,
added 0.5 ml of 33% acetic acid, 1.5 ml of aluminum chloride and adjusted to the mark
with 96% ethanol (solution B).
Compensation solution. 2 ml of solution A, 0.5 ml of 33% acetic acid and
adjusted to the mark with 96% ethanol in a volumetric flask of 25 ml.
After 40 minutes, measured the optical density of the solution B in a
spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 415 ( 5) nm in a cuvette with working layer
thickness of 10 mm.
The content of sum of flavonoids in terms of rutin percentage (X), is calculated
by the formula:
X
D 504 .03
D 25 100 100
,
248 2 (100 W ) a (100 W )
where D is optical density of the tested solution;

248 - specific absorption rate (E 1% 1 cm) of rutin complex with aluminum chloride
at a wavelength of 415 nm;
a - weighed raw material, grams;
W - moisture percentage.
Results and discussion
The method of quantitative determination of the sum of flavonoids based on
rutin. The validation of the studied technique was carried out by methods of UV
spectrophotometry on the following characteristics: specificity, trueness, convergence,
intralaboratory accuracy, linearity, range of application, complete technique
uncertainty forecast.
Specificity. Spectra confirming the specificity of the method are shown in
Figures 1 and 2, which show the coincidence of the maxima of the test solution and
reference solution of rutin (rutin RS SP RK) [2].
165
Figure 1 - The spectrum of the test solution
Figure 2 - The spectrum of the reference solution

Trueness characterizes the degree of correspondence between a known true
value or reference value and the value obtained by this method, while the
convergence characterizes the accuracy of the method [1].
The results of the technique's metrological characteristics calculation at varying
concentrations are given in Table 1.
Table 1 - Assessment of trueness, convergence, the range of application of the
analytical procedure
Rutin RS SP RK
Sample
Optical
number
density
Dry raw material "Leonurus turkestanicus herb"

%
Sample
Optical
number
density
Extrcta-
The quantitative
content of sum of
bility, %
flavonoids,%
0.4405
80
0.4369
0.48
79.35
99.18
0.4622
85
0.4681
0.51
86.08
101.27
0.4926
90
0.4903
0.54
89.59
99.54
0.5176
95
0.5253
0.58
96.41
101.49
166
0.5515
100
0.5415
0.59
98.19
98.19
0.5732
105
0.5729
0.63
104.94
99.95
0.6014
110
0.6141
0.67
112.33
102.12
0.6246
115
0.6301
0.69
116.02
100.88
0.6533
120
0.6602
0.72
121.28
101.07
Average X ,%
100.41
The standard deviation SD
1.2512
The relative standard deviation RSD
1.2460
SD
100 ,%
X
The relative confidence interval of the mean result t (95%,8) SD 1.860 1.2512 ,%
2.3272
Systematic error X 100 ,%
0.41
Systematic error insignificance riteria

1. x / 3 0.7757
true
2. If 1 is not satisfied, then 0.80
true
The overall conclusion of the procedure
correct
From the data presented in Table 1, it follows that for the sum of flavonoids the
analysis technique has sufficient accuracy and convergence is correct throughout the
concentration range of 80-120% and has no significant bias, the relative standard
deviation (RSD) is less than 2.0%.
Linearity was investigated within the application range of the analytical
procedure on nine independent concentrations in the range of 80-120% of the nominal
content of the sum of flavonoids in the studied raw material [3]. Metrological
characteristics of the technique linear dependence are presented in Table 2.
Based on these data we can assert that a linear dependence is satisfied over
all the eligibility criteria in the specified range of application of the analytical technique.
Graphical representation of the linear dependence of the technique is shown in Figure 3 in normalized coordinates.
Table 2. Metrological characteristics of linear dependence
of the technique
Parameter
The regression
equation
B
Demands
Values
y = 1.0385x 3.38444
1.0385
Comment
Matches
167
Sb
0.03231
6.16
-3.38444
Matches
1.89 sa
Sa
3.25739
SD
2.0
1.2512
Matches
7.290710-9
Matches
0.97
0.99663
Matches
The regression coefficient within the above range is 0.99663. Calculations of

the linear dependence parameters have been carried out by the least squares method
using a computer program Microcal Origin.
Figure 3 - Diagram of linear dependence

The range of application of the analytical technique. The interval between
minimum and maximum analyte concentration in the raw material, for which
the analytical method has the required precision, trueness and linearity has
been Investigated. The range of the technique application is from 80% to 120%, the
relative standard deviation does not exceed 2.0%.
Intralaboratory accuracy. In accordance with the results of the study of the
test it has been found that the effect of the intralaboratory variation (change of analyst
and days of study) do not affect the results of the experiment. RSD for each analyst on
different days has been calculated, the results do not exceed 2.0%, so doesn't the total
value of it. The technique is characterized by reasonable accuracy.
168
Table 4 - Evaluation of the technique intralaboratory accuracy

Number of
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
sample /
indicators of
Analyst 1
Analyst 2
Analyst 1
Analyst 2
Analyst 1
Analyst 2
0.61
0.59
0.62
0.62
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.61
0.6
0.62
0.62
0.59
0.62
0.61
0.61
0.63
0.62
0.6
0.61
0.6033
0.61
0.6233
0.6133
0.5967
RSD
1.6393
1.9139
1.6393
0.9262
1.8827
0.9676
the method
correctness
0.6094
RSD
1.9063
Technique total uncertainty forecast. Validation of analytical methods

involves determining not only the real total error of the analysis, but also itsuncertainty.
According to the European Pharmacopoeia methodology is considered to be correct
in case when As upper [1,3]. At this it should be noted that the upper limit of the
analyte in the investigated vegetable raw material is not regulated, so the value of
Bupper has been conventionally equated to normal relative standard deviation (RSD),
which must not exceed 2.0%.
The calculation of the methodology total uncertainty forecast is given in
Table 5.
Table 5 - Calculation of the methodology total uncertainty forecast
Name of characteristic
E,r
The uncertainty of weighing on the analytical
Results
100 0.001
0.217
0.46
balance
100 0.0002
0.004
5
100 ml flask uncertainty
0.12
2 ml pipette uncertainty
0.5
25 ml flask uncertainty
0.23
V, r
0.563
A, r
0.2
cell, r
0.1
169
2
sp, r 2 S2A, r Scell
,r
0.447
As 2E, r 2sp, r 2V, r
0.04709+0.1998+0.317=0.56389
The correctness of complete uncertainty
0.7512
As upper
correct
where E,r - relative trueness uncertainty of absorbance on spectrophotometer;

V,r - relative uncertainty of the sample preparation error;
sp,r - relative uncertainty of total spectrophotometric error;
SA,r - the relative standard deviation of the convergence of optical density in a
spectrophotometer;
Scell,r - relative standard deviation of spectrophotometer cuvette error
convergence;
Bupper - upper tolerance of the analyte in the raw material.
Based on the data obtained the greatest contribution to the total uncertainty of
the technique make relative uncertainty of sample preparation error (V,r, 0.563%) and
the relative uncertainty of the total spectrophotometric error (sp,r, 0.447%), which
includes the results of the relative standard deviation of the optical density
convergence (SA,r, 0.2%) and the cuvette error (Scell,r, 0.1%) in a spect-rophotometer.
Contribution of relative uncertainty of the optical density trueness in a spectrophotometer is almost 2 times smaller (E,r, 0.217). At this the complete methodology
uncertainty is less than 1%, which means its correctness when repeated in other
laboratories.
Conclusions. The validation characteristics of analytical method for quantitative determination of sum of flavonoids in dried raw Leonurus turkestanicus herb
have been studied. Validation results have shown that the investigated analytical
technique satisfies the conditions of the tests for specificity, trueness, is characterized
by a linear dependence in the investigated range of the analytical technique
application, proper accuracy and convergence of the results. On the basis of the total
technique uncertainty calculation it is possible to judge on its correct repeating in other
analytical laboratories. A regulated norm of the analytical technique has been set, the
170
content of sum of flavonoids in terms of rutin in dry raw material should be at least
0.2%.
References:
1. The State pharmacopoeia of the Republic of Kazakhstan. V.1. - Almaty: The
publishing house "Zhibek moly", 2008.
2. The State pharmacopoeia of the Republic of Kazakhstan. V.2. - Almaty: The
publishing house "Zhibek moly", 2009.
3. Grizodub A.I. Validation of spectrophotometric methods of quantitative analysis of
drugs in accordance with the requirements of SPU // Farmakom. - 2002. - 3. P. 42-50.
171
Snizhana Feysa,
Ph.D., Associate Professor of the Department of Therapy and Family Practice,
Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Postgraduate and Pre-University Education in State
Higher Educational Establishment Uzhhorod National University,
Svitlana Opalenyk,
Master of the Department of Therapy and Family Practice, Doctor-Intern,
State Higher Educational Establishment Uzhhorod National University
Laboratory characteristics of patients with non-insulindependent diabetes mellitus with multiple complications
Abstract: The article describes the laboratory characteristics of patients with
non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DM) and multiple complications from other
organs and systems. It is proved that for patients with diabetes type II (DM-II) is
characterized by the violation of not only carbohydrate, and lipid, electrolyte
metabolism and also protein synthesis and enzymatic functions of the liver.
Keywords: diabetes mellitus type II, non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus,
non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, laboratory examination, glycosylated hemoglobin,
dyslipidemia.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,

172
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2011. 4 (60). . 510.
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10 (146). . 111116.
4. .. / .. // Therapia
. 2007. 9. 2834.
177
5. ..
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. 2012. - 3-4(1). . 30-34.
6. Hurjui D. The central role of the nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in metabolic
syndrome / D. Hurjui, O. Ni, L. Graur // Rev. Med. Chir. Soc. Med. Nat. Iasi.
2012. Vol. 116, 2. . 425431.
7. Chalasani N. The Diagnosis and Management of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver
Disease: Practice Guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver
Diseases, American College of Gastroenterology, and the American Gastroenterological Association / N. Chalasani, Z. Younossi, J.E. Lavine et al. //
Hepatology. 2012. Vol. 55, 6. P. 20052023.
8. Dowman J.K. Pathogenesis of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease / J.K. Dowman,
J.W. Tomlinson, P.N. Newsome // QJM. 2010. Vol. 103. P. 7183.
178
Kovalenko Tatiana,
Assistant f the Department f Microbiology,
Virology nd Immunology,
Kharkiv National Medical University,
Klimova Yelena,
Doctor f Biologist, Professor,
Minukhin Valeriy,
Doctor f Medical, Professor,
Kuzmenko Andrei,
Assistant f Medical f the Department f Microbiology,
Virology nd Immunology,
Kharkiv National Medical University
Evaluation of phagocytosis activity in animals of different

age in generalized inflammatory process in the background
of immune drug
Abstract: In the work it was shown that
investigated parameters of
phagocytosis did not differ from control animals of different ages. On the model of
induced inflammation after administration of E. coli and the use of an experimental
drug inhibition of cellular immunity in young experimental animals was observed.
Infection of immune drug into animals of older group with inflammation increased
activity of phagocytosis, probably because of secondary adaptive immune response.
Keywords: E. coli, immunity, phagocytosis, the neutrophils, the age of the
animals immune drug.
,
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. 252267.
3. McNamee L.A., Harmsen A.G. Both influenza-induced neutrophil dysfunction and

neutrophil-independent mechanisms contribute to increased susceptibility to a
secondary Streptococcus pneumonia infection / L.A. McNamee, A.G. Harmsen //
Infect. Immun. 2006. Vol. 74. P. 67076721.
4. Zhou J., Tai G., Liu Y. Activin A down-regulates the phagocytosis of
lipopolysaccharide activated mouse peritoneal macrophages in vitro and in vivo
/ J. Zhou, G. Tai, Y. Liu et al // Cell Immunol. - 2008. P. 69-75.
184
5. .. . / .. , .. , .. // .:
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- /
.. , .. , .. . // .
2009. . 22, 2. . 259 68.
7. .., .. / .. ,
.. // . . 1975. . 79, .1. . 111127.
8. .. /
.. // .: . 2003. 468 .
9. .., .., .., .. -
/ .. , .. , .. , .. // . . 2002. - 2. . 48.
10. ..
/ .. , .. , .. // . 2009. - 2(20). . 3337.
185
Svirina-Abramian Tetiana,
Kharkiv Regional Clinical Narcological Hospital, Narcologist
Analysis of suicidal danger factor indexes in male patients

with alcohol dependence
Abstract: The analysis of suicidal danger factor indexes in male patients with
alcohol dependence was carried on. It is shown that the main important role in the
initiation of suicidal behavior is played by the presence of head injuries, experiencing
physical violence, patients experienced feeling of loneliness, despair, depression,
feeling of guilt. It was revealed that markers of suicidal behavior are the presence of
life-threatening hobby with tendency to unnecessary risk. It was found that such factors
as the tragic death of close relatives and intimate experience with future suicide do not
have significant differences in the different to suicide risk factor groups.
Keywords: suicide, alcohol dependence syndrome, suicidal danger factor.
Introduction. According to statistics, Ukraine occupies a leading position in
Europe in the number of suicides. According to the State Statistics Committee data
100 thousand people is accounted for 22 suicides. Death by suicide is on the second
place in Ukraine after the natural death and death from external causes [1, 2]. The
highest mortality rate due to completed suicides was recorded in the industrial regions
of Eastern Ukraine (on average 33.6 per 100 thousand people) and in areas affected
by the Chernobyl accident (an average of 34.5 per 100 thousand people). However,
sociologists argue that the official statistics of suicide differs significantly from the
actual numbers (in 2-4 times), because it includes only clear-cut cases. Also, no one
has recorded cases of unsuccessful attempts of withdrawals from life which are in 710 times more [3, 4]. Experts analyzing the increase in suicides in Ukraine noted that
after declaring an independence and by 2004 the number of suicides began to
decrease. Unfortunately, since 2005 the curve of suicides has gone up again. Today
this trend is aggravated. For example, in 2011 the number of deaths from intentional
self-harm was 19.6 per 100 thousand people. And in 2013 it was already recorded a
20.6 suicides per 100 thousand people [5, 6].
186
Suicides are the result of the combined effect of social stress factors and
psychopathological factors, in particular, alcohol dependence [7, 8]. As suicide is a
potentially preventable kind of death the specialists in the field of public health have an
urgent task that to develop preventive measures to reduce suicides. One of the key
programs for the prevention of suicide is to reduce the level of alcohol abuse among
the population [9, 10].
Unfortunately, despite an active search by scientists and narcologists decisions
on the definition of socio-unstable risk male groups the problem of self-destruction
behavior, which according to modern views belongs to suicidal behavior, and alcohol
dependence remains relevant. The problem of link between alcohol abuse and suicide
is extremely actual today. Consideration of alcohol dependence as a disease with
severe auto-aggressive foundation has become axiomatic a long time ago [11]. Alcohol
dependence is considered as a variant of "chronic" suicidal behavior, disease with a
distinct anti-vital character [12].
According to research of Linskyy I.V. et al., 28 % of all completed suicide
attempts were carried out under alcoholic intoxication [13]. The relationship between
alcohol abuse and suicidal behavior was proved. Some authors consider alcohol abuse
as equivalent of chronic suicide. In studies conducted in various countries it was shown
that in 30 to 66 % of suicide victims alcohol in the blood was present at the time of
death. In Sweden, alcohol is involved in 35 % of the suicides. In Finland 30.5 % of
suicides are associated with alcohol. In Brazil in 32.2 % of the victims of suicide alcohol
in the blood was found. 33 % of suicides in New York at the time of death had alcohol
in the blood [10].
The presence of head injuries, experiencing physical violence, patients
experienced feeling of loneliness, despair, depression, feeling of guilt are of great
importance in the initiation of suicidal behavior. The presence of life-threatening hobby
is a marker of suicidal behavior as well as a tendency to unnecessary risks. However,
such factors as the tragic death of close relatives and intimate experience with future
suicide do not have significant differences in the different to suicide risk factor groups
and require further research and qualitative analysis.
The aim of the research was to study of suicidal danger factor indexes in men
with alcohol dependence syndrome (F 10.24, F 10.25, F 10.26, F 10.30).
Materials and methods. The study of suicidal danger factor was conducted in
Kharkiv Regional Clinical Narcological Hospital during the period from May to October
187
of 2015. It involved 58 male patients with alcohol dependence. All men were between
the age of 26 to 64 years. Diagnosis of dependence syndrome was conducted
according to the criteria of 10th ICD. Duration of alcohol dependence according to
anamnesis data ranged from 10 to 40 years. Testing was conducted due to the method
elaborated by O.V. Merinov. The suicide danger factor created by him allows validly to
assess compliance risk in men with alcohol dependence. This factor is used for the
screening assessment of suicide risk and identification of patients groups that need
specific prevention and/or therapy due to the auto-aggressive component of the
disease [14].
Results and discussions. It was found that in 6 patients (10.3 % of patients)
the suicide danger factor is low.
In 27 patients (46.6 % of patients) the suicide danger factor is equal to its
intermediate average values reflecting the population risk of suicide behavior. And in
25 patients (43.1 % of patients) the suicide danger factor is high.
In this case 12 people (48 % of the group) in this category had suicide ideas in
anamnesis. In the group where the suicide danger factor is equal to its intermediate
average values reflecting the population risk of suicide behavior only 1 man had suicide
ideas (3.7 % of the group).
And in patients with low suicide danger risk suicide ideas did not exist (table 1).
Conclusions. Thus, the present study showed that important in the initiation of
suicidal behavior is the presence of head injuries, experiencing physical violence,
patients experienced feeling of loneliness, despair, depression, feeling of guilt. It is
also can be noticed that the presence of life-threatening hobby as well as a tendency
to unnecessary risks are the markers of suicidal behavior.
However, factors such as the tragic death of close relatives and intimate
experience with future suicide do not have significant differences in the different to
suicide risk factor groups.
The prospect of further research is to find the correlation of obtained results with
I-functions model of Ammon I-structural test(ISTA) that to determine subsequent
psychological help for the prevention of auto-agressive behavior.
188
Table 1
Suicadal danger factor indexes
Levels of suicidal danger factor indexes
Questions fro test
low
intermediate
high
abs
%
abs
%
abs
%
Has your family the tragic death of close 4
66,7
14
51,9
22
88
relatives?
Have you thought to commit a suicide? 0
0
1
3,7
12
48
You have intimate experience with the 0
0
12
48
9
36
future suicide?
Is it typical for you to feel a guilt for a 1
16,7
15
55,6
24
96
long time?
Do you tend to obsessive sense of 3
50
14
51,9
23
92
shame?
Have you experienced an acute sense 0
0
16
59,3
20
80
of loneliness?
Did you ever have causeless episodes 0
0
12
44,4
20
80
of depression?
Did you ever have episodes of despair? 0
0
15
55,6
21
84
Do you tend to periodic moments of 0
0
14
51,9
18
72
overeating or refusing food?
0
4
14,8
9
36
Have you ever a serious physical 0
violence?
Did you ever apply a serious damage to 0
0
2
7,4
3
12
yourself?
Did you ever feel that there is no any 0
0
7
25,9
18
72
sense in life?
Do you often feel a worm of 2
33,3
12
44,4
20
80
conscience?
Have you had any head injuries?
0
0
8
29,6
15
60
6
Do you have a life-threatening hobbies 0
0
22,2
12
48
and habits?
Do you tend to unnecessary risk?
1
16,7
8
11
References:
1. UKRSTAT. 2010 - 2015. Database of the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine. http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua.
2. Yuryeva L.N. A suicide situation in Ukraine: Realities and Prospects / L.N. Yuryeva // Ukrains'kyi Visnyk Psykhonevrolohii. 2007. V. 15, no. 1 (50).
P. 34-36.
3. Yuryeva L.N. Dynamics of suicides in Ukraine and its regional characteristics /
L.N. Yuryeva, E.N. Zinchenko, A.E. Yuryev // Psihchne Zdorovye. 2010.
Is. 2 (27). P. 75-78.
4. Yuryeva L.N.
The dynamics of suicide mortality in Ukraine / L.N. Yuryeva,
A.E. Yuryev // Ukrains'kyi Visnyk Psykhonevrolohii. 2012. Vol. 20, Is. 3 (72).
P. 239.
189
5. Wrono E.M. Suicidology of the Ukraine - a little history / E.M. Wrono // Journal of
Applied Psychology and Psychoanalysis. 2014. 1-2. P. 21.
6. Yuryeva L. Rural-Urban Variation in Suicide Rates // Suicide in Eastern Europe,
the CIS, and the Baltic Countries: Social and Public Healt Determinants A
Foundation for Designing Interventions Summary of a Conference. 2013.
P. 5464.
7. Varnik A. Do alcohol restrictions reduce suicide mortality? / Varnik A., Kolves K.,
Vali M., Tooding L.M., Wasserman D. // Addiction. 2007. 102(2). . 251-256.
8. Wasserman D. Suicide-preventive effects of perestroika in the former USSR: the
role of alcohol restriction / Wasserman D., Varnik A. // Acta Psychiatr. Scand.
1998. Suppl. 394. . 14.
9. Razvodovsky Y.E. Medical and social aspects of alcoholism. Grodno, 2005.
128 p.
10. Razvodovsky Y.E. Alcohol and suicide: aspects of the relationship / Y.E. Razvodovsky, S.V. Kondrichin // Psychiatry. 2010. 2. P. 4-8.
11. Wasserman D. Female suicides and alcohol consumption during perestroika in the
former USSR / Wasserman D., Varnik ., Eklund G. // Acta Psychiatr. Scand.
1998. Suppl. 394. . 2633.
12. Linskyy I.V. Completed suicide attemps made in alcoholic intoxication for the
period of 2008-2010 / I.V. Lynskyy, A.M. Bacherykov, E.G. Matuzok, R.V. Lakynskyy, T.V. Tkachenko // Dovzhenkivski readings: "Rehabilitation and reintegration of persons with depending states of different origin". 2012. P. 91.
13. Merinov A.V. Auto-aggressive behavior and assessment of suicidal risk in patients
with alcohol dependence and their families: Author. dis. ... D. med. sciences:
01.14.27 - narcology, 14.01.06 - psychiatry / Merinov Alexey; Acad. I.P. Pavlov
Ryazan State Medical University. Moscow, 2012. 46 p.
190
Khamedova F.S., Khalimova Z.Yu.,

Bukhara State Medical Institute,
The Center for the Clinical nd Scientific Study f Endocrinology, Uzbekistan
Features of a clinical flow and diagnostics of patients

with the family anamnesis of inactive adenomas
of hypophysis
Abstract: Thus, the conducted clinical trials showed that at patients with is
NUDE prevalence of a family form makes 29,6% and unlike a sporadic form is
associated with earlier clinical manifestations, an aggressive current, large number of
clinical symptoms, early development of a resistance to therapy, the adverse forecast
of a disease.
Keywords: family form of the inactive adenoma of a hypophysis (IAH), the
isolated family adenoma of a hypophysis, visual, sexual, neurologic and general
violations.
: ,
,
29,6%
,
,
.
: (),
, , , .
Early diagnostics of inactive adenomas of hypophysis (IAH) relates to difficult
questions of modern neuroendocrinology as even high-informative computer
tomographs (CT) and magnetic resonance tomographs (MRT) and also clinicallaboratory, immunofermental - hormonal researches do not provide the right answer in
30-55% of cases, and atmicroadenomas (the tumor sizes is up to 1 mm) in 90-100%
191
of cases [8,10,12]. At a stage of microadenoma IAHs are seldom diagnosed and more
often casually found [4,6,13]. The diagnosis is, as a rule, verified when adenoma
already reaches aconsiderable size, causing sight violations, headache and other
neurologic symptoms connected with an invasion of tumor in the cavity of skull and
structure of the basis of skull [1,5]. As references show IAH is met in 25-43% of
hypophysial adenomas and up to 10% of all intracranial tumors [4,8,9]. Due to the
progress of medical genetics, molecular biology there was a possibility to expand the
pathogenesis representation of IAH [2,3,7]. Molecular and genetic researches
established that up to 5% of IAH cases refer to genetically predisposed people [11,22].
At the same time in literature there is practically no comparative data on clinical flow
and disease diagnostics in populations between sporadic and family IAH disease
[2,12]. Researches implementation in this direction will allow to improve preclinical
diagnostics, to differentially approach to tactics of treatment of IAH patients.
Due to the foregoing the research objective was to study features of clinical
semiology, their value for differential diagnostics in population of patients with the
sporadic and family IAH anamnesis.
Materials and methods. Researches were implemented on the basis of the
Republican specialized scientific practical medical center of obstetrics and
gynaecology from 2007 to 2013 (the director is MD, professor S.I.Ismailov). The
inspection included 71 IAH patients with intracellar adenoma of a hypophysis - the
tumor sizes were from 1 and more mm. The IAH diagnosis was verified on the basis
of the carefully collected anamnesis, studying of dynamics of course of the disease,
results of a magnetic and resonant tomography and also enzyme linked
immunosorbent assay-definitions of the contents of hypophysial hormones: prolactin,
luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, somatotropin, adrenocorticotropic
hormone and thyrotropin, in blood serum. In IAH diagnostics an important place in our
researches is occupied by the family anamnesis collection for establishment of
hereditary predisposition to this disease. The family anamnesis found out by means of
the standard questionnaire Familyanamnesis - the isolated forms of adenoma of a
hypophysis (Familial isolated Pituitary Adenomas - FIPA, WHO - 2005) [14,16]. At the
same time similar effect can cause and environment [20,21] factors. Increase of IAH
cases among relatives can be approved by total action of adverse factors of internal
and environment where as at IAH patients woth sporadic form in most cases by action
of aggressive factors of the environment [8,17,18]. IAH cases registered at relatives of
192
relationship of degree I (parents, brothers and sisters, children). The family anamnesis
considered burdened at existence at the patient of the 2nd struck relatives or more.
Patients were criteria of an exception of IAH inspection is with prolactins,
comatotropins, gonadotropins, syndrome of Itsenko-Kushing, tireotropins, gipogonadism and acromegaliya, patients after beam therapy and accompanying diseases
of endocrine systems, including with diabetes, and also with multiple endocrine
neoplaziya (MENI) and CNC which arise inconnection with a mutation in MENI and
PRKAPIA genes respectively [2,15,23]. Assessment of a clinical picture at IAH patients
carried out by the analysis of the main complaints to the moment of establishment of a
disease. Thus adhered to E.I.Marova's marked out in the monograph offered
scheme questionnaire [5]. At clinical inspection special attention turned on such
violations as visual: decrease in visual acuity, restriction of fields of vision,
doubling in eyes, dacryagogue; disorder of sexual function: at women amenoreya, violation of a menstrual cycle (oligomenoreya, oligopsomenoreya),
galactoreya, superfluous growth of hair, at men - decrease in a libido or
impotence, prostatitis, orchitis. Neurologic violations: headaches, dream violation,
dizziness, violations of sense of smell, decrease in memory, apathy. The
general: thirst, weakness and fatigue, increase in weight of a body, drowsiness,
vegetative crises. It should be noted that at IAH patients symptoms, a clinical picture
which demanded participation of various experts came to light. In this regard for
specification of the IAH diagnosis, except the neuroendocrinologist,
parti-
cipation of narrow experts was required: therapists, the neuropathologist,

the ophthalmologist, the sexopathologist, the gynecologist, the oncolo-gist, the
expert of CT, the radiologist, etc. According to a goal and research problems
patients with IAH were divided into two alternative groups: the lst group - 50 (70,4%)
patients with environmental factors without the burdened family anamnesis and
2nd. 21 (29,6%) with the burdened family anamnesis, including with a
panmiksiya - 9 (2,7%) and an inbriding - 12 (16,9%) patients.
Results and discussion. The analysis of the received data showed that on the
average from total number surveyed patients were at the age from 18 till 70 years
(middle age 44,53,85 years). At the same time the greatest number of the arrived IAH
patients to fall on age from 35 (23,9%) to 40 (25,4%) years and to a lesser extent be
elderly to 30 (18,3%) and 55 (5,6%) and is more senior than years that will be
coordinated with literary data [19]. It is necessary to emphasize that practically at all
IAH patients a disease was it is revealed casually, after repeated references to doctors.
193
As a result of the analysis of the received data it is established that at IAH patients
seldom meets separate symptoms, more often they are combined and/or more come
to light a disease of many symptoms - on 3-5 symptoms at the same time. The
combination of 2-3 symptoms of a disease in l-group is revealed at 17 (34,0%), a of
many symptoms at 20 (40,0%) and many symptoms at 13 (26,0%). In 2-group the
combination of 2-3 symptoms is revealed at 7 (33,3%), of many symptoms at 13
(61,9%) and of many symptoms at 1 (4,8%). Both in the lst, and in the 2nd group at
IAH patients important clinical manifestations were - sexual violations at 64 and 90,5%,
decrease in sight - at 36 and 76,2%, headaches - at 54 and 80,9%, lack of periods 22,0 and 28,0%, violation of a menstrual cycle - at 18,0 and 23,8% at the age of women
till 50 years, and at men till 55 years - violation of sexual functions - at 24,0 and 38,1%.
At women of 1-group duration of a disease meets till 20 and more than 21 years 28
and 20% more often, the similar picture in this group is noted and at men - at 20 and
12,5%. In 2-group among women till 5, 10 years respectively 14,3 and 28,6%, and
among men also 5 (19,0%), to 10 - 9,5%, till 20 years - at 14,3%. On the size of a
tumor of a hypophysis at patients with inactive adenoma in l-group come to light to 10
and 20 mm, at women - 34 and 16,0%, so at men - 26,0 and 18,0%, where as at
patients of 2-groups both at women, and at men - to 20 and huge 28,6-19,0% and 9,533,3% (table 1).
It should be noted that at patients of 2-group with hereditary IAH signs is more
often than at patients of l-group - without hereditary signs prevail frequency of clinical
signs, such as sexual violations - 26,5%, decrease in sight - for 40,2%, headaches for 26,5%, doubling in eyes - for 15,0%, visual discomfort - for 12,5%, olfactory
violations - for 19,8%, vegetative crises - for 12,3%, on duration of a disease among
women till 5 and 20 years - for 12,3 and 24,6%, but to a lesser extent till 20 and more
than 21 years - for 23,2 and 15,2%, and among men of such difference it is not
revealed. On the size of a tumor to 20 mm and huge women of 2-groups and to a lesser
extent to 10 mm - for 29,2% more often prevailed, and among men in 2-group the sizes
of a tumor to 10 mm - it is less than in 1-group - for 21,2%, and with huge, on the
contrary it is more - for 31,3%. Undoubtedly, on frequency of clinical symptoms of a
IAH disease the sizes of a tumor influenced.
194
Table 1
Symptoms of a disease in the analysis of patient's records at IAH patients
in studied groups in comparative aspect
Symptom
The first group
The second group
n=50
n=21
abs
abs
,%
2-1
Sexual disorders
32
64.0
19
90.5
+26,5
Decreased vision
18
36,0
16
76,2
+40,2
Headaches
27
54,0
17
80,9
+26,9
Limiting the field of view 1
2,0
9.5
+7,5
Double vision
4.0
19,0
+15,0
Lacrimation
4,0
9,5
+5,5
Visual discomfort
2,0
14,3
+12,3
Olfactory violation
4,0
23,9
+19,9
Vegetative crises
2,0
14,3
+12,3
Excessive hair growth
4,8
+4,9
Liquorrhea
4,8
+4,8
menstrual cycle
18,0
23,8
+5,8
amenorrhea
11
22,0
28,6
+6,6
12
24,0
38,1
+14,1
- women:
2,0
14,3
+12,3
under 5
4,0
28,6
+24,6
under 10
13
26,0
4,8
-21,2
under 20
10
20,0
4,8
-15,2
- men:
6,0
19,0
+13,0
under 5
10,0
9,5
-0,5
under 10
10
20,0
14,3
-5,7
under 20
12,0
4,8
-7,2
Women under 50 years:

disruption of the
Men under 55 years:

sexual dysfunction
Disease duration
(years):
>21
>21
195
By the size of the tumor

(mm):
- women:
17
34,0
4,8
-29,7
under 10
16,0
28,6
+12,6
>24
2,0
19,0
+17,0
- men:
13
26,0
4,8
-21,2
under 10
18,0
9,5
-8,5
>20
4,0
33,3
+29,3
giant
giant
In the analysis of frequency of complaints in l-group on visual violations it is

revealed, decrease in visual acuity at IAH patients with a tumor to 10 mm at 10%
surveyed, to 20 mm - 70,0%, with huge 100%, at patients of 2-groups - 50,0%, 87,5%
and 72,7%. At patients of l- and 2-groups with a tumor to 10 mm restriction of fields of
vision, lack of sight, a diplopia is not revealed complaints to violations from outside,
burnings in eyes and, dacryagogue where as with a tumor to 20 mm and with
huge these symptoms came to light to 20 mm in l-gr IAH patients decrease in visual
acuity came to light at 70,6% of patients, in 2 - at 87,5%, with huge tumors in the lst
and in 2-groups, respectively in 100,0 and 72,7% of cases. In l-group restriction of a
field of vision at patients with a tumor to 20 mm and with the huge is revealed at
5,9 and, 33,3%, diplopia and dacryagogue cases also came to light in these
limits. Patients have 2-groups restriction of a field of vision, burnings in eyes and
dacryagogue is revealed at IAH patients with a tumor to 20 mm and 1 (9,1%) the
patient was with lack of sight (table 2).
It is necessary to specify that at patients of 2-group at the sizes of a tumor to
2 mm frequency of complaints prevailed, than at patients of l-groups on decrease in
visual acuity for 16,9%, restriction of a field of vision, a diplopia, dacryagogue - on
6,6%, burnings in eyes for 12,5%; with huge tumors - lack of sight and burning in
eyes - for 9,1%.
At the same time at patients of 2-group with huge tumors frequency of cases of
patients to a lesser extent met decrease in visual acuity, restriction of a field of vision,
a diplopia and dacryagogue - on 27,3; 24,2; 6,0 and 24,2% respectively.
A diplopia
Burnings in eyes
Dacryagogue
10,0
abs
abs
50,0
group n=2
group n=30
The second
The first
Lack of sigth
of vision
Restriction of fields
acuity
Decrease in visual
Disorders
Up to 10 mm
+40,0
2-1
%,
12
abs
5,9
5,9
5,9
70,6
group n=17
The first
abs
12,5
12,5
12,5
12,5
87,5
group n=8
The second
>10 mm
+6,6
+12,5
+6,6
+6,6
+16,9
2-1
%,
abs
33,3
33,3
33,3
100,0
group n=3
The first
abs
9,1
9,1
27,3
9,1
9,1
72,7
group n=11
The second
Giant
-24,2
+9,1
-6,0
+9,1
-24,2
-27,3
2-1
%,
Comparative these frequencies of complaints to visual violations at IAH patients in groups, depending on the size of a tumor
Table 2
196
197
In the analysis of indicators of frequency of complaints to sexual violations at

IAH patients depending on the size of a tumor the same tendency is traced, as in the
previous researches - with increase in the size of a tumor frequency of complaints
increases. So, at patients of l-group with the size of a tumor to 10 mm among women
of 10% complaints on amenorrhea, 16,6% for violation of a menstrual cycle, and at
men of 10,0% decrease in a libido or impotence are revealed; to 20 mm - complaints
to development amenorrhea showed 35,2% of the patient, violation of a menstrual
cycle - 23,5%, galactorrhea- l1,8%, and at men on impotence - 47,1%. With huge
tumors on amenorrhea complained - 66,7% of women, and at men on impotence showed complaints of 33,3% (table 3).
At patients of 2-groups with a tumor to 10 mm among women of the complaint
showed 50,0% for violations of a menstrual cycle, the same figure is noted also men
with impotence. With a tumor to 20 mm among women of the complaint to development
amenorrhea showed 25,0%, violation of a menstrual cycle of 50,0%, symptoms
galactorrhea 37,5% and at men on impotence - 25,0%. With huge tumors of a
hypophysis at women 36,4% of cases from amenorrhea, 9,1% of cases with super
fluous growth of hair of the person, a neck, a breast, hands and feet, a pubic part, and
among men - 45,5% of cases with impotence are revealed.
Having carried out the comparative analysis of frequency of complaints to
sexual violations it should be noted that at patients of 2-group cases more often meet
a tumor to 10 mm, than in l-group of the complaint to violations of a menstrual cycle for 33,4% among women and frequencies of cases of development of impotence - for
40,0% at men. With tumoral process and the size to 20 mm at patients of 2-group
complaints among women on violation of a menstrual cycle - for 26,5%, symptoms
galactorrhea - for 25,7% and with huge tumors on super fluous growth of hair at
women, and among men impotence - for l2,2% more often come to light.
Interesting data are revealed by us when studying frequency of complaints to
neurologic violations at IAH patients in groups depending on the size of a tumor. In
l-group with a tumor to 10 mm of the complaint to headaches showed - 46,7% of IAH
patients, in 2-group - 50,0%, in the same group of 50,0% of patients showed complaints
to dizziness.
hair
or impotence
Decreased libido 3
Men:
growth
Excessive
Galactorrhea
eya)
oligoopsomenor
(oligomenorrhea
Menstrual
disorders
10,0
16,6
10,0
abs
50,0
50,0
group n=2
group n=30
abs
The second
The first
Amenorrhea
Women:
Disorders
Up to 10 mm
+40.0
+33,4
-10,0
%2-1
abs
47,1
11,8
23,5
35,3
n=17
The first group
abs
25,0
37,5
50,0
25,0
group n=8
The second
>10 mm
-22,1
+26,7
+26,5
-10,3
%2-1
abs
33,3
66,7
group n=3
The first
abs
45,5
9,1
36,4
group n=11
The second
Giant
+12,2
+9,1
-30,3
%2-1
Comparative these frequencies of complaints to sexual disorders at IAH patients in groups, depending on the size of a tumor
Table 3
198
199
With a tumor to 20 mm in l-group of the complaint to a headache, dream

violation, dizziness showed 58,8; 17,6 and 11,8%, and in 2-group on 62,8% of cases
patients showed complaints to a headache and dream violation, 50,0% for dizziness
and on 12,5% for absence sense of smell, decrease in memory. At patients with huge
IAH tumors in l-group in 100,0% of cases complained of a headache, dizziness and
66,7% - on dream violation. In 2-group of the complaint in 100,0% of cases showed on
headaches, dream violation, dizziness and on 9,1% of cases for lack of sense of smell,
decrease in memory and apathy (table 4).
It is necessary to specify that on frequency of the revealed complaints patients
of 2-group had them more than in l-group, at patients with the size of a tumor to 10 mm
of 2-groups head pains for 3,0 and 50,0% with dizziness was more than in 1-group;
with the size of a tumor to 20 mm of complaints with a headache - for 4,0%, dream
violation - for 45,2%, dizziness - for 38,2%, lack of sense of smell and decrease in
memory - for 12,5%. Patients with huge tumors in a hypophysis have complaints to
dream violation - for 33,3%, lack of sense of smell, decrease in memory and a pathy on 9,1%. When studying data of frequency of complaints to the general somatic
violations it is revealed that in l-group with a tumor to 10 mm symptoms of weakness
and fast fatigue - 23,3% of cases, decrease in memory - 10,0%, in the 2nd - in 100,0
and 50,0% respectively prevailed. With increase in a tumor to 20 mm in 1-group of the
complaint showed 5,9% of IAH patients - on thirst, 52,9% - on weakness and fatigue,
on 11,8% of cases for increase and/or decrease in weight of a body and drowsiness.
In 2-group of the complaint to thirst showed 37,5% of patients, weakness and fatigue
- 75,0%, increase in weight of a body of 37,5%, decrease in weight of a body of 50,0%,
drowsiness 25,0, vegetative crises - at 12,5%.
Patients with the huge sizes have tumors in l-group of the complaint to thirst
showed 33,3%, weakness and fatigue - 100,0%, drowsiness and vegetative crises
on 34,3%, and in the 2nd group of the complaint to thirst - 36,4%, weakness in 100,0%
of cases, increase in weight of a body and/or decrease in weight of a body, drowsiness
on 18,2%, vegetative crises - at 45,5%. At IAH patients 1- and 2-groups cases
decrease in level AP was met. With the size of a tumor to10 mm in l-group this indicator
was revealed at 3,33% of IAH patients, in 2-group in 100,0% of cases. With a tumor to
20 mm and huge in l-group decrease the AP was revealed in 17,6 and 66,7% of cases,
and in 2-group - at 62,5 and 81,8% of cases (table 5).
14
Sleep disorders
Dizziness
Anosmia
Loss of memory
Apathy
46,7
abs
50,0
50,0
group n=2
group n=30
abs
The second
The first
Headaches
Disorders
Up to 10 mm
+50,0
+3,0
%2-1
10
abs
11,8
17,6
58,8
n=17
The first group
abs
12,5
12.5
50.0
62,8
62,8
group n=8
The second
>10 mm
+12,5
+12,5
+38,2
+45,2
+4,0
%2-1
abs
100,0
66,7
100,0
group n=3
The first
11
11
11
abs
9,1
9,1
9,1
100,0
100,0
100,0
group n=11
The second
Giant
+9,1
+9,1
9,1
+33,3
%2-1
Comparative these frequencies of complaints to neurologic disorders at IAH patients in groups, depending on the size of a tumor
Table 4
200
Vegetative crises
Decrease AP
Drowsiness
of a body
Decrease in weight
a body
Weakness, fatigue
Increase in weight of
3,33
10,0
23,3
100,0
50,0
100,0
abs
abs
group n=2
group n=30
The second
The first
Thirst
Disorders
Up to 10 mm
+96,7
+40,0
+76,7
2-1
%,
abs
17,6
11,8
11,8
11,8
52,9
5,9
n=17
The first group
abs
62,5
12,5
25,0
50,0
37,5
75,0
37,5
group n=8
The second
>10 mm
+44,9
+12,5
+13,2
+38,2
+25,7
+22,1
+31,6
2-1
%,
abs
66,7
33,3
33,3
100,0
33,3
group n=3
The first
11
abs
81,8
45,5
18,2
18,2
18,2
100,0
36,4
group n=11
The second
Giant
+15,1
+12,2
+18,2
+18,2
+18,2
+3,1
2-1
%,
Comparative these frequencies of complaints to all-somatic disorders at IAH patients in groups, depending on the size a tumor
Table 5
201
202
As well as in the previous researches at patients of 2-groups of the complaint to

the general vegetative violations on frequency of cases were much higher, than in
l-group. At IAH patients with the sizes of a tumor to 10 mm at research of frequencies
of complaints to weakness, fatigue, decrease in weight of a body, decrease the HELL
- on 76,7; 40,0 and 96,7%. With a tumor to 20 mm of the complaint to thirst, weakness
and fatigue, increase and/or decrease in weight of a body, drowsiness, vegetative
crises, decrease the HELL - on 31,6; 22,1; 25,7; 38,2; 13,2; I2,5 and 44,5%.
Thus, the analysis of the received results of researches showed that at IAH
patients l-and 2-groups considerable visual, sexual, neurologic and general somatic
violations that it is possible to believe are observed is connected with development by
hypophysial insufficiency of various degree of expressiveness, owing to pressure of a
normal hypophysial fabric or a hypophysial leg therefore, it is possible to believe,
hormones cannot reach a hypophysis. Sick patients with a size have tumors to 20 mm
and huge according to the majority of researchers, sexual and all-somatic violations
are more often than complaints on visual and neurologic, and also. It is established
that pressure of an optic nerve or optical chiasmata leads to restriction of fields of vision
( quadrantopsy or gemianopsy, mainly bitemporal). In other cases the diplopia or an
oftalmoplegia can be observed. It is supposed that emergence of visual violations are
the first symptoms of a IAH disease. It is necessary to emphasize that among important
symptoms which are not considered by neuroendocrinologists and therapists frequent
and strong headaches which are connected owing to pressure upon a firm brain cover
are. Intracranial hypertensia with a headache, nausea, vomiting arising suddenly, as a
rule, are accompanied by fast decrease insight, hypotension, is a typical picture a
hypophysis apopleksiya owing to a hemorrhagic heart attack of a tumor, and in certain
cases the first IAH manifestation. It is possible to believe that increase in frequency of
complaints with progressing of growth of a tumor distinction of symptoms of a disease
there correspond degrees of a compression or an invasion of the next structures. In
this regard, as a rule, the diagnosis was established by doctors, when the sizes of a
tumor already were big, defiant violations of sight, a headache and/or hypopituitarism,
and microadenomas - tumors to 10 mm are identified seldom because of insignificant
symptoms of a disease. Because of insignificant clinical symptoms of a disease
endocrinological manifestations cannot cause concerns in IAH patients, especially at
early stages of a disease. Violations of sexual functions by gynecologists and
sexopathologists it is regarded as fertilnost cases that at women it connect with
203
violations of a menstrual cycle (secondary amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea), at men with

decrease in a libido or impotence, a stertost of an organism and less often at early
stages of a disease address for medical care. Due to the growth of tumoral process as
it is often noted at IAH patients with the size of a tumor to 20 mm and huge signs of a
secondary hypothyroidism, including such symptoms as apathy, a hypothermia,
dryness of skin, thirst, bradycardia, hypotonia, etc. or secondary adrenal insufficiency
- weakness, fast fatigue, hypotension come to light. Important hypothalamic
manifestations which can be shown at IAH patients in a combination to a secondary
hypothyroidism increase and/or decrease in weight of a body, drowsiness, vegetative
crises, dizziness, lack of sense of smell, decrease in memory and apathy.
As a whole, the carried-out monitoring of inspection showed that at IAH patients
there is the whole scale of violations which should aim the endocrinologist at carrying
out special inspections of a brain by means of radiological, CT and MRT of researches.
It is important to emphasize that at IAH patients 2-groups of the complaint to
disorder of sight, violation sexual, neurologic and the general clinical symptoms arise
much more often and are diagnosed much earlier generally at the age of 30-40 years,
in this group of patients, to a thicket come to light as at men, and women with the size
of a tumor to 20 mm and huge. Unfortunately this aspect of features of a clinical current
at patients with family inherited is IAH among neuroendocrinologists is lost sight that
defines a problem urgency. ln our researches in diagnostics of a tumor of a hypophysis
the special place was occupied by these CT and MRT which are the high-informative
method of diagnostics giving information on a condition of surrounding structures and
tumoral distribution. Thus practically at all patients with macroadenoma the tumor is
well visualized in hiazma-intracellular area to what usually homogeneous strengthhening after introduction of contrast substance testifies. Existence of necrotic or
cystous educations on CT us is not revealed. It is important to note that the increase
in a tumor found at MRT-studied, coincides with dynamics of a clinical course of a
disease.
Therefore, the carried-out clinical researches showed that at patients in
population between with the sporadic and hereditary is IAH there are features, both on
severity of a clinical current, and on terms of identification of symptoms of a disease.
At patients with the family it is IAH the main clinical symptoms of a disease
associate:
204
- visual, sexual, headaches, vegetative crises, a climax come aged till 20-25
years, and time of establishment of the diagnosis - 10-20 years;
- adenomas > 10 mm which progress quicker, in huge adenomas, with the heavy
course of a disease more often come to light, than at patients from the single is IAH;
- the IAH family form and development of clinical symptoms at early age should
be object of diagnostic screening and be considered as one of modifying factors of
emergence of this disease.
References:
1. Wachs V.V. Inactive pituitary adenomas // Neuroendocrinology: Clinical Essays,
ed.prof. EI Marovo. - Yaroslavl: DIA Press, 1999. - P. 276 - 307.
2. Dedov I.I., Zubkov N.A., Arbatskaya N.Y. and other. MODY type 2: clinical and
molecular genetic characteristics of l3 cases. The first description of MODY in
Russia // Problems. Endocrinol. - 2009. 3. - P. 3-7.
3. Dedov I.I., Wachs V.V. Molecular and genetic aspects of the pathogenesis of
pituitary tumors // Actual problems of Neuroendocrinology: Proc. Proceedings of
the 3rd All-Russia. Scientific and practical. Conf. - M., 2003. - P. 3-5.
4. Kadashev B.A. Pituitary adenomas: clinical features, diagnosis, treatment. Moscow-Tver, LLC "Triad X", 2007. - P. 368.
5. Marova E.I. Neuroendocrinology. - Yaroslavl, 1999. - P. 506.
6. Simonenko V.B., Dulin P.A., Makanich M.A. Neuroendocrine tumor management.
- Moscow: GEOTAR - Media. - 2010. - P. 240.
7. Tyulpakov A.N. The role of molecular genetics in the diagnosis and treatment of
endocrine disorders. Brief description of monogenic forms of inherited endocrinopathies diagnosed in the Federal Enz 15-year period (1996-2010) //
Problems. Endocrinol. - 2011. - 1. - P. 26-34.
8. Endocrinology / Henry M. Kronenberg, Shlomo Melmed, Kenneth S. Polonsky, P,
Reed Larsen / Trans. from English. ed. I.I. Dedova, G.A. Melnichenko. - M.: OOO
"Reed Elsevier", 2010. - P. 427.
9. Agha A., Thornton E., O'Kelly P. et al. Posterior pituitary dysfunction after traumatic
brain injury // J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. - 2004. - Vol. 89. - P. 5987-5992.
10. Alexandr J.M., Bikkal B.M., Zerwas N.T. Clinical nonfunctioning pituitary tumors
are monoclonal in origin // J.Clin. Invest. - 2009. - Vol. 86, 1. - P. 336-340.
205
11. And the Comparative Risk Assessment Collaborating Group Selected major risk
factorand global and regional burden / M. Ezzati, A. Lopez, A. Rodgers et al. //
Lancet. - 2002. - Vol. 360. - P. 1347-1360.
12. Arafah B.M., Nasrallan M.R. Pituitary tumors: pathophisiology, clinical manifesttations and management // Endocrinol. Relaf. Cancer. - 2001. - Vol. 4. - P. 287305.
13. Beckers A. C.D. Pituitary adenomas // Graph. Med. Ltd. - 2007. - P. 367-481.
14. Beeckers A., Daly A.F. The clinical, pathological, and genetic features of familial
isolated pituitary adenomas // Europ. J. Endocrinol. - 2007. - Vol. 157, 4. P. 371-382.
15. Chahal H.S. Familial isolated pituitary adenomas // Turop. Endocrinol. - 2009. Vol. 1. - P. 2638-2640.
16. Daly A.F., Vanbellinghev J.F., Rhoo S.K. et al. Aryl hydrocarbon receptorinteracting protein gene vutations in familial isolated pituitary adenomas: analysis
in 73 families // J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. - 2007. - Vol. 92, 5. P. 1917-1919.
17. Doherty G.M., Thompson N.W. Multiple endocrine neoplasma type 1: duodenopancreatic tumors // J. Surg. Oncol. - 2005. - Vol. 89. - P. 143-150.
18. Krages W., Schaaf L., Dralle H., Bjehm B.O. Clinical and molecular diagnosis of
multiple endocrine neoplasma type 1 // Langenbeck. Arch. Surg. - 2002. - Vol. 386.
P. 547-552.
19. Marini F., Falchetti A., Monte F. Del. et al. Multiple endocrine neoplasma type 1 //
Orphanet. J. Rare. - 2006. - Vol. 2. - P. 1-38.
20. Mekted S. Update in pituitary disease // J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. - 2008. Vol. 93,2. - P. 331-338.
206
Yuliia Lysanets, Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy,

Senior Assistant, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Department of Foreign
Languages with the Latin Language and Medical Terminology
Child Health Inequality in the 21st Century:

Contemporary Policies and Strategies in Tackling
the Problem
Abstract: The present paper discusses the problem of health inequality as a
notorious challenge of the 21st century. The author critically analyzes the corpus of
recent policies and strategies as to this issue around the world. It has been
demonstrated that reducing inequalities in health among children can be tackled using
an integrated approach and multidisciplinary programs.
Keywords: management of health care systems, child health, inequality,
multidisciplinary policies.
According to the latest Report on Health Inequalities in the European Union
(2013), the world today is exposed to effects of the financial crisis, and these effects
are detrimental not only for the economy, they also undermine the ability to protect
peoples health and disrupt the management of health systems [1]. The problem of
child health inequalities is one of the most urgent in the 21st century. Child health
disparities are detrimental not only to the disadvantaged children as such, but to the
entire society as well, since this social problem triggers the endless chain of
generations who have not reached their full health potential.
Health inequalities can be defined as differences in health care access and
opportunities driven by race, gender, disability, geographic location or income.
According to the World Health Organization (2015), health inequalities are unjust
differences in health status experienced by certain population groups [2]. However,
nowadays, the apparatus to describe inequalities in health is surprisingly limited. An
important factor of child health inequality is the disparity between living standards in
developed and developing states. The World Health Organization constantly provides
vivid examples of health inequities between countries. The statistical data as to infant
under-5 mortality is striking indeed. For instance, the infant death rate (between birth
207
and the age of one year) is 2 per 1000 liveborns in Iceland while in Mozambique it is
120 per 1000 live-births [3]. There are 316 deaths per 1000 liveborns in Sierra Leone
as compared to 5 deaths per 1000 liveborns in Japan and 4 deaths per 1000 liveborns
in Finland [3]. The evidence on the child health and life opportunity inequality
throughout the world is alarming indeed: in Chad, every fifth child dies before they
reach the age of 5, while in the European Region, the under-five mortality rate is 13
out of 1000 [3]. The WHO insists that such an alarming difference in health has no
genetic or biological grounds; hence, this disparity is socially caused.
It is necessary to bear in mind that pronounced health disparities can be easily
found within developed countries as well. The report released by World Vision in 2013,
The Killer Gap: A Global Index of Health Inequality for Children, sheds light on the
problem of child health inequality throughout the world. The report has ranked 176
countries according to the health service gap (including access to health services,
health awareness, life expectancy and other indicators). As a result, France is at the
top of the list, while Chad is at its bottom. The USA takes the 46th place which indicates
that a countrys wealth is not a guarantee of health equality [4].
The definitions of health, suggested by the World Health Organization in 1958
combines the physical, mental, and social spheres of our life, and in such a manner
constitutes the all-embracing formula of human existence: health is not merely the
absence of disease, but a state of complete physical, mental, spiritual and social
wellbeing [qtd. in 5]. It is necessary to observe that health status and socio-economic
conditions are closely associated. That is to say, socio-economic inequalities quite
often trigger numerous health disparities. Childrens health status largely depends to
household income, and in the process of growing-up this relationship becomes even
more distinct. The relatively worse health status of children proceeds into adulthood,
as they are most likely to have poorer work capability and opportunities, as well as loss
of wages due to increased number of sick leaves. In this context, A.Deaton remarks
that in the UK and the US, an additional inch of height comes with 1.5 to 2 percent
higher earnings [6]. That is to say, the correlation between low income and health
becomes steeper throughout the career development. Low family income prevents
children from developing their physical and cognitive potential. As a matter of fact,
children from poorer household arrive at the threshold of adulthood with lower health
status and educational attainment [6] the latter circumstance is partly conditioned
by poor health. Thus, educational status and poor health actually endanger their
208
earning power in adulthood [6]. The cumulative effects of negative conditions, such as
low income, poor housing, nutrition and limited health care aggravate the child health
status in the process of growing up. In addition to discomfort experienced in childhood,
abundant evidence suggests that exposure to inequality may have a detrimental
influence on health and well-being across the life course [7]. Thus, another important
issue that needs investigation is the life course perspective, that is, the effect of poverty
and health inequality on the entire life of a person.
Apart from its impact on physical health, lower socioeconomic status and
inequality can also affect mental health of children. V.Murali extensively discusses the
relationships between low socioeconomic status and increased incidence of mental
illness which recently has become apparent indeed. The scholars argue that children
from the poorest households are three times more susceptible to mental disorders than
children from the well-to-do families [8]. As a matter of fact, poverty and unemployment
can trigger personality disorders, emotional disturbance, as well as inclination to
alcohol and substances misuse, and even suicide [8]. The scholars have investigated
prevalence of psychiatric disorders according to social class (classes I, II, III, IV and
V). It is necessary to observe that the prevalence of psychiatric disorders within the
lowest social class (class V) is striking indeed (depressive disorder: 9 % in class I;
35 % in class V; phobia: 2 % in class I; 13 % in class V; obsessive-compulsive disorder:
6 % in class I; 21 % in class V; panic disorder: 1% in class I; 12 % in class V; functional
psychosis: 4 % in class I; 17 % in class V; alcohol dependence: 33 % in class I; 73 %
in class V; drug dependence: 7 % in class I; 50 % in class V) [8].
In 2013, British Medical Association published a report as to the child health
status in the UK. As the report demonstrates, after the application of numerous tackling
policies, the situation is improving. The report extensively discusses the current
problem of child health inequality as compared to the situation at the end of the 90s.
As a matter of fact, in 1999, the United Kingdom ranked the third in child poverty among
the industrialised countries (behind United States and Russia); it also ranked behind
Germany, France, Japan, Slovenia and Singapore in terms of early childhood deaths
(the UK took the 18th place). Moreover, the rate of infant mortality in class V (the
poorest families) was 70 percent higher than in those from social class I; the average
birth weight in families from class V was 115 grams lighter than in those from class I
and so on [9]. Thus, despite the fact that the UK is one of the richest countries in the
world, the child well-being remains quite a problem. According to the 2013 BMA report,
209
there are quite alarming examples of socioeconomic and health inequalities in the UK.
For instance, the life expectancy of a boy born in Chelsea or Kensington is over 84
years, while it is only 75 years for a boy from Islington which is actually less than five
miles away. Furthermore, the 2003 Childrens Dental Survey demonstrates that in
classes IV and V 13 percent of five year olds never undergone dentists examination,
as compared to 2 percent in classes I, II and III [9]. That is to say, BMA aspires to
reveal the inconsistencies within the NHS system and suggests the ways to eliminate
them.
There is an extended debate as to the potential of policies in addressing health
inequalities. J.Kronenfeld argues that health services (both preventive and therapeutical) are able to improve the health status in disadvantaged groups [5]. For
instance, numerous public health nursing programmes (Equally Well; Healthier,
Wealthier Children; The Family Nurse Partnership and the like) are aimed at
supporting poor families and thus tackling child health inequality. Indeed, elimination
of child health inequalities requires multiple actions on the part of health services. It is
essential to render health services more accessible, to raise their awareness of the
problems which poor families usually face.
Meanwhile, the opposing viewpoint asserts that a much broader context must
be taken into account. For instance, the World Health Organization advocates the
intersectoral approach in overcoming the problem of health inequalities [10]. The WHO
emphasizes the necessity of reducing the inequalities in health in a number of
documents. For instance, Health-for-All Policy for the 21st century explicitly
advocates the intersectoral collaboration, promotion of equal health care opportunities,
community participation and sustainable development. In the UK, the activity of NHS
demonstrates commitment to intersectoral plan of actions. One of its core principles is
based on the acknowledgment that good health largely depends on environmental,
economic and social factors (for instance, housing, nutrition and education). Therefore,
the NHS is committed to work with other public services to intervene not just after but
before ill health occurs [11]. The Child Poverty Strategy, implemented by the UK
government propels a sustainable approach to reducing child health inequality with
due consideration of a wide range of factors (for instance, home environment and
education) [1]. In fact, poor health status of children can be attributed to education
within the family, since more educated people can utilize health information more
210
effectively. Lower socioeconomic status can also be associated with risky behaviours,
such as immoderate drinking, smoking, lack of exercise and obesity [6].
The BMA also stimulates the cross-professional approach to the problem of
child health inequality: their reports are essentially multidisciplinary, involving experts
from different spheres of activity. In recent years, the BMA has produced a number of
effective recommendations and reports, for instance, Getting it Right for Children and
Young People (2010) report which claims that NHS needs greater integration;
Growing up in Scotland (2011); Nurturing Children, Supporting Families childcare
policy statement (2011); The Children and Young Peoples Health Outcomes Forum
(2012) and many others. Moreover, the BMA advocates the so-called life-course
approach to this problem. That is to say, child health needs to be controlled even before
conception, as well as throughout the life. It is common knowledge that low birth weight
is one of the primary causes of infant mortality. Therefore, under-18 mothers from poor
households and other categories of disadvantaged young women need special
education and control. It is essential to provide teenagers with health education as to
their lifestyles and habits (such as harm of smoking during pregnancy). For instance,
such programmes as Governments Teenage Pregnancy Strategy are aimed at
helping teenagers to avoid early pregnancy. Since the launch of this programme in
1999, the rate of under-18 conception has decreased from 46.6 per 1,000 live births
(1998) to 40.5 per 1000 live births (2008) [9].
It is thus obvious that health inequality cannot be addressed by separate and
narrow policies. Instead, government-directed strategies that combine economic
development and active social policies are needed [12]. The integrated approach to
the problem of child health inequality should embrace the structural changes in
economies that will promote employment; stimulation of labour demand and generation
of new workplaces; distribution of tax credits and subsidies; government investments
in skills development, education, extension services and infrastructure. In the context
of multidisciplinary approach to the problem of child health inequality, A.Deaton
emphasizes the benefits of economists participation [6]. From the economists
position, child health inequality can be eliminated through the measures and
mechanisms, related to education, parental earnings and labour force participation, for
instance, discount rates in the sphere of education [6].
Thus, child health inequality is a burning problem of the 21st century which must
be settled with urgent steps and multidisciplinary policies. In fact, these issues demand
discussion and streamlining both at national and international levels. By means of the
211
collaborative approach, strategies of comparison and contrasting, the countries all over
the world will be able to find a reasonable way out of these problems. Currently, there
are numerous policy options as to the reducing health inequalities. Most initiatives do
not focus exclusively on health service, but deal with problems in education,
employment and social security as root causes of child health inequalities. In other
words, numerous social, educational, occupational, environmental and community
service measures are important factors of promoting health and well-being of children.
Thus, the policy options are by no means limited to the measures within the health
care system. Through the application of intersectoral plan of actions, one can achieve
the long-term effects on health status of children.
References:
1. Report on Health Inequalities in the European Union. Brussels, 2013. P. 38-39.
2. World Health Organization. Monitoring Inequality: An Emerging Priority for Health
Post-2015. Geneva, 2015. P. 27.
3. Marmot M. Social determinants of Health Inequalities // The Lancet. 2005. 365.
P. 1104.
4. The Killer Gap: A Global Index of Health Inequality for Children. London, 2013.
P. 14.
5. Kronenfeld J.J. Health Care Policy: Issues and Trends. Westport, 2002. P. 157.
6. Deaton A. What Does the Empirical Evidence Tell Us About the Injustice of Health
Inequalities? // Inequalities in Health: Concepts, Measures and Ethics. Oxford,
2013. P. 270.
7. Emerson E. Relative Child Poverty, Income Inequality, Wealth, and Health // The
Journal of the American Medical Association. 2009. 301(4). P. 425.
8. Murali V. Poverty, Social Inequality and Mental Health // Advances in Psychiatric
Treatment. 2004. 10. P. 224.
9. British Medical Association. Growing Up in Britain: Ensuring a Healthy Future For
Our Children. London, 2013. P. 155.
10. World Health Organization. Social Determinants of Health. Geneva, 2013. P. 12.
11. Gordon D. Wales NHS Resource Allocation Review. Independent Report of the
Research Team. Cardiff, 2001. P. 24.
12. Cook S. Combating Poverty & Inequality: Structural Change, Social Policy and
Politics. New York, 2011. P. 2.
212
Mishyna Maryna, Kharkiv National Medical University,

Department of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology,
Mozgova Yuliya, Kharkiv National Medical University,
Assistant Professor, Ph.D.,
Department of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology,
Makieieva Nataliia, Kharkiv National Medical University,
Professor, Doctor of Medical Science,
Head of Department of Pediatrics No.2,
Golovachova Victoriia, Kharkiv National Medical University,
Assistant Professor, Ph.D.,
Department of Paediatrics No.2,
Mishyn Yuriy, Kharkiv National Medical University,
5th-year Student, the Pediatric Faculty,
Abdelgawad Mohamed Khalaf M. R.,
2th-year Student, the Dentistry Faculty,
Laasri Meryem, Kharkiv National Medical University,
2th-year Student, the Dentistry Faculty,
Makieieva Elyzaveta, Kharkiv National Medical University,
1th-year Student, the IV Medical Faculty
Etiology characteristics of pyelonephritis in young children

and sensitivity to antibiotics of causative agents in form
of biofilms
Abstract: Etiology characteristics of pyelonephritis in infants and the ability of
pathogens to form biofilms under the action of antibiotics were studied. It was found
that 28 % - 57 % of pyelonephritis cases were oligo- or asymptomatic. It was
determined that as leading etiology factors of pyelonephritis in children in 80.6 % of
cases are representatives of the family Enterobacteriaceae: E. coli (32,8 %),
K. pneumoniae (26,8 %), P. vulgaris (11,8 %), P. mirabilis (9,2 %). All isolates were
able to form dense biofilms. Active production of planktonic cells and dense biofilm
213
formation were demonstrated in K. pneumoniae clinical strains in comparison with

other isolates. Determining the sensitivity of isolates in form of biofilms to antimicrobial
drugs showed that most isolates were multi-resistant to them.
Keywords: biofilms, K. pneumoniae, antibacterial drugs, pyelonephritis.
Introduction. Over the past 5 years, the incidence of urinary tract diseases has
increased in two times. The urinary tract diseases frequency in 80 years of the
twentieth century was 29 per 1000 child population; now became 66-187 per 1000
child population. Among nephro- and uropathology the main role is played by microbial
inflammatory diseases of the urinary tract [1, 2]. In the structure of renal pathology
microbial inflammatory diseases of the urinary tract are at level of 76-80 %. The study
of etiology structure of pyelonephritis and complications, resistance of isolated
microorganisms to antimicrobial drugs is necessary for development of schemes of
rational antibiotic therapy, the use of which enables to optimize outcomes in ill children
and delay the growth of resistance to antimicrobial agents.
During last years the growing role of the family Enterobacteriaceae as an
etiology factor of pyelonephritis is registered. Particular attention should be paid on
polymicrobial purulent processes that in 10-15 % of cases lead to death. This is due to
the mutual induction of virulence factors and prevalence of multi-resistant to
chemotherapeutic drugs isolates. It is known that most bacteria are present in natural
ecosystems not as slowly floating planktonic cells, they appear in the form of
specifically organized and attached to the substrate biofilms, in which bacterial cells
are connected by a complex intercellular communication which carries out gene
expression in different parts of biofilms. In such case bacterial population in the biofilm
may be seen as a functional analogue of a multicellular organism [3, 4].
The formation of biofilms is a major survival strategies in bacteria in the
environment. In recent decades accumulated enough experimental data suggest about
the complex organization of microbial communities in their natural environment. The
concept of a single microbial pathogen in infections is changed to theory of microbial
communities, associations named biofilms [5, 6]. The formation of dense biofilms by
pathogens is a big problem as they are factors of pathogenicity and colonization,
especially on the surface of medical devices and in human body. Despite the large
number of research about functioning of microbial biofilms today the question of
biofilms formation by pathogens of pyelonephritis in children is almost not studied.
214
The aim of research was to study etiology characteristics of pyelonephritis in

infants and ability of pathogens to form biofilms under influence of antibacterial drugs.
Materials and methods. To achieve this aim bacteriological method was used
(identification of microorganisms using conventional isolation and identification
schemes) [7]. The ability of isolates to form biofilms was studied in 96-wells polystyrene
plates. The optical density of formed biofilms was measured by reader Multiskan EX
355 [8, 9]. The sensitivity of microorganisms to antibiotics was performed using
polystyrene plates [10, 11]. For statistics of results the programs Statistica 6 and
Biostat for the PC were used [12, 13].
Results and discussions. The data of 198 case histories of children under 3
years treated for pyelonephritis in State pediatric clinics 16 of Kharkiv were analyzed
(Fig. 1).
61
80
%
60
39
40
22
11
20
0
89
78
100
under 1 year
1-2 years of age

boys
2-3 years of age
girls
Figure 1. Gender and age distribution of children with pyelonephritis

Oligo- or asymptomatic course was in 28 % - 57 % of cases. Noteworthy is the
fact that among children with pyelonephritis under one year 72 % of cases in boys had
manifesting course and in girls 53 % of cases were manifesting and 47 % were
asymptomatic. In boys with pyelonephritis aged of 1-3 years manifesting and
asymptomatic cases had mainly equal frequency. In girls with pyelonephritis aged of
1-3 years asymptomatic forms were 57 % (Fig. 2).
215
80
72
70
53
60
% 50
40
47
50 50
57
43
28
30
20
10
0
boys under 1
year
girls under 1
year
manifesting form
boys from 1
to 3 years
girls from 1 to
3 years
asymptomatic form
Figure 2. The manifestation of pyelonephritis in children

The obtained data indicate that the major factors in the development of
pyelonephritis in children in 80.6 % were representatives of family Enterobacteriaceae:
E. coli (32.8 %), K. pneumoniae (26.8 %), P. vulgaris (11.8 %), P. mirabilis (9.2 %).
Also was shown that among pathogens of pyelonephritis the role of S. pyogenes
increased up to 8.4 %. S. aureus was isolated in 7 % of cases and P. aeruginosa was
registered in 1.6 % of cases (Fig. 3). Other causative agents of pyelonephritis were in
2.4 %.
All isolates were able to form dense biofilms (Fig. 4, Fig. 5). And, in clinical
isolates of K. pneumoniae an active planktonic cells production and dense biofilm
formation took place (3.21 0.27 and 4.56 0.28 units of optical density) compared
with other isolates.
Fig. 3. Etiology of pyelonephritis in children
216
Figure 4. Ability of isolates in pyelonephritis to form biofilms

When selecting antibacterial therapy it is necessary to detect sensitivity of
pathogens to antimicrobial drugs either in planktonic cells or in biofilms. Research has
revealed (Fig. 6) that the majority of isolates in the planktonic form are resistant to
tetracyclines and penicillins, except cocci. Most strains were sensitive to cephalosporins (62.375.6 %), fluoroquinolones (63.286.7 %) and carbapenems (68.7
85.7 %).
Figure 5. Dense biofilm formation in K. pneumoniae (A) and E. coli (B)

on the glass
carbapenems
glycopeptides
cephalosporins
100
80
60
40
20
0
217
flourquinolones
aminoglycosides
macrolides
linosamines
penicillins
tetracyclines
Klebsiella pneumoniae
S.aureus
P.mirabilis
S.pyogenes
E.coli
P.vulgaris
P.aeruginosa
Figure 6. Sensitivity of etiological agents in pyelonephritis to antibiotics

in planktonic form
Determining the susceptibility of isolates in biofilms (Fig. 7) to antimicrobials
found that most isolates were multi-resistant. Variable sensitivity to such antimicrobial
drugs as aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins and carbapenems was
observed.
Thus, the study of sensitivity of isolated microorganisms to antimicrobial drugs
found that there were strains with multi-resistance resulting from widespread and not
always rational use of antibiotics. Summarizing the results of antimicrobial drugs
activity used in clinics against strains of bacteria should note their low efficiency.
218
carbapenems
glycopeptides
macrolides
penicillins
tetracyclines
linosamines
aminoglycosi
flourquinolones
cephalosporins
Klebsiella pneumoniae
S.aureus
P.mirabilis
S.pyogenes
E.coli
P.vulgaris
P.aeruginosa
Figure 7. Detection of sensitivity to antibiotics of isolates in the form

of biofilms
Conclusions. Pyelonephritis etiology factors are gram-negative small rods:
E. coli (32.8 %), K. pneumoniae (26.8 %), P. vulgaris (11.8 %), P. mirabilis (9.2 %),
P. aeruginosa (1.6 %); gram-positive cocci: S. aureus (7 %) and S. pyogenes (8.4 %).
The research showed that the majority of isolates in the form of biofilms had multiple
antibiotic resistance resulting from a broad and not always rational use of antibiotics.
References:
1. Urinary tract
infection
in
children: diagnosis, treatment and
long-term
management. NICE guideline. - London (UK): National Institute for Health and
Clinical Excellence, 2007. - 30 p.
2. Shaikh N., Hoberman A. Acute management, imaging, and prognosis of urinary
tract infections in children // Retrieved. - 2010. - www.uptodate.com/online/
content/topic.do.
3. Gruzina V.D. Communication signals of bacteria / Gruzina V.D. // Antibotics and
Chemotherapy. 2003. 48 (10). P. 32-39.
4. Ilyina T.S. Biofilms as a way of existence of bacteria in the environment and the
host organism: the phenomenon of genetic control and regulation systems for their
development / Ilyina T.S., Romanova Y.M., Ginzburg A.L. / Genetics. 2004.
40 (11). P. 1-12.
219
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Olson M. // Can J Vet Res. 2002. 66(2). . 86-92.
6. Stewart P.S. Antibiotic tolerance in biofilms and its role in persistent ifections. In:
11th International congress on infectious diseases / Stewart P.S. // Cancun,
Mexico. 2004. 56. P. 3-7.
7. Guidelines on the use of standardized microbiological (bacteriological) methods in
clinical diagnostic laboratories / Annex I to the Order of the Ministry of Health of
Ukraine No. 535, 22 April 1985. 123 p.
8. Patent for Utility Model 47944 Ukraine, IPC G09B23/00. Reproduction of microbial
biofilms in vitro / A.Ya. Tsyganenko, M.M. Mishina, R.A. Kurbanov (UA); Kharkiv
National Medical University. u200910353; Appl. 12.10.2009, Publ.
25.02.2010, Bull. 4.
9. OTool G.A. Biofilm formation as microbial development / OTool G.A., Kaplan H.B., Kolter R. // Ann Rev Microbiol. 2000. 54. . 4979.
10. Korneva E.G. The use of polystyrene plates in determining the susceptibility of
bacteria to antibiotics // Laboratory cause. 1987. 9. P. 709710.
11. The Order of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine No. 167, 5 April 2007 "On Approval
of guidelines "Determination of the sensitivity of microorganisms to antibiotics".
56 p.
12. Lapach S.N. Statistical methods in biomedical studies using Excel / Lapach S.N.,
Chubenko A.V., Babich P.N. K.: MORION, 2000. 320 p.
13. Methods of statistical processing of medical information for research / V.P. Osipov,
E.M. Lukyanova, Yu.G. Antipkin [et al.] K.: Planet of Humans, 2002. 200 p.
220
N.D. Suyunov, N.N. Mastibekov,

Tashkent Pharmaceutical Institute
The prevalence and prognosis of the respiratory

organ diseases
Abstract: In Uzbekistan the level of morbidity due to respiratory diseases and
the prognosis of their prevalence have been determined for period from 2000 to
2013. Based on the results of the analysis of respiratory diseases with the use of
modern methods of evidence-based medicine the prognosis for the respiratory
diseases until 2023 has been established. It is 16 345 cases per 100 thousand of
population. According to the results of the prognosis the need for medications,
treatments and preventive processes, diagnosis of the respiratory diseases can be
calculated in advance. There has been revealed the severity of the patient's condition, comorbidity by analyzing case histories of chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease.
Keywords: respiratory diseases, prevalence, prognosis, index, cases,
analysis, diagnosis, treatment, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Currently, most of the activity is to study the role of etiologic and pathogenic
factors and the environment because of the high incidence of respiratory organ
diseases. In Uzbekistan the overall incidence of respiratory diseases increased by
6.2% over the last 10 years [1].
According to the statistic data in Uzbekistan among the population morbidity
the first place is occupied by the diseases of the respiratory system. Over the last five
years this parameter increased by 2.5 times. Mortality from respiratory diseases rank
second after cardiovascular diseases. For effective diagnosis and treatment there is
established need in highly skilled pulmonologists, that leads to medical errors being
found in 30-35% among adults and in 40-45% among children [7].
Uzbekistan is differed by regional characteristics, such as a severe solar
radiation, much dryness, dust, high temperature, combined intermittent exposure to
pesticides and their degradation products. This creates an unfavorable environment
221
for the population normal defense mechanisms of the lungs, leading to the formation
of bronchopulmonary diseases [6].
The prevalence of respiratory diseases among both children and adults, is the
actual problem of modern medicine.
In the recent years there has been observed a steady trend towards the
occurrence and total spread of the systemic diseases of the respiratory organs, in
most cases having become chronic, relapsing course. The questions of timely
supplying patients with necessary medicines resolve the prognosis of disease.
The object of the study. The study used information of the Institute of Health
and Medical Statistics on these diseases. Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hospitalized in the Republican Specialized Scientific and Practical
Medical Center of Tuberculosis and Pulmonology after S. Alimov. Initial information
included the medical history and hospital records of patients.
Methods of research. In the course of scientific research there have been
used conventional modern methodology and methods: comparative, logical, analytical, correlation, regression, mathematical analysis.
Scientific novelty. The results of prognosis for the growth of respiratory
diseases in Uzbekistan until 2023. Using comparative analysis of outpatients and
medical history assessed the structure and major comorbidities were presented.
Identification of the severity of patients health state, concomitant pathology was
made on the basis of the results of analysis of case records.
The reliability of the results is confirmed by the fact that all comparative
statistics were processed using information and computer technologies.
The purpose of the study. On the basis of statistical data to explore the
prevalence of respiratory diseases and to forecast to 2023. Analyze of the hospital
records and medical history of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Materials
and
methods.
The
epidemiology
of
respiratory
diseases
cannot be considered favorable, since these diseases are quite common among
the population. Increased risk of morbidity in childhood justifies the need for
improved analytical methods for studying the dynamics of respiratory diseases.
One way to improve the effectiveness of anti-epidemiological service of the
population is the scientific validity of the planning of preventive measures. The bases
222
for the development of targeted plans are the results of a retrospective epidemiological analysis and prediction of disease.
For short-term forecasts of annual incidence, rates prompted 2 methodical
approaches. 1. Forecasting using methods of determining "maximum stability". 2.
The regression equation.
Algorithm and analysis of the parametric prognosis are as follows. Under the
parametric prognosis in this case the prognosis of the function is considered, the
argument of which varies as a discrete variable with a constant step rate. When
predicting changes in incidence over the time the elements of this vector must be
numeric values of illness measured at regular intervals, namely a year. A number of
annual incidence rates, showing the change of a phenomenon in time, is a dynamic
series [2, 3].
Through statistical analysis of time series there have been resolved following
tasks:
Identification and description of the characteristic phenomena of trends over
time;
The selection of a statistical model describing these changes;
The search for the missing intermediate values (interpolation) on the basis of
existing indicators;
Prediction based on the available results of future values (extrapolation) of the
analyzed series.
A characteristic feature of time series as an independent variable X the time
factor stands, and the dependent Y changing the dependence relationship between
variables X and Y is one-sided, because the time factor does not depend on the
variability of symptoms.
Graphics of time series are not going smoothly, and the broken lines, as,
together with the main reasons that determine the general pattern of variation in
signs to increase them the numerous secondary causes influence inducing random
fluctuations: natural disasters, changes in diet, environmental degradation, accidental
emissions of harmful substances, epidemics and so on. To identify the main trend of
the conjugate variation of features and to average the influence of random factors it
is necessary to align the values of time series, i.e. the broken lines there should be
replaced by smooth, gradually running line.
One of the most effective approaches is considered the alignment of time
series by the method of least squares. According to this method with an infinite
223
number of lines which could theoretically be drawn between the points representing
the original series only one line is selected, which would have the smallest sum of
squares of the deviations of the datum points from the theoretical straight line:
(x
x ) 2 min
Hence the name of the method - the method of "least squares."

The requirement for the least-squares method is that theoretical point should
be prepared in such a way that the sum of the squared deviations from these
points to empirical observations yi was minimal:
Q ( yi yx ) 2 ( yi f ( x))2 Qmin
Calculating according to the principles of mathematical analysis the minimum
of this expression, transforming it, you can get a system of normal equations in which
the required parameters of the regression equation appeared to be the unknown
values, and the known coefficients are determined by the empirical values of
features, usually by sums of their values and their cross derivatives.
The equation of a straight line or a parabola of the 1 order can be expressed
as deviations of the terms of the series from their average values:

y x y byx ( x x ); x y x bxy ( y y )
If to move the average y and
x to the right side of the equation, we get:
y x y byx ( xi x ); x y x bxy ( yi y )
The system of normal equations for the determination of the parameters a and
b will be the following:
an b ( xi x ) y
a ( xi x ) b ( xi x ) 2 y( xi x )
Since
( x x ) 0 the system of equations becomes:

an y;
b ( xi x ) 2 y( xi x )
Hence the parameters of the equation of a parabola I order (direct line),

expressed as a number of members of the deviations from their mean values, are as
follows:
224
y y
y( x x )
(x x)
(1)
(2)
Results and discussion. We analyzed statistical data on diagnosed

cases of primary and absolute numbers of respiratory diseases in the period
2000-2009. The list of diseases of the respiratory system include: chronic
pharyngitis, nasopharyngitis, sinusitis; Chronic diseases of tonsils and adenoids,
peritonsillar abscess; allergic rhinitis (hay fever); pneumonia;
chronic
and
unspecified bronchitis, emphysema; asthma (status asthmaticus).

The figures show only the regions where are the most common respiratory
diseases. Data on the prevalence of newly diagnosed respiratory diseases by region
are shown in Figure 1.
In Navoiy field prevalence of respiratory diseases in 2000 was 8488 cases in
2005 - 16633, 2009 - 12755, in Samarkand region - respectively 6058, 9414 and
10861, in the field of Surkhandarya 6425, 7383 and 10677, in Syrdarya area respectively 4400, 7246 and 9435, in the Republic of Karakalpakstan - 9325, 8791
and 7915. overall, the Republic of Uzbekistan in 2000 for the first time revealed 1042
2005 - 11790, in 2009 - 11 804 cases per 100 thousand population of respiratory
diseases, the IQ tests are increased [4, 6].
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Navoiyskaya area
Samapkandskaya area
Supxandapinskaya area
Sypdapinskaya area
The Republic of Karakalpakstan
The Republic of Uzbekistan
2008
2009
Figure 1. Morbidity due to respiratory organ diseases per 100 thousand

population
225
The absolute incidence of respiratory organs in Tashkent in 2000 amounted to

513,047 in 2005 - 507,638 in 2009 - 531,433 in Kashkadarya region - respectively
361 302, 443 246 and 407 026, in the Samarkand region - 245 598, 324 263 and 408
584 in the Fergana region 470 065, 487 773 and 552 158 in the Republic of
Karakalpakstan - 286 094, 201 528 and 184 222. in general, the Republic of
Uzbekistan in 2000, an incidence of 4,163,304 cases in 2005 - 4343460, 2009 4287887, i.e. indicators increase (Figure 2).
Data on the prevalence of respiratory diseases per 100 thousand population in
absolute terms for individual regions are presented in Figure 2.
In the city of Tashkent, the prevalence of respiratory diseases in 2000 was
23973 cases in 2006 22897, 2013 23219 in Bukhara region in 2000 amounted to
16482 cases in 2006 18032, 2013 12428, in Navoiy area in 2000 was 17965
event in 2006 22806, 2013 18467 in the Fergana region, respectively 17534,
16964 and 23245. In general, the Republic of Uzbekistan in 2000 found 16 889 in
2005 15951, 2013 17864 cases per 100 thousand population of respiratory
diseases, ie indicators not increase.
Table 1
Morbidity due to the respiratory organ diseases per 100 thousand
population (In absolute terms)
Region
City Tashkent
Andizhanskaya
area
Buxarskaya area
Dzhizakskaya
area
Kashkadarinska
ya area
Navoiyskaya
area
Namanganskay
a area
Samarkandskay
a area
Surkhandarinska
ya area
Syrdarinskaya
area
Tashkentskaya
area
Ferganskaya
area
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
23973
24471
24888
24388
23111
23747
22897
24179
24215
23931
22732
25283
24813
23219
12361
12681
12723
12601
13172
13038
12677
12646
13090
12774
12491
12129
12331
12417
16482
15381
15972
16789
17241
17095
18032
18421
18849
17387
13544
12674
13780
12428
7616
6065
6308
6874
7384
8784
10305
11014
12051
10380
10413
12183
15594
16724
16500
14943
15739
17593
17348
18476
18572
18044
16598
15718
16388
16820
15971
15978
17951
17115
15031
21511
23780
23206
22806
22819
19258
19471
19229
17425
19739
18467
28369
28556
29914
25458
22742
26891
19069
22398
20701
12964
13668
19317
19124
18804
9130
9814
13030
15421
15580
11231
11826
12111
12463
13220
13056
13947
13879
14770
14767
16111
12738
12694
12218
12046
12051
13190
13487
12766
13277
13912
16191
17913
10176
9169
9388
9818
10306
11294
12154
12774
12822
13192
13003
13291
14733
14796
18507
18471
18876
17564
17858
17392
14923
15208
14267
15021
13784
14269
16789
17902
17534
19149
16977
19627
18330
17057
16964
19330
19104
18111
22989
19861
21026
23245
226
Xorezmskaya
area
The Republic of
Karakalpakstan
The Republic of
Uzbekistan
18861
19157
16468
16479
16555
16350
19021
18392
18322
18907
17658
16903
16977
21703
18884
17887
15136
14225
13895
12825
12427
11706
11615
11350
14238
14640
17891
20270
16889
16944
16734
17140
16825
16599
15951
16659
16328
15442
15741
16207
17106
17864
With the growth of industry and environmental degradation has become a

disease gaining ground. Waviness in the incidence of respiratory diseases among
the population, mainly due to seasonal.
120000
100000
The Republic of
Uzbekistan
80000
Fepganskaya area
60000
Navoiyskaya area
40000
Buxapskaya area
20000
City Tashkent
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
Figure 2. Morbidity due to the respiratory organ diseases per 100 thousand
population (In absolute terms)
The next stage of research was to predict the spread of respiratory diseases in
the Republic of Uzbekistan.
When aligning the dynamic series, we used the statistical data on the
incidence of respiratory population of Tashkent for the years 2000-2013 (Table 1).
In this case, the arithmetic mean value of the independent variable defined by
the time point designated natural numbers:
1 14
7,5
2
Then we calculate the deviation of a number of members of the dependent

variable y from this value (with signs) and perform calculations shown in Table 2.
Substituting these values in the formula (1) and (2) determine the parameters of the
linear equation:
227
y 335847
23989,1 (2. 10)
a i
14
n
b
y ( xi x ) 3646
16,02 (2. 11)

2
227
,
5
(
)
x
x
i
Hence the formula for equalization of the Dynamics of respiratory diseases

and predicting the population of Tashkent has the following form:
y x 23989,1 16,02( xi x )
Table 2
The dynamics of the spread of respiratory diseases among the population
of Tashkent city for the years 2000-2013 (per 100 thousand population)
Year
xi
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
105
The prevalence of
respiratory diseases, yi
23973
24471
24888
24388
23111
23747
22897
24179
24215
23931
22732
25283
24813
23219
335847
xi-x
y(xi-x)
(xi-x)2
yx
-6,5
-5,5
-4,5
-3,5
-2,5
-1,5
-0,5
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,5
6,5
-2E+05
-1E+05
-1E+05
-85358
-57778
-35621
-11449
12090
36323
59828
79562
113774
136472
150924
-3646
42,25
30,25
20,25
12,25
6,25
2,25
0,25
0,25
2,25
6,25
12,25
20,25
30,25
42,25
227,5
24093
24077
24061
24045
24029
24013
23997
23981
23965
23949
23933
23917
23901
23885
0,5
1,6
3,4
1,4
3,8
1,1
4,6
0,8
1,0
0,1
5,0
2,1
2,3
2,3
2,2
y x 23989,1 16,02( xi x )
Calculated according to this equation, the dependent variable is placed in the
last column of Table 2. A visual representation of this gives the figure 3, which shows
the calculated scrap and smoothly running line of this series.
Talk about the reliability of statistical forecasts of dynamics of any phenomena
can only be while maintaining the general trends, i.e. if there is a certain degree of
inertia effects.
This refers to the inertia of the relationships, which maintains the outline of the
mechanism of formation of the phenomenon, and the inertia of the nature of the
dynamics of the process (temperature, direction, stability) for a sufficiently long
period of time.
228
26000
25000
24000
23000
22000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Original Series
Aligned series
Figure 3. Initial and aligned data of the prevalence of respiratory diseases

among the population of the city of Tashkent for 2000-2013
(per 100 thousand population)
Similarly produced alignment of the Dynamics of respiratory diseases among
the population of regions of Uzbekistan (Table 3).
Table 3
The prevalence of respiratory diseases per 100 thousand population
for 2000-2013 (aligned data)
Region
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
City Tashkent
24093
24077
24061
24045
24029
24013
23997
23981
23965
23949
23933
23917
23901
23885
Andizhanskaya area
12811
12786
12762
12738
12713
12689
12664
12640
12616
12591
12567
12542
12518
12494
Buxarskaya area
17667
17412
17156
16900
16645
16389
16133
15878
15622
12366
15111
14855
14599
14344
Dzhizakskaya area
5458
6176
6893
7610
8328
9045
9762
10480
11197
11914
12632
13349
14066
14783
16885
16866
16847
16829
16810
16791
16773
16754
16735
16717
16698
16679
16661
16642
19732
19750
19767
19784
19801
19818
19835
19852
19869
19886
19903
19920
19937
19954
29092
28074
27056
26039
25021
24003
22986
21968
20950
19933
18915
17897
16880
15862
11364
11588
11812
12036
12260
12484
12708
12932
13156
13380
13604
13828
14052
14276
12888
13030
13172
13314
13456
13598
13740
13883
14025
14167
14309
14451
14593
14735
Kashkadarinskaya
area
Navoiyskaya area
Namanganskaya
area
Samarkandskaya
area
Surkhandarinskaya
area
Syrdarinskaya area
9089
9525
9961
10397
10833
11269
11705
12141
12576
13012
13448
13884
14320
14756
Tashkentskaya area
18167
17909
17651
17392
17134
16876
16617
16359
16100
15842
15584
15325
15067
14808
Ferganskaya area
17068
17401
17735
18068
18402
18736
19069
19403
19736
20070
20404
20737
21071
21404
Xorezmskaya area
17380
17472
17565
17658
17751
17843
17936
18029
18121
18214
18307
18400
18492
18585
14833
14826
14818
14811
14804
14796
14789
14781
14774
14766
14769
14751
14744
14737
16703
16688
16672
16657
16641
16625
16610
16594
16579
16563
16547
16532
16513
16501
The Republic of
Karakalpakstan
The Republic of
Uzbekistan
229
Table 4
The resulting smooth line can be extended to give a forecast for 2010-2023
Region
Year
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
City Tashkent
23869
23853
23837
23821
23805
23789
23773
23757
23741
23725
Andizhanskaya area
12444
12417
12390
12363
12337
12310
12283
12256
12229
12203
Buxapskaya area
14088
13832
13577
13321
13065
12810
12554
12298
12043
11787
Dzhizakskaya area
15515
16235
16955
17675
18395
19116
19836
20556
21276
21996
Kashkadapinskaya area
16623
16605
16586
16567
16549
16530
16511
16493
16474
16455
Navoiyskaya area
19971
19989
20006
20023
20040
20057
20074
20091
20108
20125
Namanganskaya area
14844
13827
12809
11791
10774
9756
8739
7721
6703
5686
Samapkandskaya area
14500
14724
14948
15172
15396
15620
15844
16068
16292
16516
Supxandapinskaya area
14877
15019
15161
15303
15445
15587
15729
15871
16013
16155
Sypdapinskaya area
15192
15627
16063
16499
16935
17371
17807
18243
18679
19114
Tashkentskaya area
14550
14292
14033
13775
13517
13258
13000
12741
12483
12225
Fepganskaya area
21738
22072
22405
22739
23073
23406
23740
24073
24407
24741
Xopezmskaya area
18678
18770
18863
18956
19048
19141
19234
19327
19419
19512
The Republic of Karakalpakstan
14729
14722
14714
14707
14699
14692
14684
14677
14670
14662
The Republic of Uzbekistan
16485
16469
16454
16438
16423
16407
16391
16376
16360
16345
In Table 4, the forecast of the prevalence of respiratory diseases. In the city of

Tashkent, 100 thousand people are expected in 2016 23837, 2023 23275. In
Bukhara region per 100 thousand people expected incidence, in 2016 13577, in
2023 11787. According to the Republic of Uzbekistan is expected prognosis of
respiratory diseases in 2016 16454, 2023 16345.
In this context, we studied 248 case histories of patients with chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease who are hospitalized in the Republican specialized
scientific-practical medical center of TB and Pulmonology. S. Alimov. According to
the analysis, the duration of inpatient treatment was 9 bed-days. Mild form was
observed in 17.6% of patients, the average - at 51.0%, heavy - at 31.4%. Patients
aged 15-18 years accounted for 6.5% over 18 years - 93.5%. Men was 51.5%,
women - 48.5%, 59.0% of rural residents, urban - 41.0%. In studying the history of
the disease documented following comorbidities: ischemic heart disease (39.2%)
cases, hypertension (11.8%), asthma (18.8%), chronic bronchitis (10.7%), gastric
ulcer (9.5%), as well as osteoporosis, depressive syndrome, arthritis, diabetes, reflux
esophagitis, and others.
230
17,60%
31,40%
Mild form
The average form
Severe form
52,00%
Figure 4. Retrospective analysis of medical records of patients with chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease
Consequently, the incidence of respiratory organs in the future increases. In

this regard, based on the prevalence of diseases can properly plan treatments and
preventive measures and the provision of medicines.
Thus, these results allow to schedule a number of drugs to produce or
purchase, thereby ensuring prompt delivery of drugs. Timely planning also leads to
further improve security and public health care institutions drugs.
Conclusions:
On the basis of data on respiratory diseases analyzed in dynamics for the
years 2000-2013 and evidence-based disease forecast until 2023.
Study and analyze the dynamics of respiratory disease and the forecast to
2023. Projections of respiratory diseases until 2023 for the Republic of Uzbekistan.
The results allow to calculate in advance the need for health care facilities in
pharmaceuticals.
Using comparative analysis of outpatients and a history of chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease assessed basic structure and associated diseases.
Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease of moderate degree were
51.0%.
Analysis of the medical records revealed the structural features of disease,
defined indicators such as the severity and form of the disease, the age and sex of
patients, concomitant diseases. Thus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease of
severe degree were established in 31.4% of the examined patients.
231
References:
1. .., .., .., .. . . .
2010. 4. . 4547.
2. . - / . . , 1999.
459 .
3. .., .. - ( ). : - ,
2005. 84 .
4. . .
/ .
, 2013. . 240 .
5. ..
// ,
: .-. . , 2011.
. 200-201.
6. .., .., .., .. . // VII
. . 14 ( 34) 2010. . 130131.
7. .. . O`zbekiston tibbiyot jurnali. . 2006. 4. 26-.
232
Ambika P. Ashraf, Jessica Alvarez, Carrie Huisingh,

Krista Casazza, Barbara Gower,
Department of Pediatrics / Division of Pediatric Endocrinology
and Metabolism, The Children's Hospital, University of Alabama Birmingham,
Birmingham, USA,
Division of Endocrinology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, USA,
Center for Clinical and Translational Sciences,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA,
Department of Nutrition Sciences,
University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
Higher Serum Insulin Concentrations Positively Influence

the Bone Mineral Density in African American Adolescents
ABSTRACT
Background: Puberty is a developmental stage of increased insulin
resistance that also is a critical period for bone mass accrual. Historically, African
Americans (AA) have lesser risk for osteoporotic fractures compared to European
Americans (EA). AA also have higher incidence of insulin resistance. The possibility
that bone health and insulin secretion or concentrations are linked has not been
investigated.
Aims: We aimed to examine the associations of bone mineral density (BMD)
and bone mineral apparent density (BMAD) with insulin sensitivity and secretion in
healthy adolescent girls and healthy female adults and to evaluate ethnic differences
in these associations.
Study Design: Observational cohort design.
Place and Duration of the Study: University of Alabama at Birmingham,
between January 2010 and September 2011.
Methodology: Healthy, female, non-smoking adolescents and young adults
(14-55 years) were enrolled in this observational cohort study.
Results: Adolescents had significantly higher fasting insulin (P=0.0002),
insulin area under the curve [AUC] (P=0.0004) and lower insulin sensitivity
(P=0.0005) compared to adults. Among adolescents, AA race was significantly
233
associated with BMD (=0.086, P=0.01) and BMAD (=0.0075, P=0.002); however,
adjusting for insulin AUC explained this difference. Insulin AUC (=0.0006, P=0.029)
and fasting insulin (=0.0005, P=0.01) were positively associated with BMAD only in
AA adolescents. Insulin AUC and fasting insulin were not significant predictors of
BMD for adults.
Conclusion: The higher insulin concentration among AA adolescents is
associated with increased BMD and higher BMAD.
Keywords: bone mineral density; insulin secretion; ethnic differences; bone
mass.
1. INTRODUCTION
Insulin is considered to be an anabolic agent of bone by many authors [1-5].
However, recent investigations suggest a potential adverse influence of diabetes and
pre-diabetes on the bone [6,7]. It is also widely reported that African Americans (AA)
have a greater degree of insulin resistance compared to European Americans (EA)
[8], and puberty is a developmental state of increased insulin resistance [9].
Adolescence is considered to be the critical period during which the peak bone
mass is achieved [10]. Many studies have confirmed that AA have much higher bone
mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) than EA, beginning during
childhood and adolescence [11]. Hence it is important to understand the relationships
between insulin (especially insulin secretion and sensitivity) on BMC and BMD in
healthy adolescents and adults and to identify if are any ethnic differences in these
relationships. We hypothesized that the higher insulin concentrations will result in
better bone mass and this may be more pronounced in AA adolescents due to their
higher insulin concentrations. We also hypothesized that the effect of insulin will be
mediated in part by the fat mass.
Osteoporosis and related fractures are known to cause considerable morbidity
and financial burden [12]. Yet, even now, determinants of bone mass in adolescents
and young adults are not well known. An estimated 80% of the bone mass is
attributed to genetic factors, however, the remaining 20% of modifiable factors may
have a crucial role in regulation of bone mass and density [13,14]. The known
determinants of BMD and BMC are body weight, height, lean body mass, fat mass,
sex and race [1,15-18]. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the most widely
used method for assessing BMD and is a well studied and verified surrogate
234
measure of bone health. In healthy, normally growing children, DXA measures of

BMC and BMD increase as a function of age and sexual maturation, and both
increase substantially during childhood and adolescence. Low BMD is considered a
manifestation of poor mineral accretion or foreboding of osteoporosis and, hence,
assessment of bone health in adolescents and young adults is a major issue [11].
Therefore, the objective of the present study was to examine the ethnic differences in
insulin sensitivity and secretion and to evaluate the associations of BMD with insulin
secretion and sensitivity in healthy, non-diabetic, adolescent girls and healthy female
adults.
2.1 Subjects
Subjects were female, pre menopausal adults (18-55 years) and female
adolescents (14-18 years) who were previously enrolled in 2 observational cohort
studies: the VIVID Study and the DIVA Study (Clinical Trial Registration Number:
NCT01041547, NCT01041365). The data were collected between January 2010 and
September 2011. The Institutional Review Board of the University of Alabama at
Birmingham (UAB) approved both studies. Written informed consent in all subjects
and assent in those <18 years of age was obtained before entry to the study.
Ethnicity (European American - EA, African American - AA) was self reported.
Exclusion criteria were chronic illnesses such as diabetes, inflammatory disorders,
hypertension, subjects on anti-hypertensive, glucose-controlling, lipid-lowering medications or steroids; smoking; body mass index (BMI, kg/m2) >95th centile for age and
sex according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention growth charts [19]
for adolescents and >32 kg/m2 for adults and lactose intolerance, non-ambulatory
subjects. Because obesity is associated with increased BMD [20], we selected
subjects who are non-obese, so as not to confound with potential findings with obesity.
As insulin resistance is affected by pubertal status, only adolescents who were
menarchal and in Tanner stage 4 for breast and pubic hair development [21] were
included in the <18 year old group. Post menopausal women were excluded from the
analysis.
235
2.2 Methods
Body composition (fat and lean mass) and bone mass were assessed using
DXA (iDXA, GE-LUNAR Radiation Corp., Madison, WI). Bone mass, as measured by
DXA at whole body, is reported as bone mineral content (BMC) (grams) or areal
BMD (BMC/bone area g/cm2). Whole body bone mineral apparent density (BMAD,
g/cm3), was calculated according to the formula, BMC/[whole body mineral
area2/body height] [22,23]. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) was used to measure participants lean body mass using Tanita BC-418 segmental body composition
analyzer (Tanita Corporation, Arlington Heights, IL).
For each subject, a mixed meal tolerance test (MMTT) was performed using
Carnation Instant Breakfast prepared with whole milk in a dosage of 11.5 kcal/kg of
lean body mass (LBM) [1.75 gm/kg LBM of carbohydrate], followed by repeated
blood draws at baseline and at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180
minute after the start of meal ingestion. Plasma samples were stored at 80C until
assay.
2.3 Laboratory Analyses
Glucose was assayed in 10 l sera using a Sirrus analyzer (Stanbio, Boerne,
TX). The mean intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation (c.v.) for glucose
analysis in the Core Laboratory are 1.28% and 1.53%, respectively. Insulin was
assayed by immunofluorescence on a TOSOH AIA-II analyzer (TOSOH Corp., South
San Francisco, CA); intra-assay CV of 1.5% and inter-assay CV of 4.4%. Wholebody insulin sensitivity was calculated as proposed by Matsuda et al. [24], where
WBISI = 10,000/ (fasting glucose x fasting insulin) x (mean glucose x mean insulin
during OGTT). The homeostatic model assessment of basal insulin resistance
(HOMA-IR) was calculated using the formula: HOMA-IR = [fasting insulin (U/ml)
fasting glucose (mmol/L)] / 22.5 [25,26]. Post-MMTT area under the curve (AUC) and
incremental AUC for insulin and glucose were calculated using the trapezoidal
method. [27]. The serum 25(OH)D assays were obtained commercially (Quest
Diagnostics, Nichols Institute, San Juan Capistrano, California), using Liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methodology which is
considered to be the reference standard for 25(OH)D assay [28]. Serum PTH was
commercially assessed by a two-site immunoradiometric assay that detects intact
236
PTH (1-84) and the amino-terminally truncated PTH (7-84) fragments (normal range
10-65 pg/ml) (Quest Diagnostics Nichols Institute, San Juan Capistrano, California).
2.4 Statistical Analyses
Demographic and body composition characteristics were compared between
adults and adolescents as well as between EA and AA subjects. Chi-square (Fishers
exact when expected cell counts were <5) and Students t-test were used for
categorical and continuous variables, respectively. Spearman correlation coefficients
were used to assess collinearity between serum 25(OH)D with the other independent
variables. General linear models were used to assess the association of clinical
characteristics with BMD and BMAD. Separate multivariable linear regression models
were performed to adjust for potential confounders individually such as height, lean
mass, percent body fat, fasting insulin, insulin AUC. P0.05 was considered
statistically significant. Analyses were performed using SAS software (version 9.2;
SAS Institute, Cary, NC).
3. RESULTS
Table 1 illustrates the characteristics of adult and adolescent female subjects.
Compared to adults, healthy adolescent females had significantly higher insulin AUC
(P=0.0004), lower WBISI (P=0.0005) and higher fasting insulin (P=0.0002). Total fat
mass, percent body fat, serum 25(OH)D and BMD were not significantly different
between adults and adolescents. When both cohorts were stratified by race (Table 2),
there were no statistically significant differences in age, BMI, percent body fat, or Zscore between AA and EA adolescents or AA and EA adults. Serum 25(OH)D was
significantly lower among AA adolescents compared to EA adolescents (P<0.0001)
and among AA adults compared to EA adults (P=0.0003). There was no difference in
BMD Z-score between AA and EA adolescents or adults. The mean BMAD was
statistically higher among AA adolescents compared to EA adolescents (P=0.0024).
Spearman correlation coefficients between the independent variables and
25(OH)D (data not shown) demonstrate that there was a statistically significant
correlation between 25(OH)D with total fat mass (rho=-0.597 and percent body fat
(rho=-0.714) among EA adolescents. There were no significant correlations between
the independent variables and 25(OH)D among AA adolescents, AA adults or EA
adults. There was a moderately significant positive correlation between 25(OH)D with
237
BMD (rho=0.463, P=0.071) and with BMAD (rho=0.539, P=0.031) among AA adults
only. Among adolescents and adults, there were no statistically significant differences in
mean BMD or BMAD between those with serum 25(OH)D concentrations of 20 ng/ml or
30 ng/ml (data not shown).
Table1.1.Descriptive,
Descriptive, metabolic
metabolic and
characteristics
Table
andbone
bonemineral
mineral
characteristics
Variable
Age (yr)
Race: AA/EA
Body weight (kg)
Height (cm)
2
BMI (kg/m )
Region percent body fat
(%)
Lean mass (kg)
25(OH)D (ng/ml)
1,2
PTH (pg/ml)
Bone mineral content (gm)
Bone mineral density
2
(g/cm )
Whole body bone mineral
3
apparent density (g/cm )
Z-score
Insulin AUC (uIU/ml)
WBISI
Fasting insulin (uIU/ml)
Adults (N=29)
Mean SD or n (%)
31.7 8.8
16 (55.2)/ 13 (44.8)
66.9 14.0
165.6 6.5
24.3 4.2
32.4 7.4
Adolescents (N=49)
Mean SD or n (%)
15.7 1.4
33 (67.3)/ 16 (32.7)
62.7 12.2
164.7 7.0
23.1 4.0
29.7 5.9
0.18
0.59
0.22
0.070
41.7 5.3
23.3 10.7
-2543.2 380.3
1.2 0.1
41.03 6.0
19.3 8.6
36.5 14.6
2471.2 349.2
1.2 0.1
0.61
0.079
-0.40
0.15
0.095 0.010
0.091 0.008
0.0467
0.63 1.1
6293.6 2775.5
10.2 5.6
5.4 2.9
0.71.0
11,619.3 6,174.2
5.6 3.1
9.4 5.8
0.89
0.0004
0.0005
0.0002
P
<0.0001
Legend: Reported as mean S.D or n (%). Abbreviations: AA, African American; EA, European
Legend:BMI,
Reported
as mean
S.D or n25-hydroxyvitamin
(%). Abbreviations:
AA,
African hormone;
American;
EA,
American;
body mass
index; 25(OH)D,
D; PTH,
parathyroid
AUC,
European
BMI,
body
mass
index;
25(OH)D,
25-hydroxyvitamin
D;
PTH,
area
under theAmerican;
curve; WBISI,
whole
body
insulin
sensitivity
index.
Methods:
Students
t-test
and
chi1
2
square test were
used to determine
statistical
missing
frombody
adults,
n=16sensitivity
missing
parathyroid
hormone;
AUC, area
undersignificance.
the curve; n=29
WBISI,
whole
insulin
from adolescents
index. Methods: Students t-test and chi-square test were used to determine statistical
significance. 1n=29 missing from adults,
Associations of BMD and BMAD
with variables for adults and adolescents are illustrated in
2
n=16 missing
Table 3. Among adults, body weight,
BMI, andfrom
lean adolescents
mass were significant predictors of BMD.
There were no significant predictors of BMAD among adults. Serum 25(OH)D was not
significantly associated with BMD or BMAD. Among adolescents, body weight, BMI, total fat
Associations
BMD and
BMADbody
withfatvariables
for adults
and adolescents
mass,
lean mass, inofaddition
to percent
were significant
predictors
of BMD and are
BMAD. Similar
to adults,
25(OH)Dadults,
was not body
significantly
associated
with BMD
BMADwere
illustrated
in Table
3. Among
weight,
BMI, and
lean ormass
among adolescents. Among adolescents, AA race was significantly associated with BMD
for percent
body fat;
and BMAD.
The association
BMDwere
persisted
after adjusting
significant
predictors
of BMD.with
There
no significant
predictors
of BMAD
among
however, adjustment for insulin AUC (adjusted =0.012, P=0.76), fasting insulin (adjusted
=0.062,
P=0.067)
and lean
(adjusted =0.046,
p=0.072)with
attenuated
the BMAD.
significance
adults.
Serum
25(OH)D
wasmass
not significantly
associated
BMD or
Among
of race with BMD. The association of AA race with BMAD persisted after adjusting for %
adolescents,
body weight,
BMI,
total fat lean
mass,
lean(adjusted
mass, in
additionP=0.012),
to percent
body fat (adjusted
=0.0076,
P=0.0008),
mass
=0.0059,
andbody
fasting insulin (adjusted =0.0055, P=0.023), but did not persist after adjusting for insulin
fat were
significant
predictors
of BMD
and
BMAD.
Similar
adults, with
25(OH)D
was not
AUC (adjusted
=0.0027,
P=0.41).
Among
adults,
AA race
was to
associated
BMD even
after adjusting for fasting insulin (adjusted =0.097, P=0.034) and insulin AUC (adjusted
significantly
associated with BMD or BMAD among adolescents. Among adolescents,
=0.10, P=0.036). Adjusting for percent body fat (adjusted =0.087, P=0.065) and lean
=0.059, P=0.19)
attenuated
theBMD
significance
of AA race
withassociation
BMD among with
AA mass
race(adjusted
was significantly
associated
with
and BMAD.
The
adults. Fasting insulin and insulin AUC were strongly associated with BMD and BMAD in
adolescents.
for for
percent
body body
fat, the
BMD remained
BMD
persistedAfter
afteradjusting
adjusting
percent
fat;associations
however, with
adjustment
for insulin
statistically significant for fasting insulin, but not for insulin AUC. Among adolescents, BMD
AUC
(adjusted
=0.012,
(adjusted
=0.062,
increased
0.0055
[units] forP=0.76),
every unit fasting
increase insulin
in fasting
insulin after
adjusting P=0.067)
for percent and
body fat. Fasting insulin and insulin AUC were not associated with BMD after adjusting for
lean mass (adjusted =0.046, P=0.072) attenuated the significance of race with
238
BMD. The association of AA race with BMAD persisted after adjusting for % body fat
(adjusted =0.0076, P=0.0008), lean mass (adjusted =0.0059, P=0.012), and
fasting insulin (adjusted =0.0055, P=0.023), but did not persist after adjusting for
insulin AUC (adjusted =0.0027, P=0.41). Among adults, AA race was associated
with BMD even after adjusting for fasting insulin (adjusted =0.097, P=0.034) and
insulin AUC (adjusted =0.10, P=0.036). Adjusting for percent body fat (adjusted
=0.087, P=0.065) and lean mass (adjusted =0.059, P=0.19) attenuated the
significance of AA race with BMD among adults. Fasting insulin and insulin AUC
were strongly
with BMD
and BMAD
in adolescents.
lean mass.associated
The associations
with fasting
insulin and
insulin AUC with
significant after adjusting for percent body fat and lean mass.
BMAD remained
2. Variable characteristics by race and age

TableTable
2. Variable
characteristics by race and age
Variable
Age (yr)
Body weight (kg)
2
BMI (kg/m )
Height (cm)
Percent body fat (%)
Lean mass (kg)
25(OH)D (ng/ml)
PTH (pg/ml)
Bone mineral content (gm)
Bone mineral density (g/cm)
Whole body bone mineral
3
apparent density (g/cm )
Z-score
Insulin AUC (uIU/ml)
WBISI
Fasting insulin (uIU/ml)
Adults
Mean SD
AA: 32.910.5
EA: 30.26.3
AA: 72.414.6
EA : 60.110.2
AA: 25.34.5
EA : 23.03.5
AA: 168.86.0
EA: 161.64.7
AA: 34.57.5
EA: 29.96.8
AA: 43.75.7
EA: 39.33.8
AA: 16.84.8
EA: 31.310.7
AA
EA -AA: 2718.6334.6
EA: 2327.5325.5
AA: 1.30.1
EA: 1.20.1
AA: 0.0970.011
EA: 0.0920.0006
AA: 0.41.3
EA: 0.90.8
AA: 6958.63124.1
EA: 5475.12111.6
AA: 8.83.3
EA: 11.87.4
AA: 5.62.6
EA: 5.33.4
P
Value
0.43
0.016
0.14
0.0016
0.10
0.026
0.0003
-0.0038
0.031
0.15
0.19
0.16
0.18
0.79
Adolescents
Mean SD
15.51.4
16.21.4
64.313.1
59.59.6
23.83.8
21.63.9
164.07.5
166.25.7
29.65.6
29.86.2
42.16.5
38.94.3
14.95.5
27.96.7
37.013.8
2
35.217.4
2516.9387.5
2382.5247.0
1.20.1
1.10.1
0.0940.008
0.0860.007
0.81.1
0.40.9
14223.96165.9
6988.82320.6
4.11.9
8.42.8
10.76.6
6.62.3
P Value
0.12
0.20
0.077
0.30
0.89
0.076
<0.0001
0.76
0.21
0.011
0.0024
0.30
0.0004
0.0002
0.0027
Legend: Reported as mean S.D or n (%). Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; 25(OH)D, 25-
Legend:
ReportedD;as
mean
S.D hormone;
or n (%).
Abbreviations:
25(OH)D,
hydroxyvitamin
PTH,
parathyroid
AUC,
area under the BMI,
curve; body
WBISI,mass
whole index;
body insulin
sensitivity index.
Methods:
Students t-testhormone;
and2 chi-square
testarea
wereunder
used to
determine
25-hydroxyvitamin
D;
PTH, parathyroid
AUC,
the
curve; statistical
WBISI, whole
1
significance. n=9 missing from AA adolescents, n=7 missing from EA adolescents
body insulin sensitivity index. Methods: Students t-test and chi-square test were used to
determine statistical significance.
1
n=9 missing from AA adolescents, 2n=7 missing from EAadolescents
After adjusting for percent body fat, the associations with BMD remained
statistically significant for fasting insulin, but not for insulin AUC. Among adolescents,
239
BMD increased 0.0055 [units] for every unit increase in fasting insulin after adjusting
for percent body fat. Fasting insulin and insulin AUC were not associated with BMD
after adjusting for lean mass. The associations with fasting insulin and insulin AUC
with BMAD remained significant after adjusting for percent body fat and lean mass.
Table 3. Associations of BMD and BMAD with outcome variables
Table
3. Associations of BMD and BMAD with outcome variables
Variable
BMD
WB BMAD
Adults
Adolescents
Race (AA vs. EA (ref))
0.097
0.031
0.086
0.011
Body weight
0.0038
0.019
0.0066
<.0001
BMI
0.012
0.029
0.018
<.0001
Total fat mass
0.0045
0.068
0.0098
<.0001
Percent body fat
0.0040
0.20
0.0084
0.0023
Lean mass
0.011
0.0083
0.013
<.0001
25(OH)D
-0.0022
0.32
-0.0036
0.062
Insulin AUC
0.0000032
0.70
0.0064
0.016
WBISI
-0.0014
0.74
-0.0053
0.36
Fasting insulin
0.00090
0.91
0.0074
0.0065
Race (AA vs. EA (ref))
0.0050
0.17
0.0075
0.0024
Body weight
0.000060
0.65
0.00035
0.0002
BMI
0.00032
0.47
0.0010
0.0005
Total fat mass (kg)
0.000061
0.77
0.00057
0.0004
Percent body fat
0.000032
0.90
0.00054
0.0089
Lean mass (kg)
0.00017
0.62
0.00061
0.0019
25(OH)D
-0.000042
0.81
-0.00025
0.081
Insulin AUC (per 1000)
0.00030
0.66
0.00064
0.0046
WBISI
0.00010
Fasting insulin
-0.00034
0.76
0.60
-0.00075
0.00062
0.13
0.0018
Legend: The crude coefficients (change in BMD/BMAD for every unit change in the select variable)
Legend:
The crude coefficients (change in BMD/BMAD for every unit change in the select
and P-values from the general linear model. Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; 25(OH)D, 25variable)
and P-values
frommineral
the general
Abbreviations:
BMI, Insulin
body mass
hydroxyvitamin
D; BMD: bone
density,linear
BMAD:model.
bone mineral
apparent density,
AUC: index;
insulin area
under the curve, WBISI:
body
insulin
sensitivity
index BMAD: bone mineral apparent
25(OH)D,
25-hydroxyvitamin
D;whole
BMD:
bone
mineral
density,
density, Insulin AUC: insulin area under the curve,
Associations between BMAD with variables by race are illustrated in Table 4. Among EA
WBISI: whole body insulin sensitivity index
adults, insulin AUC and fasting insulin were not significant predictors of BMAD. Among AA
adolescents, fasting insulin (= 0.00052, P= 0.011) and insulin AUC (= 0.00061, P= 0.029)
were significant predictors of BMAD; however this association disappeared after adjusting
Associations between BMAD with variables by race are illustrated in Table 4.
for percent fat. Insulin AUC and fasting insulin were not significant predictors of BMAD for
AA adults (fasting insulin, = -0.00052, P=0.66; Insulin AUC, = 0.00011, P= 0.91), EA
Among
EA adults, insulin AUC and fasting insulin were not significant predictors of
adults (fasting insulin, = -0.00028, P=0.63; Insulin AUC, = -0.000096, P= 0.92) or EA
adolescents
(fasting
= -0.00029,
P=0.73;insulin
Insulin AUC,
=-0.00066,P=0.011)
P= 0.53). and insulin
BMAD.
Among
AAinsulin,
adolescents,
fasting
(=0.00052,
AUC (=0.00061, P=0.029) were significant predictors of BMAD; however this

association disappeared after adjusting for percent fat. Insulin AUC and fasting insulin
were not significant predictors of BMAD for AA adults (fasting insulin, =-0.00052,
P=0.66; Insulin AUC, =0.00011, P=0.91), EA adults (fasting insulin, =-0.00028,
P=0.63; Insulin AUC, =-0.000096, P=0.92) or EA adolescents (fasting insulin,
=-0.00029, P=0.73; Insulin AUC, =-0.00066, P=0.53).
240

4. Analyses
associations by by
racerace
and age
Table 4.Table
Analyses
of ofassociations
and age
WB BMAD
Adolescents
WB BMAD
Adults
Variable
European American
Adolescents n=16
Adults n=13
African American
Adolescents n=33
Adults n=16
Body weight
0.00021
0.30
0.00033
0.0006
BMI
0.00030
0.54
0.0011
0.0010
Region percent
body fat
Lean mass (kg)
0.000044
0.89
0.00086
0.0001
0.00059
0.18
0.00046
0.030
25(OH)D
0.000094
0.75
0.00015
0.58
Insulin AUC (per

1,000)
WBISI
-0.00066
0.53
0.00061
0.029
0.0012
0.13
-0.0016
0.087
Fasting insulin
-0.00029
0.73
0.00052
0.011
Body weight
0.00020
0.28
-0.00011
0.59
BMI
0.00071
0.18
-0.00010
0.88
Region percent
body fat
Lean mass (kg)
0.00018
0.54
-0.00025
0.54
0.00047
0.35
-0.00021
0.70
25(OH)D
0.0000080
0.97
0.0011
0.076
Insulin AUC (per

1,000)
WBISI
Fasting insulin
-0.000096
0.92
0.00011
0.91
0.00018
0.49
0.00051
0.59
-0.00028
0.63
-0.00052
0.66
Legend: Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D; Insulin AUC: insulin
area under the curve, WBISI: whole body insulin sensitivity index; WB BMAD- whole body apparent
Abbreviations:
BMI, body mass index; 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D; Insulin
bone mineral density.
Legend:
AUC:
insulin area under the curve, WBISI: whole body insulin sensitivity index; WB BMAD: whole
4. DISCUSSION
body apparent bone mineral density
To our knowledge, little has been reported about the associations between insulin secretion
sensitivity and BMD and BMAD in healthy adolescents. The beneficial roles of insulin on
4. and
DISCUSSION
skeletal health has been entertained by many authors [1], supported by the observations that
in type 1 diabetes
and reported
higher BMDabout
in subjects
with type 2 diabetes
[4,5]. insulin
Tolower
our BMD
knowledge,
little has[2,3]
been
the associations
between
We found that there are stronger associations of BMAD with fasting insulin and insulin AUC
in
AA adolescents.
exert
direct
effect on
cells as
it promotes osteoblasts
secretion and
sensitivityInsulin
and can
BMD
and
BMAD
inbone
healthy
adolescents.
The beneficial
proliferation and osteoblastogenesis and inhibits apoptosis [1]. Moreover, insulin acts
synergistically
with the health
salutory bone
insulin like growth
factor-1authors
(IGF-1) and
roles of insulin
on skeletal
has effects
been of
entertained
by many
[1],PTH
supported
[1]. Moreover, studies have alluded to a signaling pathway connecting bone and glucose
metabolisms, mainly
interconnected
pathway
that and
involves
leptin,BMD in
by the observations
thatthrough
lower anBMD
in type hormonal
1 diabetes
[2,3]
higher
osteocalcin, and adiponectin [29]. Our study suggests that higher fasting insulin levels and
secretion observed in AA adolescents may be beneficial for their bone health.
subjects insulin
with type
2 diabetes [4,5]. We found that there are stronger associations of
However, in adults, the insulin effect disappears. Therefore, it is possible that the peak bone
mass in AA may be acquired during puberty in conjunction with the higher insulin.
BMAD with fasting insulin and insulin AUC in AA adolescents. Insulin can exert direct
effect on bone cells as it promotes osteoblasts proliferation and osteoblastogenesis
and inhibits apoptosis [1]. Moreover, insulin acts synergistically with the salutory
bone effects of insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and PTH [1]. Moreover, studies
have alluded to a signaling pathway connecting bone and glucose metabolisms,
mainly through an interconnected hormonal pathway that involves leptin, osteocalcin,
and adiponectin [29]. Our study suggests that higher fasting insulin levels and insulin
secretion observed in AA adolescents may be beneficial for their bone health.
However, in adults, the insulin effect disappears. Therefore, it is possible that the
241
peak bone mass in AA may be acquired during puberty in conjunction with the higher
insulin.
This observation should not be taken out of the context that pre-diabetes and
type 2 diabetes (T2DM) adversely influences the bone health [6,7]. Prepubertal,
obese children with pre-diabetes reportedly have lower bone mass compared to
obese, non-diabetic children [7]. It is not known whether the bone is relatively spared
in obesity despite the cellular resistance to insulin in critical tissues such as fat, liver
and muscles. Pre-diabetes and T2DM are states of both insulin resistance and
impaired insulin secretion, resulting in abnormal glucose regulation; hence, the
increased incidence of poor skeletal health reported in those individuals [4,7] may not
reflect the independent actions of insulin on bone.
Corroborating other studies, we found that body weight, BMI, fat mass, and
lean mass are associated with BMD in adolescents and young adults. The effect of
insulin is mediated in part by fat mass among AA adolescents, which is suggested by
the disappearance of the association between insulin measures and BMAD after
adjusting for percent fat. Although total fat mass has a positive association with total
bone mass, visceral adiposity measures reportedly have negative associations with
bone mass [7]. We did not measure disparate adipose compartments, but found a
strong positive correlation between total bone mass and percent fat in normal weight
AA adolescents. When we adjusted for % fat, the association of BMD with insulin
AUC and fasting insulin disappeared implying that the % fat influences the
associations. We postulate that insulin affects fat deposition which in turn has
beneficial effects on bone by some signaling factors such as leptin [30]. We have not
assessed any mediators for this study. Similarly we have not measured
subcutaneous vs. visceral adiposity to see if the association is influenced
differentially by the type of fat compartment. Larger studies evaluating whether the
insulin directly affects the bone, or if insulin influences fat mass, which in turn
positively affects the bone will be helpful to delineate this speculation.
Strengths of the study were that we included healthy, non-obese, nonsmoking, post menarchal adolescent females and adult females as our research
subjects. Our study is unique in that we evaluated the insulin response to a mixed
meal in a physiological fashion which allowed us to optimally delineate the insulin
response to a meal. To our knowledge, this is the first study to assess relationships
between meal-stimulated insulin and BMD in this particular age group. Moreover, we
242
found that the ethnic differences in insulin secretion in the critical adolescent time
period of life influence BMD and BMAD. This study is also strengthened by the
inclusion of adults in addition to adolescents as it clearly demonstrates the
advantages of enhanced adolescent insulin secretion on BMAD.
Despite strengths, it is not without limitations. We do not have their calcium
intake data. It has been reported that bioavailable vitamin D may be more important
in determining BMD and BMAD [31]. We have not assessed other factors that may
potentially play a role such as free (unbound) vitamin D and IGF-1. We have not
utilized peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) and hence cannot
ascertain whether the better BMD in AA adolescents translates to better bone quality
and microarchitectural integrity. Our study was limited by the small sample size
particularly among the adult female cohort, which makes our findings less
generalizable.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Our data demonstrate that in non-obese, non-diabetic African American
adolescents, insulin secretion of puberty is associated with greater BMD; however,
the extent to which the greater BMD is beneficial to skeletal health warrants
investigation.
CONSENT
All authors declare that written informed consent and assent was obtained
from the parents and patients.
ETHICAL APPROVAL
The Institutional Review Board of the University of Alabama at Birmingham
(UAB) approved both studies. Written informed consent in all subjects and assent in
those <18 years was obtained before entry to the study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by UAB Diabetes Research Training Center (P60 DK079626)
and
by
Child
Health
Research
Center
Grant
K12
HD043397
(T0909180013), and was supported by the Center for Clinical and Translational
Science (5UL1 RR025777). JAA was supported by the American Heart Association
243
(Greater Southeast Affiliate). The NORC core lab (P30DK56336) and DRTC core lab
(P60DK079626) for laboratory analyses and body composition analyses are
supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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246
Raquel Caroline Andrade Paiva, Eduardo Jose Rodrigues Garbeloti,

Milton Faria Junior and Carolina Baraldi Araujo Restini,
Departament of Medicine, University of Ribeirao Preto
(UNAERP), Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil,
Departament of Exact Sciences, University of Ribeirao Preto (UNAERP),
Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Self-perception of Venous Symptoms and Quality of Life

Analysis in Wheelchair Athletes and Non-athletes:
A Pilot Study
ABSTRACT
Aims: Evaluate the impact of the physical activity in individuals with muscular
atrophy on the inferior members (wheelchair users) considering two main aspects: the
quality of life and the self-perception of the venous return symptoms.
Place and Duration of Study: Data of handicapped non athletes were
collected from a universitary physiotherapy clinic at the University of Hibeirao Preto,
Hibeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Data of the athletes' sample (basketball players)
were obtained from Cava do Bosque, Hibeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil, between
September 2013 and December 2013.
Methodology: This is a cross-sectional study, with a convenience sampling
of wheelchair users: non athletes (n=12) and athletes (n=13). A socio-demographic
questionnaire was applied. Self-perception of functional performance and of
venous symptoms was evaluated by the VEINES-QOL/Sym, and the quality of life was
evaluated by the WHOQOL-Bref. The statistical analysis was performed by the Chisquare test for VEINES-QOL/Sym, Student's t-test for WHOQOL-Bref and Student's
t-test, proportion test and G-test for the socio-demographic questionnaire.
Results: Twenty-three subjects were men (92%). Data of physical conditions,
environmental and psychological
domains from WHOQOL-bref questionnaire
demonstrated no significant differences between the groups. On the other hand, social
relations domain had higher values in athletes compared to non athletes (P<.05).
Results from VEINES-QOL/Sym questionnaire (the questions 1, 2, 3, 4 (a, b, c),
5 (b, c), 6, 7 and 8 showed no statistically significance between the groups. Analyzing
247
the 4d (leisure activity) and 5a (time spent for daily activities) questions, higher values
were observed for the athletes (P<.05).
Conclusion: Considering the data obtained by WHOQOL/Bref survey, physical
exercise improves the quality of life of wheelchair individuals. However, it has not been
possible to establish the relationship between physical exercise and the improvement of self-perception on venous symptoms in wheelchair individuals.
Keywords: handicapped; exercise; athletes; non athletes; cardiac output;
venous symptoms.
1. INTRODUCTION
Venous return is a hemodynamic mechanism that involves the transport of
venous blood to the right atrium through veins focusing the right atrial pressure
variation in relation to the rate of flow through the peripheral vasculature [1,2]. Elevated
cardiac output (the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute, which determines
the amount of blood delivered to the exercising muscles) is regulated by the increase
in skeletal muscle blood flow and venous return to the heart [3].
The great majority of cardiac output during exercise is devoted to the
working skeletal muscle [4]. During dynamic exercise, the rhythmic contraction of the
peripheral skeletal muscles results in the compression of the intramuscular veins, and
imparts a considerable amount of kinetic energy to the venous blood and facilitates
its return to the heart. The skeletal muscle pump has been shown to be very effective
at emptying the venous vessels, since more than 40% of the intramuscular blood
volume can be translocated centrally with a single muscular contraction [5].
Furthermore, the vast majority of venous outflow during dynamic muscular exercise
occurs during the concentric phase of contraction, providing further credence to the
notion that increases in intramuscular pressure are important sources of energy for the
blood returning to the heart during exercise [6,7].
Exercise training optimizes the ventilatory oxygen uptake by increasing both
maximum cardiac output and the ability of muscles to extract and use oxygen from
blood. Beneficial changes in hemodynamic, hormonal, metabolic, neurological, and
respiratory functions also occur with increased exercise capacity [8,9].
It is widely established that the practice of physical activities improves the
muscular tonus and the physiologic hypertrophy of skeletal muscles increases the
efficiency of venous return. Long-term moderate exercise training determines a
248
sustained improvement in functional capacity and quality of life in patients with chronic
heart failure [10].
However, the overall life quality must be the most important reason to stimulate
the abilities to practice physical activity [11]. In this way, regular physical exercise
practicing means an improvement in lifestyle and may enhance health in many
aspects besides physical, for example by facilitating and fostering social contact,
i.e., positively impacting the global quality of life [12].
Venous diseases have been extensively studied through clinical [13,14] and
observational studies [15]. The symptoms and clinical signs [16] are important tools to
evaluate venous function. In addition to that, investigative studies based on
biochemical markers [17,18] and inquiries that define the profile of the patients are
also useful to improve the knowledge and to clarify ways to deal with the venous
diseases and their complications [19-21].
Kahn et al. [22] described a comprehensive psychometric evaluation of a
venous-disease-specific quality of life measure questionnaire that was developed and
validated by Abenhaim et al. [23], in an independent sample of patients with acute
deep venous thrombosis. Studies like these, whose subjects are wheelchair users, are
rarely found.
The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the impact of the physical
activity in persons with lower limbs muscular atrophy considering two main aspects:
the quality of life and the self-perception of the venous return symptoms.
Therefore, we have delineated an observational cross sectional study in order
to access the influence of the regular physical activity on those aspects.
2. METHODS
2.1 Subjects/Groups, Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
At the first contact with the potential subjects, they received an explanation
concerning the objective of the study and then were invited to be part of the research.
Twenty five volunteers attended the study. Inclusion criteria were people aged
between 20-60 years old and wheelchair users of two groups: the ones who regularly
practiced physical exercises and the ones who did not.
Groups:
Group 1: Twelve participants who did not practice regular physical activities
and were being followed up in a universitary physiotherapy clinic-University of
249
Hibeirao Preto (UNAEHP), which is located at 2201, Costabile Homano Avenue,

Hibeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil (zip code: 14096-030). It has been analyzed the real
impact of venous return to individuals with paralysis of the lower limbs. The members
from this group were called non athletes.
Group 2: Thirteen participants who practice physical activities regularly
(members of the basketball team) on the Cava do Bosque, a municipal sports center
that is located at 627, Camilo Matos Street, Hibeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil (zip
code: 14090-210). This group was designed to analyze the impact of exercise on
reducing the impacts of lower limb muscular atrophy on venous return. The members
of this group were called athletes.
Subjects who could not answer the questionnaires alone, with acute coronary
syndromes, coronary artery bypass grafting or percutaneous intervention during the
first three months of these events were excluded as well as those with renal
insufficiency (serum creatinine >2.0 mg/dL), hepatic insufficiency and uncontrolled
hypothyroidism.
2.2 Study Procedures
In any type of procedure, volunteers were held solely and exclusively, after
approval and agreement, signing the Informed Consent Form (ICF) on a voluntary
basis. The study was previously approved by the Ethics Committee of The National
Ministry of Health/University of Hibeirao Preto (CAAE: 18388513.7.0000.5498/
protocol: 462.531/2013).
Subjects were submitted to respond three questionnaires: VEINES-QOL/Sym,
Social-demographic questionnaire and WHOQOL-Bref [22-25].
The questionnaires were applied between September 2013 and December
2013. Hesearchers impartially informed the individuals about the objectives of each
questionnaire, without any induction and/or intervention in order to avoid tendentious
results, since the questionnaires were self-administered.
2.3 Questionnaires
VEINES-QOL/Sym (Portuguese version) is a valid questionnaire, consisting of
26 questions, each one with 10 items that assess the self-perception of the chronic
venous disease symptoms and performance of interviewees in their daily activities.
The answers allow to predict, analytically, in which individuals, venous return is more
250
impaired and also evaluate the impact of this vascular disorder symptoms on their daily
routine [22,24].
Social-demographic questionnaire: consisting of 10 questions (age, home
address, marital status, quantity of children, living arrangements, current occupation,
educational level and family income) that together point epidemiological individuals'
profile [22].
WHOQOL-Bref (version in Portuguese) is a valid questionnaire that consists of
26 questions that assess the quality of life, physical capacity, psychological status,
social and environmental interactions in which the interviewee is inserted. The
responses made possible to identify and quantify the magnitude of daily limitations
due to health problems of individuals included. The results of this tool complement the
results of the first questionnaire (VEINES-QOL/Sym) [25].
2.4 Protocol
2.4.1 WHOQOL-Bref protocol
The WHOQOL-Bref was a WHO [26] questionnaire that was adapted and
validated to Portuguese by Fleck et al. [25].
The WHOQOL-Bref module consists of 26 questions (with question number 1
and 2 on the overall quality of life), the answers follow Likert scale (1 to 5, the higher
the score the better quality of life) [26]. Except for these two questions (1 and 2), the
instrument has 24 facets, which make up 4 domains: Physical health (7 items),
Psychological (6 items), Social relations (3 items) and Environment (8 items) [26].
This instrument will need to recode the value of questions 3, 4, 26. (1=5) (2=4)
(3=3) (4=2) (5=1) [26].
To calculate each facet is just sum the values of interview answers and divide
by the number of participants. After that, the average is made and the results will be
from 1 to 5. The mean scores are then multiplied by 4 in order to make domain scores
comparable with the scores used in the WHOQOL-100 and subsequently transformed
to a 0-100 scale [26].
2.4.2 VEINES-QOL/-Sym analysis
The VEINES-QOL/Sym produces two scores, one is the estimate of the impact
of Venous Chronic Disease on quality of life (the VEINES-QOL) and other
related to symptoms resulting from Venous Chronic Disease (the VEINES-Sym) [24].
251
The items related to the symptoms are: heavy legs, aching legs, swelling, night
cramps, heat or burning sensation, restless legs, throbbing, itching and tingling
sensation [24].
It was not necessary to calculate this questionnaire's scores, because the
purpose of the present study was to compare only the impact of the exercise in
wheelchair individuals.
2.5 Statistical Analysis
For all the questions involving the VEINES-QOL/Sym, except the questions
number 4 and 5, the Likert scale was used. It consists of a psychometric response
scale primarily used in questionnaires to obtain participant's preferences or degree of
agreement with a statement or set of statements. Most commonly seen as a
5-point scale ranging from "Strongly Disagree" on one end to "Strongly Agree".
The statistical analysis of VEINES-QOL/Sym questionnaire considered the
questions 4 and 5 as dichotomic variables.
All the questions/answers were tabulated on Excel before proceeding to
the statistical analysis between athletes and non-athletes.
The results from VEINES-QOL/Sym were analyzed by Chi-square test, which
is used to investigate whether distributions of categorical variables differ from one
another. It compared the tallies or counts of categorical responses between two
independent groups. The test uses only actual numbers and not percentages, mean
and proportions.
The results of the WHOQOL-Bref were analyzed by unpaired Student's t-test.
The data were expressed as MeanSD.
The results of the Social-demographic questionnaire were analyzed by
Student's t-test and proportion test.
Non-parametric G test was suitable applied for analyzing two independent
samples for categorical data [27].
The differences between groups were considered significant at P<.05.
To statistical analysis the following software packages were used: Graph
Prism 5.03 (San Diego, CA-USA); Excel (Microsoft Corporation) and Bio Estat 5.0
(www.mamiraua.org.br).
252
To statistical analysis the following software packages were used: Graph Prism 5.03 (San
Diego, CA-USA); Excel (Microsoft Corporation) and Bio Estat 5.0 (www.mamiraua.org.br).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3. 3.1
RESULTS
ProfileAND DISCUSSION
3.1Basic
Profile
characteristics of the subjects are presented in Table 1.
Basic characteristics of the subjects are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Baseline characteristics of the volunteers (n=25)
Table 1. Baseline characteristics of the volunteers (n=25)

Characteristic
Athletes n=13 No (%) or
Non athletes n=12 No (%) or
mean (range)
mean (range)
Sex
Male
92.3%(12)
91.67%(11)
Male
92.3%(12)
91.67%(11)
Female
7.7%(1)
8.33%(1)
Female
7.7%(1)
8.33%(1)
Age
Age
21-30years
years
15.38%(2)
33.3%(4)
21-30
15.38%(2)
33.3%(4)
31-40
years
69.24%(9)
25%(3)
31-40 years
69.24%(9)
25%(3)
41-60years
years
15.38%(2)
41.7%(5)
41-60
15.38%(2)
41.7%(5)
Maritalstatus
status
Marital
Single
61.53%(8)
58.33%(7)
Single
61.53%(8)
58.33%(7)
Married
38.47%(5)
41.67%(5)
Married
38.47%(5)
41.67%(5)
Occupation
Occupation
Work
53.85%(7)
0%
Work
53.85%(7)
0%
Non-work
0%
33.33%(4)
Non-work
0%
33.33%(4)
Retired
46.16%(6)
66.67%(8)
Retired
46.16%(6)
66.67%(8)
Schooling
Schooling
Basiceducation
education
38.4%(5)
25%(3)
Basic
38.4%(5)
25%(3)
High
school
46.25%(6)
75%(9)
High school
46.25%(6)
75%(9)
College
15.35%(2)
0%
College
15.35%(2)
0%
Habitation
Habitation
Alone
84.61%(11)
16.67%(2)
Alone
84.61%(11)
16.67%(2)
With
relatives
15.39%(2)
83.33%(10)
With relatives
15.39%(2)
83.33%(10)
Continuousmedication
medication
Continuous
Yes
53.85%(7)
100%(12)
Yes
53.85%(7)
100%(12)
No
46.15%(6)
0%
No
46.15%(6)
0%
Pre-existence
of
cardiovascular
disease
Pre-existence of cardiovascular disease
Yes
23.07%(3)
58.33%(7)
Yes
23.07%(3)
58.33%(7)
No
76.93%(10)
41.67%(5)
No
76.93%(10)
41.67%(5)
Monthly
income
Monthly income
Average(R$)
1923(mean)
1852(mean)
Average(R$)
1923(mean)
1852(mean)
The
athletes
groupgroup
consisted
in thirteen
volunteersvolunteers
(7.7% female,
92.3%
male). 92.3%
Most of male).
the
The
athletes
consisted
in thirteen
(7.7%
female,
volunteers (84.62%) were aged between 20-40 years and 61.63% were single. The non
Most group
of theconsisted
volunteers
(84.62%)
were(8.33%
aged female,
between
20-40
years
and
athletes
in twelve
participants
91.67%
male),
most
of 61.63%
them
(58.3%) was aged between 20-40 years and 58.33% was single.
were single. The non athletes group consisted in twelve participants (8.33% female,
In terms of each absolute values of age (not ranges of age), it was not found significant
91.67%
male), most of them (58.3%) was aged between 20-40 years and 58.33% was
difference (Student's t-test) between the groups (P>.05); the H0 hypothesis was not
single.
In terms of each absolute values of age (not ranges of age), it was not found
significant difference (Student's t-test) between the groups (P>.05); the H0 hypothesis
was not rejected, thus assuming equal variances. At the same way, comparing the
monthly income between the wheelchair users athletes and non athletes, the H0
hypothesis (P>.05, Student's t-test) was also not rejected.
253
Excluding monthly income and ranges of age parameters, G-test was applied
[27]. The nonparametric G-test was used to compare ranges of age and marital status
between both groups of wheelchair users. When comparing ranges of age (21-30;
31-40; 41-60), the H0 hypothesis of equality was not rejected for athletes and nonathletes groups (P=.0778). The condition of being an athlete or non athlete is not
associated with marital status, since the hypothesis of equality H0 (P>.05) was not
rejected.
Regarding labor condition (occupation), the value of P was .0004 (P<.05),
so the H0 hypothesis was rejected. This result demonstrates dependence between
being an athlete and this condition (working/occupation).
The level of education is also a factor that is related to being an athlete or not,
because the H0 hypothesis of equality was rejected (P=0.0082, i.e., P<.05).
According to the 2010 census conducted by IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geographic
and Statistic) [28], the vast majority of handicapped individuals had only basic
education. This data also was observed on the non athletes profile (25% had basic
education). On the other hand, the athletes group had an improvement on the
schooling levels (15.3% undergraduate individuals). We may infer from these results
that practicing sports can be a powerful motivation to keep on studying despite their
physical limitations. Analyzing the data on the educational level and occupation, we
were able to establish a positive association between higher educational levels and
higher percentage of persons working. In the group of non athletes no one was
working, and this was also the group that had the lower educational levels.
Concerning living alone or with relatives, most athletes (wheelchair users)
reported living alone. Comparing to the non athletes, the obtained value of P was lower
than 0.5 (P=.0011), the H0 hypothesis of equality was rejected, hence there is
dependence between living alone and practice of sports. Indeed living alone and
working are associated. Working brings financial independence, which provides
stability and self-assurance for the individual to live by himself. Among athletes,
53.85% are employed and as a result of that, a higher percentage (84.61%) of
individuals live alone.
The use of continuous medication among the wheelchair users is also another
factor that is related to the fact of being or not an athlete (P=.0019). The long-term
use of medication is another point. It was more prevalent in the non athletes group
254
(100%), while among the athletes, 53.85% declared to consume medicines

continuously.
The mentioned pre-existence of cardiovascular diseases, before the beginning
of this research, was prevalent in the non athletes group (58.33%) than in the athletes
(23.07%). Similarly to the analysis of the parameter "use of continuous medication",
the pre-existence of cardiovascular diseases is positively associated to the disposition
to be an athlete or non athlete. The H0 hypothesis of equality was rejected for this
parameter (P=.0187, i.e. P<.05). The data revealed that the physical exercise has an
important impact in the prevention of chronic disease's development, whether
cardiovascular or not, and in minimizing the need of ongoing medication. As described
by Chakravarthy et al. [29], there is an essential reduction in chronic disease on
individuals who perform minimal physical activity.
3.2 WHOQOL-Bref
Individuals who regularly practiced physical activity (athletes) had higher scores
on the WHOQOL-Bref domains. The analysis between the groups showed
significantly statistical difference (PS.05, unpaired Student's t-test) only in the third
domain Table 2.
Table 2. Comparison of the world health organization quality of life Bref Form (WHOQOL-Bref) between the non athletes and the athletes groups,
Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil, 2013
Assessment
Domain 1
Domain 2
Domain 3
Domain 4
Non athletes (n=12)

78.2810.7
85.536.37
71.65
79.524.43
a
Athletes (n=13)
835.14
90.432.26
85.062.33
77.88.09
P
0.315
0.106
0.013
0.605
aHigher scores indicate better outcome. Scores are shown as meanstandard deviation
Differently to the 3o domain, the comparisons of the scores related to other

domains (1Q, 2Q and 4Q) did not present significant statistical difference. The first
domain refers to physical conditions, and considers facts like energy to execute daily
activities, sleep quality, mobility and physical discomfort. The second domain deals
with psychological conditions, such as self-esteem, spirituality, positive feeling and
self-appearance. The fourth domain concerns environmental conditions, such as
security, transportation and social care, which are all independent variables. The
absence of statistical difference among the groups in fourth domain could
be
255
explained as not depending on the subjects, since the Brazilian government supplies those variables.
The third domain is related to social relationships, such as personal
relationships and social support. In these aspects, there were significant statistical
difference between the results obtained from athletes and non athletes. Our results
were in accordance as demonstrated by Resnick [12], that regular physical exercises
enhance health, facilitate and foster social contact, and positively affect the quality of
life, thus leading to improved social life and interaction.
3.3 VEINES-QOL/Sym
The results obtained from VEINES-QOL/Sym are presented on the Table 3. It
is possible to observe that only the answers for the 4d and 5a questions are
statistically different between the groups of wheelchair users (P<.05, Chi-square test).
The Table 3 shows the analysis between the athletes and non athletes groups,
when analyzed using the Chi-square test.
The answers related to the question 4d showed that 84.6% of the wheelchair
athletes did not feel limited to have leisure activities due to leg injury, and just 41.6%
of the non athletes answered the same. This fact can be an indication that the
regular physical exercise increases the individual motivation.
Table 3. Statistically significance between the wheelchair users: athletes and non
Table 3. Statistically significance between the wheelchair users:
athletes, in VEINES-QOL/Sym questionnaire
athletes and non athletes, in VEINES-QOL/Sym questionnaire
Question
04-d Does your leg problem now limit you in social or
leisure activities in which you are sitting for long
periods?
05-a During the past four weeks, did you cut down
the amount of time you spent on work or other
activities?
Athletesxnon athletes (P-value)

0.025**
0.046**
Q: question. (**P<.05)
not
The
answers
the question
5athat
showed
that
The
answers
givengiven
to the to
question
5a showed
92.3% of
the92.3%
athletesof
didthe
not athletes
notice anydid
difference on the time spent for daily activities, and 58.3% of the non athletes declared
notice
any difference on the time spent for daily activities, and 58.3% of the non
likewise.
athletes declared likewise.
The questionnaire is limited in terms of time, only assessing the past four weeks. Since both
groups
have been using is
wheelchair
long time
(eight years
hypothesize
The questionnaire
limited for
in aterms
of time,
only minimum),
assessingwethe
past four
that the athletes could not realize the real impact of how positively practicing regular physical
theytime
have(eight
only been
exercises
the execution
of daily
activities, because
weeks.
Since can
bothinterfere
groupsin have
been using
wheelchair
for a long
years
playing basketball for two years.
minimum), we hypothesize that the athletes could not realize the real impact of how
The issues analyzed with the other answers did not support statistical differences when
positively
practicing
regular
physical
exercises
can indicates
interferethat
in physical
the execution
daily
comparing
the data
of athletes
and non
athletes. This
exerciseof
does
not reduce
self-perception
of venous
symptoms,
and possibly
does
not reduce the
activities,
because
they have only
been playing
basketball
for two
years.
development of a venous disease. This fact could be explained when considering that both
athletes and non athletes are conditioned to a wheelchair status, i.e., they are limited to
perform only sitting activities, which decrease the work of the lower limbs muscles [30].
Although the literature presents solid data concerning the stimulation of cardiac function and
its beneficial relationship with venous return [1,2], regular physical activity (basketball) of the
superior members, accomplished by wheelchair athletes included in the present research,
256
The issues analyzed with the other answers did not support statistical
differences when comparing the data of athletes and non athletes. This indicates that
physical exercise does not reduce self-perception of venous symptoms, and possibly
does not reduce the development of a venous disease. This fact could be explained
when considering that both athletes and non athletes are conditioned to a wheelchair
status, i.e., they are limited to perform only sitting activities, which decrease the work
of the lower limbs muscles [30].
Although the literature presents solid data concerning the stimulation of cardiac
function and its beneficial relationship with venous return [1,2], regular physical activity
(basketball) of the superior members, accomplished by wheelchair athletes included
in the present research, was not proven enough to improve self-perception of venous
return.
4. STUDY LIMITATIONS
The cross sectional nature and the influence of seasonal variations are some
of the limitations of the study.
The main limitations of the present study are related to the recordatory. To
conduct the study using questionnaires, it is necessary to rely on the memory of the
respondent. Some of the information may be inaccurate due to forgetfulness.
The small number of subjects able to fit in the study is another important
limitation (being a wheelchair user and practicing a group sports). However, all
individuals were assessed using two different validated instruments (VEINES0OL/Sym and WHO0OL-Bref).
5. CONCLUSION
The practice of regular physical activity may be a direct causal factor in the
motivation for individuals who live alone, since sports provide greater self-esteem and
more confidence. In addition to that, physical exercises can be considered activities
of social interaction, which reduce the isolation of the individual and decrease the
family emotional dependence. The financial and emotional independence, which
come from working, are reinforced by the improvement of self-confidence, which is
stimulated when practicing sports in groups, such as basketball. This fact observed in
the athletes highlights the different profile comparing to the non athletes wheelchair
users.
257
Considering specifically the data obtained by WHOQOL/Bref survey, physical

exercise improves the quality of life of wheelchair individuals. However, it has not been
possible to establish the relationship between physical exercise and the improvement
of self-perception on venous symptoms (VEINES-QOL/Sym).
CONSENT
All authors declare that, 'a written informed consent was obtained from the
patients/participants for publication of this study'.
ETHICAL APPROVAL
Ethics Committee of The National Ministry of Health/University of Hibeirao
Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil (CAAE: 18388513.7.0000.5498/ protocol: 462.531/2013).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work was self sponsored without any assistance.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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261
Education
Humanities & Social Sciences
Wang Ping,
English Department, College of Foreign Languages, Jiaxing University, China
Change and Development:

A Case Study of the Implementation of Mandarin
Chinese into the UK School Timetable
ABSTRACT: Implementing Mandarin Chinese into the UK school timetable is
causing a big challenge and change within the Modern Foreign Language department
(MFL). This paper explores some of the issues related to this new change within the
MFL department. It begins with the initiative and the context of the challenge and
change. Then it reviews resistance and its resources to the change. The next part
goes through how these barriers were overcame and the final part of the paper summarises some useful suggestions for those who want to implement similar change
within a MFL department in the UK.
Keywords: managing the change; mandarin Chinese; the UK school; barrier.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the reasons for the departure of a Spanish colleague in the summer of
2006 was the direct consequence of the implementation of Mandarin Chinese in the
Modern Foreign Language (MFL) curriculum. The number of full time staff in the MFL
department had increased from seven to nine. The governing body and strategic leadership team had looked at the implications for and against this measure, and had
concluded that the school was able to only financially justify eight full time staff in
the MFL department. Everyone in the department felt bad because it was the first
time in my formal school that someone had to leave. Of course, other colleagues left
in the past, but they chose to do so for personal and family reasons. This informs what
[1] finds that implementing a new language program may effect change within a given
262
school, and staffing, instructional organization, allocation of human and material resources, and student and staff timetables are a few examples of areas that may be
affected.
Implementing Mandarin Chinese into the UK school timetable is causing a big
challenge and change within the MFL department. According to [2], about 60% of the
teachers claimed they were qualified in teaching Mandarin Chinese. They were either
qualified teachers in China or in the UK but in subjects other than Mandarin Chinese.
Most of those unqualified teachers were qualified English teachers in China. Therefore
it might not take long to train them to be. [3] (p.229) states that linguistic theories are
the backbone of language teaching in the sense that they equip teachers with analytical tools to solve language problems on the job. For instance, an understanding of
the importance of appropriateness in speech would provide a teacher with a sound
base for teaching chi fan le ma? (Have you eaten?) as an opening greeting rather
than the conventional nihao! (hello!). [4] shows his concern on the major challenges
facing by native speakers Mandarin Chinese teachers in Australia:
1. Acculturation: This applied particularly to the educational environment
where behavioural patterns and attitudes of students as well as interpersonal relationships among teaching staff differed greatly from those which a native teacher would
have experienced in a Chinese learning environment.
2. Pronunciation: It seems to be a common phenomenon that native speakers
whose mother tongue is other than the Mandarin dialect speak Mandarin with a pronounced accent, and some have great difficulty in mastering particular Mandarin
sounds. In general, native speakers from Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong and to a
lesser degree, Taiwan, fall into this category.
3. Romanisation: Taiwanese, even those whose native tongue is Mandarin,
would have no exposure to the pinyin Romanisation system.
The issues mentioned above also confronted the Mandarin Chinese teachers
surveyed in the UK, especially pedagogical and classroom management problems.
[3] explained that native speakers typically came from an educational environment in
which students expected to be led by teachers to a greater extent than their Western
counterparts. In such an environment, teachers also prefer a more teacher-centred
style of classroom management than Western colleagues. Another common problem
may be language-related. [5] noticed this among non-English native student teachers
in the UK, who found that such teachers often faced challenges in teacher-pupil relationships. These were primarily about understanding what students were saying to
263
each other and to the teacher, knowing when students were serious or trying to take
advantage, understanding humour and sarcasm, and being made to feel foreign by
the students. Procedure-related problems such as understanding hierarchies or disciplinary procedures for students, identified by [5], were also found among the part-time
Mandarin Chinese teachers who responded to the survey.
Moreover, the lack of adequate textbooks and other teaching and learning materials in Mandarin Chinese is a concern for teachers. However, as [6] (p.131) claimed
that there is no such thing as an ideal textbook. Materials are but a starting point,
teachers are the ones who make materials work; they make them work for their students and for themselves in the context in which they teach. Mandarin teachers perhaps should not depend too much on a formally approved textbook, as they once
would in the context of the Chinese education system. Finally, most Mandarin
Chinese teachers in the UK complain that the GCSE and A-level Mandarin Chinese
examinations are intended for British-born Chinese who speak Mandarin at home,
but are too difficult for most British students.
Any change is complex because it is inextricably linked to our emotions: sorrow
at the sense of loss of the old, and anxiety at the uncertainties that the new will bring
[7] (p.16). This paper is going to explore some of the issues related to this new change
within the MFL department. It begins with the initiative and the context of the change.
Then it reviews resistance and its resources to the change. The next part goes through
how these barriers were overcame and the final part of the paper will summarise some
useful suggestions for those who want to implement similar change within a MFL department in the UK. In a word, the paper focuses its on the following questions: what
problems lie ahead for the secondary schools in the UK school context? How is Mandarin Chinese taught in the secondary schools in the UK?
2. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT
The importance of MFL is said to lie in helping pupils to understand and appreciate different cultures and countries; and to think of themselves as citizens of the
world [8] (p.162) and if education must enable us to respond positively to the opportunities and challenges of the rapidly changing world in which we live and work [9]
(p.3), we would assume that within any MFL department today, what languages to
teach is a question. In addition, what do opportunities mean in terms of foreign languages? When Moon says that the structure of employment in the twenty-first century
264
is likely to have a greater European and international character, the ability to communicate in a second or third language, or even to learn a new one quickly, could
become crucial to many jobs [10] (p.91). What does he mean by international
character? What changes are happening in the UK in terms of international relationship? We will agree that Chinas international importance, relevance and profile are
increasing.
In the UK, the government departments of education in English, Wales
and Scotland, together with the British Council, have agreed on a strategy to support
the learning Mandarin Chinese through direct access to native speakers, school linking and collaborative activities. Qualified and experienced teachers from China are
recruited to act as Chinese language assistants. Confucius classes are established in
the UK secondary schools and fully-trained Mandarin teachers are sent to boost the
classroom teaching.
Statistic shows that it is still not very common for secondary schools in the UK
to include Mandarin Chinese on timetable, though a significant number of schools
have started to offer Mandarin Chinese. So why did the MFL department of my school
decide to do so? Before I answer the question, I will give a very brief description of
the school. It is a catholic girls school in London. The school is a language college.
Traditionally, it only offered French, then Spanish on schools timetable. Today, it offers seven languages in all, 3 in curriculum time, the others in twilight time: French,
Spanish, Russian, Italian, Portuguese, Japanese and Mandarin (which was started
in 2001). 56% of the students are girls whose parents are first or second generation
immigrants from Africa and Caribbean. In the local community, unemployment is high,
and the number of pupils who receive free school meals is an indicator of the socioeconomic background of these families. I agree with Fullan that less-well-educated
communities are not as likely to initiate change or put effective pressure on educators
to initiate change on their behalf [11] (p.62). Therefore the new policy in MFL in my
school is not because of pressure from parents.
According to Fullan, one of the factors affecting initiation of a specific educational change is the access to information [11] (p.57). It is true in my school case.
The Head of MFL department and coordinator of Language College spends large
amounts of time at conferences and in workshops within ongoing professional networks of communication among her peers, which contributes to her identifying the
need for a new direction for the development of the MFL departmentto offer Mandarin
Chinese and to implement it into school timetable.
265
However, that only the Head of MFL department should identify the need for
the change is not enough. Another very important factor affect the initiation is advocacy from central and /or school administrators. As Fullan claims, at the school
level, the principal has always been the gate-keeper of change, often determining
the fate of innovations coming from outside or from inside [11] (p.59). The current
principal in my school was appointed two years ago. As a new Head, she was very
keen to implement something new in the school, and to support the Language College
ethos. Also, she shows how important marketing the school or selling the school [12]
it is for her. Since the establishment of the so-called quasi-market in education, parental choice, open enrolment, age-weighted pupil funding, and a mixture of different
kinds of schools in any locality are all intended to engender a climate of competition
[13,14,15,16]. It is therefore not surprising that she was very supportive for this new
policy. However, will it be easy to implement it?
3. RESISTANCE AND CAUSES
According to [17] (p.172), it is often easy to identify the need for change but
agreeing on the direction of change is another matter, especially when people are
still arguing about the place of MFL in the school curriculum. Even if not everyone is
as extreme as Williams who insisted that allowing young people to give up MFL after
Key Stage 3 is wise and it would be even wiser to take the more radical step of limiting
compulsion to just one year because this knowledge cannot be said to be of utility to
the vast majority of English-speakers. There is a conspicuous lack of hard evidence
that foreign language skills will increase productivity and employment [18] (p.117).
Many educators more or less take his side. My school is not an exception. [19] identified this reason for resisting change as belief that change is unnecessary. Resistance is always a likely response, especially in the early of a change initiative and
most frequently among the more experienced and long-serving members of a teaching community [20]. Other members of staff, including some of the Strategic Leadership Team in my school expressed their doubts when the new plan was raised.
At most of the UK secondary schools, French had always been the accepted
traditional language. All pupils learned French from Year 7 to 11, and all had a year
of Spanish in year 9. The Head of Department said it took her three years to raise the
status of Spanish to the same level as French in the department. Spanish and French
are now taught to all pupils having the same percentage of curriculum time over the
3 years at the cost of one fewer hour on Technology. In fact, one nature of change
266
was identified by [21] as structural and systemic, which means any real change will
affect the whole system, in that change in one part of institution has a knock-on effect
in other parts. As a result, it is understandable that other department might resist the
change due to the possible loss of status and power [19], if another new language is
taken into timetable.
Besides the resistance from the colleagues from other departments, as we all
know, learning foreign language requires substantial investment of resources. Thus it
makes the task even harder that the possible cost of taking a completely different
language into school timetable. Even as early as in 1976, the Prime Minister of the
time, James Callaghan questioned in a speech the value for money of the British
education system [7] (p.1). Is it worth investing in new teachers, buying new textbooks and building up other resources needed for this Mandarin Chinese subject?
Does the school have some other more urgent needs for this money? Thus the second
cause of the resist is due to the relatively high cost [19]. Even the Head and Head of
the Department are very supportive; the resource of Mandarin is still quite limited in
the department compared with French and Spanish. Let along the additional materials, they dont have enough textbooks for each student therefore the Mandarin teacher
needs to do lots of photocopies.
Within the MFL department, the change is likely to be resisted if it threatens the
job security of those affected by it [19]. In the case of my working school, Spanish is
directly threatened by this new policy. Year seven girls used to learn French and
Spanish at the same time. Now, all Year 7 girls are doing two terms of French, one
term of Spanish, and one term of Mandarin, which means fewer hours for Spanish,
of course. That is why one Spanish teacher will have to leave. In addition, even if
it is not that serious to cause the threaten of job security, other language teachers
might still feel what [22] (p.75) described that in some schools where there were already two languages on offer in the lower school, colleagues might be unwilling to see
a third introduced because they would be seen as competing for pupils at the option
stage. In my school all students in Year 8 choose two from French, Mandarin or Spanish. No teachers would be happy to see the students drop her/his subjects and naturally they all hope to keep their talented and well-behaved students so that they could
have better candidates for GCSE and A-level exams. Thus the competition arose from
here: who is to learn what language? In the case of my school, 45 girls chose
to do Mandarin and thirty of them got the chance. The Head had planned to choose
girls who were well behaved and also gifted in Languages to learn Mandarin because
267
it is much more difficult than European languages. However, the final list of the students, which was decided by a French teacher because the Head of the department
was away for a school trip, turned out to be a mixed one with several students who
were very difficult to manage and didnt take the subject seriously. Therefore, we can
sense the resistance from other language teachers, which is quite natural response.
4. STARTING SMALL AND THINK BIG
[23] describes the change process as having three major components: initiation, implementation and institutionalisation. In the case of my school, the change is
still at early implementation stage because it is only in the second year. So what
might be interesting is how the Head of MFL department managed to overcome the
resistance to start the implementing Mandarin into school timetable by distributing the
school kids in the different classes as a lash-up or contingent measure of meeting the
resistance.
[24] suggested that if necessary, implement change initially on a small scale
and Fullan [25] also said starting small and think big. That is exactly what the Head
of MFL department in my school does. Right at the beginning, she knew what her
long-term goal was. But she didnt implement the change suddenly. Instead she
started to offer Mandarin in one of the after school clubs in 2001. In order to help the
students, staff and parents know more about China and Chinese culture so that the
learning of Chinese language becomes more acceptable in the school organised by
British council in 2004, in which the students have opportunities for contact with
speakers of the language, through structured interviews, letters or e-mail messages,
face-to-face meetings, art, music, song and student exchange programs, which also
make learning the target language meaningful. And it turned out to be a big success.
Students and staff came back from China and shared their experienced community,
she started to join the Summer Mandarin Immersion Trip to China with their family
members and peers, which contributed to a Chinese atmosphere in the school and
community. At the same time, with support from the Head and the Governors of the
school, she decided it was time to seriously begin the innovation within the department. First she found a Chinese Language Assistant via British Council who actually
is an experienced teacher in China. In this way it saves her time to train a new teacher
and saves the school money if we bear in mind that relatively high cost was always
one cause of the resistance.
268
In order to avoid resistance from other departments, she kept it within the MFL
department. Chinese was taught in curriculum time by sharing with Spanishs time thus
it didnt affect any other department.
During the process, she knows that telling people about the progress of the
change can help to maintain commitment to the change [24]. Also according to [26],
one of the key factors for success at this stage is early feedback on progress made.
Therefore, she herself first continually showed her commitment to this new change
within the department. For example, she fully supported the new Mandarin teacher
with resource and classroom management. She helped the new Chinese teacher with
the techniques of Information Technology. She encouraged the new teacher to participate in professional development activities and teach her how to arrange and design a variety of interactive learning activities for students. She changed the new
teachers view towards the assessment - either an aid to learning or a process which
enabled students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in the target language,
based on curricular expectations. She helped this new teacher from China adapt gradually in the education system in the UK by involving the teacher in accessing a variety
of professional development activities in language learning. She used to comment:
Technology can provide greater access real-world problems and authentic
contexts for facilitating Mandarin learning and teaching, and provide alternative methods of representing and communicating knowledge. It fosters innovation, facilitates
dialogue and offers potential for developing new practices in the education and research communities. And education technology can be crucial to the success of any
language learning and teaching program. Professional development, which supports
effective practice, is essential to the successful use of any technology, resource or
application.
And she never forget inform the Head and the Governor of any progress about
the change. For instance, BBC reported the Mandarin Project in Lauriston primary
school run by the Chinese teacher; the Mandarin lesson was filmed by both ITV and
CNN. This was, of course, on News Letters to parents, too. All these send out a
message to both school and community: It is right to implement Mandarin into school
timetable. Even so, the program assessment was held by the school authority to find
the language program was reviewed periodically to ensure quality; and to find the
assessment strategies adopted were valid and reliable measures of program outcomes.
269
At the beginning, some of the Strategic Leadership Team was not happy because she sent the Mandarin teacher to teach Mandarin in local primary school for
free. But later the feedback was that the Mandarin project in the primary school became so famous that more primary schools in the district wanted it. Especially one
primary school, with which the Principal of my school was trying hard to forge link
contacted her asking for help with starting Mandarin lessons. Mandarin now became
the ambassador of the school. Nobody doubts that it is a waste of money to send the
Mandarin teacher to primary schools anymore.
Furthermore, she even made Mandarin earn money for the school. This is also
shown in the research by [1]:
The school authority, school administrators, counsellors and teachers promote
the benefits of language learning. Communication documents and activities include
information packages for parents and students, open houses, information evenings,
brochures, school authority/school Web site, school displays and posters. Student
activities may include student clubs, Internet pen pals, field trips and student exchanges. The language taught is visible in the school through the use of signs, bulletin
boards, displays, school concerts, extracurricular activities and school announcements.
She contacted principals or Heads of MFL department she knew. They might
want to offer Mandarin Chinese but lacked qualified teachers for some reason. She
went to these schools with the Mandarin teachers to deliver taster Mandarin lessons
for free. And in the end, the LEA of Westminster agreed to pay my school to send
teachers to teach Mandarin Chinese at first in two primary schools. And there are more
schools asking for it. Up to now, three schools are paying my school for it. Once again
all these factors prove that it is worth the money to invest in this new subject. In
summary, as the head of the department, what she fulfilled is establishing policies
that support language learning; ensuring that schools implement quality language programs; establishing clear measures of student achievement for target languages;
allocating sufficient funds for language learning; developing, authorizing and
offering locally developed language programs per provincial policy; and providing professional development opportunities [1]. While what I as a leading Mandarin teaching,
reflects, too, what [1] has explored in their research that is encouraging students to
learn the language; stating clearly what students are expected to learn; selecting and
implementing appropriate resources for students; assessing and reporting student
progress in target languages; pursuing individualized professional development that
270
will improve the language learning in students; advising on student program placement; providing advice about provincial standards and curriculum; planning methods
of communicating with parents and with the public; and reporting to, and communicating with, parents about their students progress.
5. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATION
Though it is still early to say the new change in MFL Department of my formal
school is successful. The implementation of Mandarin Chinese into school timetable,
however, is proved to be a good start. As a reflection I totally agree with [1] the indicators of an effective school language program:
alignment of curriculum, instruction, assessment, resources and reporting of student
progress;
student and parent understanding of learning outcomes and student assessment;
_
staff-initiated language projects and ideas that support and improve language
learning;
staff voluntarily sharing their knowledge or best instructional practices;

staff cohesiveness, meaningful participation and sense of belonging;
staff responsibility for providing programming that ensures all students have the
opportunity to achieve a measure of success;
willingness to critically assess past practices, eliminate barriers and risk trying new
strategies or organizational models;
ongoing, regularly scheduled monitoring and adjusting of instructional strategies and
program plans to ensure student progress;
setting and modelling high expectations for achievement, conduct and behaviour;
_
targeted professional development to address personal, school and school authority goals;
a focus on language learning in discussions at meetings, in the staff room, in

newsletters and at assemblies;
school-initiated processes that collect input from staff, students, parents and the
community recognition that meaningful parental involvement contributes to student
success frequent, open and clear communication among all members of the
learning community.
Then what does this good start imply? It is more than that they have the courage
to take the risk, though there is risk in any change. According to [23], top-down is all
right under certain conditions. The success of my school lies in the fact that they have
a principal and a Head of MFL Department who understand the implementation and
271
fully support it. And this change, which has a clear, well-structured approach, was
also tied to a local need. As the Head of the MFL department puts it many pupils
in my school are already disadvantaged by birth, family background, income and
race. If learning Mandarin means future possible employment opportunity, why should
we hesitate?.
According to [27] and [28], evaluating the change right from the beginning and
a review of the schools current state as regards it are also essential. Before you start
to implement the change, ask yourself Is the proposed change necessary at this
time? Can the proposed change be properly resourced? Are additional resourced required? What will be the benefits of
the proposed change? How will these be
monitored and evaluated?. And it is also important to think about the potential
resistance and can you overcome them and in what way? The thinking maps provide
some systematic and reliable information that can be used as a basis for action [29].
More importantly, in gauging the success of the implementation process, it is a
good idea to continue to compare the current Chinese teaching program to the characteristics of the so-called successful language program discussed earlier. More and
more of these characteristics should become apparent as the implementation process
proceeds. All new programs are likely to experience some bumps during the implementation stage. Over time, these should resolve themselves and the confidence and
comfort level of all stakeholders should increase. Continued improvement is the result
of a continuous cycle of planning, implementing, monitoring, assessing and revising.
As each goal is reached, an existing goal is expanded or a new goal is established,
and the cycle continues to generate positive change and improvement. Individuals
may incorporate the cycle of continuous improvement into their professional practices
as efficiently as schools incorporate it into the teaching and learning environment [1].
COMPETING INTERESTS
Author has declared that no competing interests exist.
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M. Morris, G. Donohoe and M. Hennessy,

Education Division, School of Medicine, The University of Dublin,
Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
The Fall and Rise of Medical Students Attitudes

to Communication Skills Learning in Ireland:
A Longitudinal Approach
ABSTRACT: Many studies have explored attitudes to communication skills
learning before and after a teaching intervention but there remains a dearth of published longitudinal studies. An area currently unexplored is medical students attitudes
to communication skills teaching and learning over the entirety of the undergraduate
programme. A longitudinal approach was utilized in this study involving all medical
students (n=128) entering a Medicine Under Graduate Degree Programme in 2007 in
a Dublin Medical School. Participants completed a previously validated Communication Skills Attitudinal Scale (CSAS) on Day 1 of the second medical year prior to clinical
exposure. Once baseline attitudes were established, the tool was completed sequennd
rd
tially at the end of the 2 , 3 , 4th and 5th (final) medical years. Results indicated
a mean Positive Attitude Score (PAS) of 51.9 (range 13-65) at the beginning of 2nd
year declining to 45.5 at the end of this year. This decline in positivity was statistically
significant with p < 0.035. Results indicated a mean Negative Attitude Score (NAS)
of 29.8 (range 13-65) at the beginning of 2nd year rising to 33.8 at the end of this
year. However, the longitudinal approach taken highlighted that attitudes rose again
by the end of the 3 rd gear-mean PAS 48.7, and 4th - 49.3 and attitudes almost
returned to baseline by the end of the 5th Year - mean PAS 49.3. The NAS score
remained constant at 31.4 at the end of 3rd year, 31.4 at the end of 4th and 29.6 at
the end of the 5th year.
These changes in NAS were not statistically significant. A qualitative study is
indicated to investigate the causation of the fall in positive attitude scores and rise in
negative attitudes at the end of the second year. As communication skills are a
core requirement for practicing in a professional discipline further research into these
findings is warranted.
Keywords: ommunication skills; attitudes; undergraduate medicine.
275
1. INTRODUCTION
A recent area of interest in the European literature is that of medical students
attitudes to communication skills teaching and learning. This has been investigated
previously in medical student cohorts in the UK [1], Norway [2], Scotland [3] and more
recently Korea [4]. It has been largely under investigated in Ireland. Initially, Doherty
[5] investigated medical students attitudes to communication skills training and attitude change following formal teaching. She reported that students confidence improved in areas relating to direct patient encounters. Students reported that they felt
they were better listeners, less nervous around patients and more comfortable in
knowing what to say to patients following formal training. This was a small exploratory
study and pioneered interest in this topic area in Ireland. Subsequently, Rees et al.
[6] published a series of papers in the UK which culminated in the design and validation of a communication skills attitude scale CSAS (Appendix 1). During this process
Rees reported that UK medical students had varying attitudes to communication
skills learning, with some believing good communication skills were essential to be
an effective doctor. However, others believed these skills came naturally and time
spent learning these skills were futile and wasteful. Communication skills were seen
as a soft science as they were not quantifiable and were perceived to be of low
academic credibility. She suggested that student resistance to the integration of the
social sciences into medical training may be owing to a number of factors. These included students uncertainty in the early years of their relevance to clinical practice,
incongruity with the biomedical model, teachers attitudes and poorly defined educational goals.
Subsequently, Tor Anvik et al. [2] re-tested the CSAS following a translation to
Norwegian. They distributed the CSAS by postal survey to 4 Medical Schools and
yielded a 60 % response rate (n=1833). On analysis of the data they concluded that
àttitudes` were more complex than merely positive or and negative. They suggested
there were 3 concepts measured within the tool, namely àttitudes to learning` (Items
7,10,12,18, 21 and 25), attitudes to the relative importance of good communication
skills from the students perspective` (Items 1, 4 positive, and 3, 9, 22 negative) and
thirdly `respecting patients and team members`(Items 5,9,14,16). They postulated that
attitudes may affect cognitive and affective learning and suggested that repeated
measures of the CSAS may assist in curriculum design and evaluation [2]. A limitation
of this study was that it was cross sectional not longitudinal. Cleland [3] then re-tested
276
the CSAS tool in Scotland where similar findings to Rees [1, 6] were observed. Students indicated a positive attitude initially, but this declined over the clinical years. A
limitation of this study was that of cohort effects as three separate cohorts of students
were studied and compared rather than one cohort progressing through the undergraduate years [7].
More recently, Sowon-Ahn [4] utilized the CSAS in Korea to explore potential
differences in attitude of medical students to communication skills learning in a different culture and where English was not the first language. The results again indicated
that students had doubts about the need for communication skills learning in medicine
and concern regarding the facilitation of interpersonal skills. Ambiguity regarding their
motivation to learn these skills and a negative attitude towards assessment ultimately
resulted in a displayed overconfidence in their skills. In summary, despite a variety
of research study settings, the finding of a decline in positive attitude pre and post
an initial training course appears consistent. The aim of this study was therefore
to utilize a longitudinal approach to investigate attitudes and attitude changes in an
Irish Medical School over the entirety of the training programme.
2. METHODS
2.1 Research Sample
A total class of 128 medical students was initially invited to participate on Day
1 of the 2nd Medical Year, pre clinical exposure. Participants were informed of the
research aims and asked to complete a communication skills attitude scale (CSAS)
whilst in a large lecture theatre. All were assured that participation was optional and
anonymous. All data was collected by the first author who was not involved in teaching
or assessing the communication skills programme to reduce potential bias [9]. This
initial dataset formed the baseline attitude scores. All students completed a CSAS,
n=128 , however, one student who was repeating the 2nd year was, following discussion, excluded from this study as previous clinical exposure may have been a confounder. The final sample at the beginning of year 2 was 127 medical students. The
CSAS was distributed again to all participants in a large lecture theatre by the first
author at the end of their 2nd Medical Year (n=127) and then sequentially at the end
of the 3rd (n=96); 4th (n=110) and 5th (n=47) medical years respectively. The entire
original cohort started and finished the programme.
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3. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
3.1 Communication Skills Attitude Scale CSAS
The Nottingham Communication Skills Attitude Scale (CSAS) [6] was utilized
in this study (Appendix 1). This previously validated tool consists of a likert scale
consisting of 26 statements, 13 of which are positively worded and 13 are negatively
worded. Positive and negative statements are randomly interspersed throughout the
instrument. Students scores range from 13-65 for positive attitude statements (PAS)
and 13-65 for negative attitude statements (NAS). The validity of the tool is further
enhanced by students having a high positive score (PAS) having a reciprocal low negative score (NAS).
3.2 Analysis of the Data
The CSAS forms were completed anonymously at the start of the programme
and were thus not coded with an identifier that could be used to link each students
survey data over the five measurement points. Furthermore, the number of survey
responses in the five measurement points were disparate (min=47, max=127). Consequently, it was not possible to utilize paired statistical tests or repeated measures
ANOVA in this study [7]. Resampling methods [7,8] were therefore utilized to analyze
the data. The underlying statistical estimator for PAS / NAS was ANOVA, whereas
the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test for used for individual questions [9]. Where
significance was determined across the five measurement points, a second level
analysis was conducted. This analysis consisted of removing one measurement point
at a time and repeating the resampling analysis with the remaining four measurement
points [8, 9].
4. RESULTS
4.1 Positive Attitude Score (PAS), Negative Attitude Score (NAS)
Weak statistical significance was determined for a difference across the five
measurement points for the PAS score (90th percentile p=0.075). Second-level analysis determined that the beginning of the second medical year and the end of the second medical year measurement points were the cause of the difference across the
five measurement points. Third-level analysis showed that there was statistical significance (95th percentile p=0.035) for a difference between the PAS scores of the start
and end of the second medical year (Table 1 and Fig. 1).
beginning of the second medical year and the end of the second medical year measurement
points were the cause of the difference across the five measurement points. Third-level
th
analysis showed that there was statistical significance (95 percentile p=0.035) for a
Cambridge
of and
Education
difference between the PAS
scores ofJournal
the start
end ofand
theScience
second medical year (Table 1
and Fig. 1).
278
Table 1. Mean PAS & NAS scores
PAS
NAS
PAS
NAS
Year 2 start
Year
51.9 2 start
29.8
51.9
29.8
Table 1. Mean PAS & NAS scores

Year 2 end
Year 3
Year
Year
45.5 2 end
48.7 3
33.8
31.4
45.5
48.7
33.8
31.4
Year 4
Year
49.3 4
31.4
49.3
31.4
Year 5
Year
49.3 5
29.6
49.3
29.6
Fig. 1.
1. Box
Box plots
plots of
of 55 measured
measured points
points of
of PAS
PAS
Fig.
No statistical
significance
was determined
when comparing
the comparing
NAS scores across
the scores
five
No statistical
significance
was determined
when
the NAS
measurement points (Table 1 and Fig. 2).
across the five measurement points (Table 1 and Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Box Plots of 5 measured points of NAS
4.2 Positive Items

Item 7. "Learning communication skills is interesting".
Item 9. " Learning CS has helped or will help facilitate my team-working skills".
Item 21. "I think its really useful learning communication skills on the Medical
Degree".
Weak statistical significance was determined for a difference across the five
measurement points for items 7 (90th percentile p=0.077), 9 (90th percentile p=.08)
279
and 21 (90th percentile p=0.069) - Table 2. Second-level analysis revealed that only
the start of the second medical year measurement point was responsible for the
change across the five measurement points in item 7. Similar analysis showed that the
beginning and end of the second medical year measurement points were responsible
for the change across the five measurements in items 9 and 21. Third-level analysis
revealed that there was a statistically significant difference (95th percentile p=0.046)
between the start and end of the second medical year measurement points for item
9. Similarly, a weak statistically significant difference (90 th percentile p=0.038) was
determined between the start and end of the second medical year measurement
points for item 21.
Table 2. Mean values for items having statistically significant changes
Item
2- Neg
3- Neg
7- Pos
9- Pos
11- Neg
21- Pos
22- Neg
Year 2 start
1.35
2.48
3.58
4.22
2.77
4.15
2.82
Year 2 end
2.28
2.9
2.9
3.48
3.33
3.45
3.42
Year 3
1.92
2.7
3.02
3.89
2.94
3.8
3.33
Year 4
1.94
2.35
3.03
3.86
2.74
3.83
2.94
Year 5
1.66
1.91
2.96
3.96
2.55
4.04
2.66
4.3 Negative Items

Item 2. "I cant see the point in learning communication skills".
Item 3. "Nobody is going to fail their medical degree for having poor communication skills".
Item 11. Communication skills learning states the obvious and then complicates it".
Item 22. My ability to pass exams will get me through medical school rather
than my ability to communicate.
Statistical significance was determined for a difference across the five measurement points for items 2 (95th percentile p=0.0155) and 3 (95th percentile
p=0.0064), Table 2. Weak statistical significance was determined for a difference
across the five measurement points for items 11 (90th percentile p=0.0999) and 22
(90th percentile p=0.0504). Second-level analysis showed that only the start of the
second medical year measurement point was responsible for the change in item 2
across the five measurement points. For item 3, it was determined that the fifth medical year measurement point was responsible for the change across the five measurement points. The end of the second medical year and the fifth medical year mea-
280
surement points were determined to have caused the change across the five measurement points for item 11. Third-level analysis for item 11 revealed a weak statistically significant difference (90 th percentile p=0.041) between the end of the second
medical year and the fifth medical year measurement points.
Second-level analysis of item 22 showed that the end of the second medical
year, the third medical year and the fifth medical year measurement points were responsible for the first-level difference across the five measurement points. Third-level
analysis of item 22 showed a weak statistically significant difference (90 th percentile
p=0.057) between these three measurement points. Fourth-level analysis showed
that the fifth medical year measurement point was responsible for the difference identified in the third-level analysis.
With regard to other items of interest and relevance on the CSAS, 60 % of
participants disagreed with ITEM 19: I dont need good communication skills to be a
good doctor from the beginning to the end of the programme demonstrating a positive
correlating between good communication and good doctoring. Equally of interest was
ITEM 20: I find it hard to admit to having some problems with my communication skills.
It appears the further into the training programme the student progresses the less able
they are to admit to difficulties with communication. This needs to be observed for
and addressed at this crucial point in the training programme pre certification.
5. DISCUSSION
The results identified that students had positive baseline attitudes to communication skills teaching and learning at the beginning of their second medical year.
The findings of a positive attitude at the beginning of the pre-clinical course concurred
with Reess (1) original UK studys findings albeit the power of Rees`s study was
greater with a sample size of 216. The educational methods used by Rees are similar
to those employed in Ireland with small group experiential learning methods, supported by seminars and assessed at a history taking station at OSCE (1).Thus
these findings may be generalisable and be reflective of attitudes of medical students
in other Irish and UK medical schools.
Students in this study were less positive in attitude to communication skills
teaching and learning at the end of the first clinical year (Year 2). With regard to
interest in learning, usefulness of skills set and impact of communication skills on
team working .This concurs with previous UK findings [6]. Tor Anvik also reported
an attitude decline in 3 out of 4 medical schools in Norway over a 6 year programme.
281
He described this attitude change as being more specific to àffective` attitudes [10]
and reported `cognitive` attitudes remained constant. His study suggested students
feelings regarding the teaching of communication changed in the early years perhaps
owing to a dislike of teaching methods such as video-recording and feedback and
poorly delivered feedback. These factors may leave the students uncomfortable
and vulnerable with resultant negativity.
Over 60% of students at every data point disagreed with the statement that that
they don't need good communication skills to be a good doctor. The need for
this skill set is recognized, this has been described previously as a cognitive attitude
[10]. It may be the manner in which it is taught that is affecting the attitude change or
affective attitude [10]. Aspegren [11] previously reported students preferred practical
experience and experiential learning to attain communication skills rather than formal
teaching. As students tend to over-estimate their communication skills abilities [3]
they may feel that their skills are not in need of improvement and be 'unconsciously
incompetent' in this skill set in the earlier years. A decrease in negativity in the later
years may be due to the progression of the students from the unconscious incompetent to the conscious incompetent [12]. The relevance of this skill set may become
more evident as the students near completion of the training programme and begin to
appreciate the realities of joining the clinical workforce. Students did report an increasing inability to report problems with communication as they progressed through the
programme. It could be postulated that by the programme end students become more
aware of their limitations. It is essential that they are supported at this crucial point of
transition from student to health care professional. This self awareness may be owing
to natural ageing and maturing or may be as a result of becoming more self reflective
as they progress through a medical training course. Further qualitative research is indicated to fully explore this area.
A suggested cause of a decline in attitude at the end of year 2 is that
following the theoretical component of the taught course and actual patient contact;
the students may have gained insight into their limitations in this area. They may experience a loss of positivity as they experience difficulty with the application of theoretical classroom taught knowledge in the reality of clinical medicine. It could be that
medical students merely espouse the theories of good communication in the early
years giving the socially desired responses on the CSAS. A further suggestion for
the decline in attitude is the de-emphasis of the importance of communication
282
skills in the clinical years. The culture of medicine to which the students become exposed to in which communication skills were not traditionally considered a priority.
Making communication clinically relevant to junior medical students may address the
decline in attitudes. Educational initiatives may include shadowing of Senior Staff as
positive role model and direct observations of Inter-Disciplinary and Intra-disciplinary
communication interactions in the clinical setting.
Communication skills are often seen as a soft science, not quantifiable and of
low academic credibility. Students decline in attitudes to communication skills learning
may be due to their uncertainty in the early years of their relevance to clinical practice
as they spend little time there. Incongruity with the biomedical model may be a causative factor reflected in students attitudes. Equally teachers attitudes may influence
the students' experiences [10]. Poorly defined educational goals may fail to emphasize the fundamental need for good communication skills for professional practice. It
is accepted that attitudes are difficult to influence but may change when new
knowledge is presented, provided that the knowledge is convincing and the presenter
is credible [11]. Recently there is an increased interest and review of the selection
processes for candidates entering Medical Schools in Ireland. Medical Educators
accept that attitudes will impact on skills and ultimately on behavior [11]. Good communication skills need to be identified early in the selection process to identify personnel truly suited to a career in Clinical Medicine. Tomorrows doctors need to
demonstrate above average intelligence quotients (IQ), emotional intelligence and ultimately positive attitudes to communication skills learning.
6. LIMITATIONS
A potential limitation of this study is the use of a 5 point Likert scale. The use
of a seven or nine point Likert scale [8] is indicated in future studies to yield more
sensitive data that would facilitate exploration of the potential impact clinically of a
change in attitude. Coding of the CSAS forms with confidential individual identifiers
throughout the 5 years would have enabled comparisons to be made with regard
to individuals' changes and allowed for analysis of paired data. Inclusion of aspects
of the curriculum, socio-demographic data and individual differences may explain
some of the outcomes and would have enabled comparisons to be made with findings
from previous studies [1,2,3,4,5,6,10]. Further cluster analysis of the items changing
most significantly on the CSAS to identify any latent factors would have potentially
strengthened the results. These limitations will be addressed in future studies.
283
7. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, undergraduate students in an Irish Medical School have a positive attitude to communication skills teaching and learning at the beginning of the
training programme. By the end of the first clinical year (2nd year), the decline in
attitudes to communication skills teaching and learning was statistically significant.
By the end of the training programme attitudes are almost back to the original baseline attitude scores. The decline in attitudes at the end of the 2nd year is an area for
concern and needs to be addressed with effective teaching interventions. Communication skills are a mandatory and core component of professionalism and a prerequisite to inter-disciplinary clinical work.
ETHICAL APPROVAL
Consent for this study was gained from the Health Sciences Departments'
Research and Ethics Committee.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Class of 2012 for participating in this research.
Mr. Craig Smoothey for his advice and assistance with the statistical analysis.
PRACTICE POINTS
1. Medical students in Ireland commence their training with a positive attitude to
communication skills teaching and learning.
2. There is a statistically significantly drop in positivity at the end of the first clinical
year (Year 2).
3. Educational initiatives need to address this decline in positive attitude supporting
students through the middle years of training promoting the attainment and
retention of the core skills of good communication required for professional
practice.
COMPETING INTERESTS
The authors report no competing interests or conflict of interest in the
researching and writing of this paper.
284
REFERENCES:
1. Rees CE, Sheard C. Evaluating first-year medical students attitudes to learning communication skills before and after a communication skills course. Medical
Teacher. 2003;25(3):302-7.
2.
Tor Anvik, Gude T, Grimstad H, Baerheim A, et al. Assessing medical students

towards learning communication skills which components of attitudes do we
measure? BMC Med Educ. 2007;7(4).
3. Cleland J. Undergraduate students attitudes to communication skills learning

differ depending on year of study and gender. Med Teach. 2005; 27;246-515.
4. Sowan-Ahn. Developing a Korean communications skills attitude scale: comparing attitudes between Korea and the West. Medical Education. 2008; 43(3):246253.
5. Doherty E, Mc Gee HM. Communication skills training in undergraduate medicine: attitude and attitude changes. Irish Medical Journal. 2001;3:104-107.
6. Rees CE, Sheard C, Davies S. The development of a scale to measure
medical students attitudes towards communication skills learning: the Communication Skills attitude Scale (CSAS). Medical Education. 2002;36:141-147.
7. Julian L. Simon. Resampling: The New Statistics. Available: http://www.resample.
8.
com/content/text/index.shtml.
harles M. Grinstead J, Laurie Snell. Introduction to Probability. Available:
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/probability_book
/ ams book.mac.pdf.
9. Kabacoff R. R in Action, Manning Publications, NY; 2011.

10. Tor Anvik, Grimstad H, Baerheim A, Bernt Fasner O, et al. Medical students cognitive and affective attitudes towards learning and using communication skillsa
nationwide cross-sectional study. Medical Teacher. 2008;30(3):272-279. (doi:

10.1080/01421590701784356).
11. spegren K. BEME Guide No. 2: Teaching and Learning Communication Skills
in Medicine: A Review with quality grading of articles. Dundee: Association for
Medical Education in Europe; 1999.
12. Howell WC. Human performance and productivity. Vol 2. Information processing
and decision making. Hillsdale, NJ; Erlbaum; 1982.
285
APPENDIX 1
Communication Skills Attitude Scale- (Rees) 2002
Please read the following statements about communication skills (CS) learning. Indicate
whether you agree or disagree with all of the statements by circling the most appropriate
response:
1=strongly disagree
1
2
3
4
2=disagree
3=neutral
4=agree
5=strongly agree
In order to be a good doctor I must have good communication skills

I cant see the point in learning communication skills
Nobody is going to fail their medical degree for having poor Skills
Developing my CS is just as important as developing my knowledge of
Medicine
5 Learning C.S has helped me or will help me respect patients
6 I havent got time to learn communication skills
7 Learning communication skills is interesting
8 I cant be bothered to turn up to sessions on communication skill
9 Learning CS has helped or will help facilitate my team-working skills
10 Learning CS has improved my ability to communicate with patient
11 Communication skills teaching states the obvious then complicates it
12 Learning communication skills is fun
13 Learning communication skills is too easy
14 Learning CS has helped or will help me respect my colleagues
15 I find it difficult to trust information about communication skills given
To me by non-clinical lecturers
16 Learning communication skills has helped or will help me recognize
Patients rights regarding confidentiality and informed consent
17 Communication skills teaching would have a better image if it sounded
More like a science subject
18 W hen applying for medicine, I thought it was a really good idea to
Learn communication skills
19 I dont need good communication skills to be a doctor
20 I find it hard to admit to having some problems with my communication
Skills
21 I think its really useful learning communication skills on the Medical
Degree
22 My ability to pass exams will get me through medical school rather than
My ability to communicate
23 Learning communication skills is applicable to learning medicine
24 I find it difficult to take learning communication skills seriously
25 Learning communication skills is important because my ability to
Communicate is a lifelong skill
26 Communication skills learning should be left to psychology students
Not medical students
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286
Humanities
& Social
Sciences
Gad Yair and Golan Peleg-Fadida,

Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel,
Department of Multi-Disciplinary Studies, Zefat Academic College
and Department of Sociology, Yezreel Valley College, Israel
Learning - the Israeli Way: Key Educational

Experiences and Classroom Noise
ABSTRACT
Aims: The present study exposes that meaningful learning experiences in
Israeli schools take place in noisy and highly active classrooms. In contrast to
common assumptions, we show that significant learning takes place in "active"
classrooms, where "activity" reflects students' enthusiasm, curiosity and interest.
Place and Duration of Study: The study took place in Israel and collected
evidence along three years.
Study Design: The study used a convenience sample of adults who reported
about their strongest educational experiences in life. The sample proved
representative of Israeli high school populations. The present article is based on the
analysis of 483 retrospective key educational experiences that adults had during their
school days.
Methodology: We used interpretive methods to analyze major themes and
patterns but also coded experiences in order to assess the quantitative ecology of
"noisy" experiences in school.
Results: A thematic qualitative analysis of the episodes shows that key
educational experiences occurred when the content of instruction was authentic,
relevant and challenging. Key experiences also reflected teachers' use of competitions, instructional peaks, varied skills employed in research projects, free choice
of activity, presentations in front of an audience, and the use of surprises in learning.
The article shows that many experiences took place on field trips, while others
transpired during what seemed like ordinary frontal, teacher-centered instruction.
Overall, these key educational experiences reflect the "deviance" of individual
teachers from patterned instructional programs and students' "chaotic-like" beha-
287
viors during the pre-planned school schedule. During key educational experiences
the teachers were deviating from formal instructional schedules and the students
were neither sitting in silence, nor complying with formal directives. Rather, they were
shouting with enthusiasm, rejoicing in their learning, at times ignorant of the fact that
they were actually learning.
Conclusion: This article shows that in Israel learning is equated with noisy and
rather informal modes of instruction, suggesting that "active" methods have long-term
educational effects on students' lives.
Keywords: learning; classroom instruction; key experiences; Israel; culture.
1. INTRODUCTION
"In one of my social studies courses for high school seniors, I conducted a
discussion on possible contradictions between democracy and national security. The
pupils worked in teams, preparing arguments for or against each position. The
discussion between the groups provoked excitement, with pupils fervently shouting
at each other. Suddenly in walks the principal, asking if all was under control. I
answered that it was. After class the principal approached me and asked whether I
had discipline problems in class and whether I had managed to finish teaching the
required material" (reported by a high school teacher).
This incident reflects a common wisdom among educators, pupils, and parents
alike, namely that silent classrooms are conducive to learning [1]. According to this
position, silent classrooms provide conditions for effective learning, where teachers
can cover the required curriculum in predetermined timing and at a predetermined
level [2-4]. It is further assumed that noisy classrooms provide fertile ground for pupil
misbehaviour and disengagement. For example, critiques of open or progressive
schools claim that unorganised debates, open discussions and individualised learning
might provide pupils with an opportunity to use the noise and din during such activities
to disrupt classroom order. The common assumption is that learning in such settings
undermines classroom order and exacerbates discipline problems. Learning and noise
are regarded, then, as oxymoronic.
This assumption is indeed heralded by principals who pride themselves on the
silent learning climate in their schools, regarding it as proof of effective learning.
Teachers, too, consider silent classrooms as a key for learning and are inclined to
288
identify a silent classroom with efficient learning. Even pupils and parents emphasize
the importance of a solemn atmosphere for learning, claiming that pupils cannot study
properly in "noisy" classrooms.
In contrast, a growing body of scholarship has begun to undermine the
sweeping conclusions of this common wisdom. Such criticisms stem from recent
theoretical developments that point out the inability of traditional bureaucratic school
systems (which opt for silent classrooms) to cater for long-term meaningful learning
amongst pupils. Theoretical trends such as "constructivism in education", "active
learning", and "authentic instruction" look for instructional and curricular features that
allow pupils to have meaningful long-term learning experiences [5-8]. Furthermore,
an increasing volume of research showing that there is no simple correlation
between classroom noise and pupils' achievements supports such trends. This
literature further suggests that under certain conditions silent classrooms might even
create alienation and pupil disengagement [9,10].
Moreover, critical scholars claim that silence primarily serves schools as a
control device, thus curtailing significant learning [11]. They claim that many schools
maintain silent atmospheres as a disciplinary means, thus compromising significant
didactic goals [12]. They argue that administrators settle for class attendance,
focusing on the accumulation of required credit points for graduation exams. Many
pupils react to such school policies with opposition, expressing little involvement in
class and a protest of roaring silence. Nevertheless, most of them are well aware of
the importance of a graduation diploma for their future. Consequently, they go
through the motions and pretend to be busy learning, knowing that a facade of
involvement is the real scale by which they are evaluated in school [13]. But behind
their expressed silence, they harbour disengagement, alienation, and hostility
towards school and school learning [14,15].
The debate over the silent classroom has theoretical and practical implications,
and has consequently received much attention. While the academic critics of the silent
classroom have gained momentum, educational policies in the past decades have
pressed more firmly on schools to attain predetermined curricula and standards. For
example, in the US the National Commission on Excellence in Education, and its
repercussions in standards-based reforms two decades later has increased the
emphasis on bureaucratic procedures and control mechanisms. In the UK, the
289
National Curriculum has similarly pressed for standartisation and control of instruction
and curricula. Such reforms have not passed unnoticed in the world, Israel including.
Notwithstanding the importance of this debate over silent, controlled classrooms, most of the extant literature on the topic is polemic in nature and ideologically
driven. This state of affairs precludes any firm conclusion put forth by the protagonists
in the debate. Furthermore, most of the studies on this issue were conducted in
ordinary or traditional classrooms, where learning is focused on transferring "dead
ideas" from teachers to pupils. As a result, they could not examine the extent to which
significant learning takes place in silent classrooms.
To overcome these limitations, the present study assesses the extent to
which silent classrooms enable students to experience meaningful instruction. It does
so by analysing retrospective key educational experiences that have left a long-term
mark on pupils' lives. The study uses the most significant learning experiences that
adults recall from their school days in order to reconstruct the type of instructional
practices that were evident in those classrooms. On this empirical basis it seeks to
reassess the claims about the efficacy of silence in classrooms.
1.1 The Classroom as a Learning Society
Willard Waller (1932) characterised the classroom as a learning society
that imposes contradictory tasks on teachers: namely to teach and to motivate pupils.
On the one hand, teachers are required to transmit the required curriculum in
large heterogeneous classrooms. To that effect, they have to teach the pupils a preplanned and pre-scheduled curriculum and prove to their superiors (as well as to
parents) that their pupils achieve formal requirements. In order to meet this goal
teachers are encouraged to discipline their pupils and safeguard the orderly
environment of the classroom. Hence, they are keen on having a silent classroom,
constantly supervising pupils and organising instruction using pre-prepared lesson
plans [16,17].
On the other hand, the constant supervision and disciplinary control of pupils
contradict the second task of teaching, namely motivating pupils, exciting them, and
arousing their interest in learning. Different studies have shown that significant
learning experiences occur when teachers supply pupils with a free choice of topics,
challenging material, high level of skills, and relevant subject matter [5,9]. Therefore,
290
in order to attain their second task, teachers have to ease their disciplinary supervision
and minimise pupil control. Overall, the more teachers try to supervise and control
pupil behaviour, the less they succeed in arousing motivation in their pupils, and vice
versa.
There is evidence that in facing this dilemma most teachers choose to
supervise classroom learning, thus compromising meaningful learning and inquiry.
Studies have shown that the duality of the classroom as a learning society leads
teachers to perceive silence levels as a central measure for assessing their
professional capacity as teachers [18,19]. Many teachers also know that supervisors,
head teachers, and parents all expect them to maintain a silent classroom in order to
assure amicable learning conditions for the pupils [20]. These conclusions are
supported by findings of leaders in school effectiveness studies, who concur that silent
and focused classrooms are more conducive for learning [21].
The inevitable compromises that teachers make - preferring controlling
rather than motivating their pupils - stem from the organisation of the school [7].
The bureaucratic principles of public schools reward teachers who discipline their
pupils, while obstructing those who seek to motivate the pupils by using informal
strategies [22]. The following analysis suggests that silence in classrooms is indeed
driven by organisational considerations.
First, hierarchical teacher-pupil relationships encourage teachers to maintain
distance from their pupils, avoiding improvisation and flexibility [17]. They prefer to
follow pre-set course outlines while preventing pupils from developing an independent
learning agenda. Second, the bureaucratic requirement to abide by impersonal
rules and regulations leads most teachers to meticulously cover the material in the
curriculum while blocking new initiatives and learning ideas that are not "test material".
To meet these requirements, teachers strictly hush their classroom so that they can
"cover the material" in time. Thus, dictation from the teacher's notebook and reading
out aloud from pre-prepared worksheets create the feeling of serious and silent
learning, especially to external spectators. Third, school inspection rules also pressure
teachers to maintain silence. Inspectors mainly assess external features of classroom
instruction: They check national school timetables, assess the attainment of the
National Curriculum, focus on decreasing dropout rates, and on controlling pupil
misbehaviour. Studies have indeed shown that inspectors focus on symbolic and
291
formal aspects of teaching, placing less emphasis on the inherent technology of

teaching, namely the motivation to learn and the meaningfulness of instruction [23].
Thus the ministry of education, school inspectors, and head teachers are all busy
maintaining the core rituals of schooling, preferring silent classrooms to productive
and meaningful, but unorganised learning environments.
This analysis suggests that bureaucratic schools encourage most teachers to
discipline their pupils and insist that their classroom study in silence. Moreover, such
traditional schools promote the belief that silence in the classroom indicates that
pupils are busy learning.
Consequently, silence is usually equated with learning while noise and
disorganisation are regarded as disobedience.
2. RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Although there is no direct evidence to prove that meaningful learning
experiences can take place only in orderly, silent classrooms, there are different
theoretical threads that indeed seem to support this general contention. First, Carroll's
model of learning prompted many researchers to examine the effectiveness of
teaching in terms of time [24]. The model assumed that all pupils can learn, and that
pupils' talent variability required differential time allotments for achieving similar
outcomes. Following these premises, different scholars measured the time allotted
to learning in different classrooms, assuming that the time allotted for learning in
a silent classroom equals to the time pupils are actually engaged with instruction [2527]. These studies have shown that silent and controlled classrooms use up to 80
percent of the time allotted. Other studies have shown that noise level and pupil
opposition in lower socioeconomic classrooms decrease the effectiveness of teaching
by enlarging the gap between allotted time and engaged time [12].
A similar argument emanates from studies of school organisation. For example,
a comparison between private and public schools suggests that orderly learning
environments and achievement-directed school cultures provide more opportunities
to learn and higher normative pressure toward school learning [28-30]. Thus, pupils
in private and Catholic schools in the U.S. have higher achievements than their
compatriots in public schools due to the fact that private schools have more orderly
and silent classroom environments. In comparison, portraits of life in public schools
292
show that many classrooms are noisy and disobedient, with teachers sacrificing
instructional demands in order to attain the facade of a controlled classroom. With
some generality, then, these studies support the claim that silent classrooms are
indeed more effective for learning.
Third, school effectiveness studies - a conceptually independent body of
literature - have a similar view. These studies have attempted to extract basic features
of school organisation and culture, which set some schools ahead of the pack, and
emphasised that silent and controlled school environments yield high achievements
[31-35]. In contrast, in schools that lack leadership and control mechanisms over pupil
achievement, pupils evade learning while settling for the lesser side of the educational
opportunities that schools provide.
Although they differ conceptually and methodologically, these three lines of
study concur that orderly and silent classrooms constitute the grounds for efficient
learning. They also seem to agree that noisy, uncontrolled classrooms harbour
disobedience and pupil disengagement. Notwithstanding this agreement, these
theoretical schools share similar shortcomings, which should preclude a hasty
acceptance of their conclusions about the effectiveness of silent classrooms for
meaningful learning.
There is reason to suspect that what these studies call "learning" is not really
meaningfully experienced as such by pupils. These cumulative models of learning
assume that learning is a slow process that takes time to materialise, with pupils
accumulating knowledge by sitting in classrooms day after day, year after year. There
is reason to believe, however, that meaningful learning experiences cannot be
equated with the outcomes measured by most studies in educational research. School
achievements in mathematics, science, or reading cannot be equated with meaningful
learning experiences. Consequently, these studies have not yet provided sufficient
evidence to decide that silent classrooms are indeed necessary for producing
meaningful learning experiences.
Overall, existing research does not provide us with a resolution to the question
of whether a silent classroom is actually a learning classroom, or more accurately
whether a learning classroom is necessarily a silent one. The aim of the present study
is to fill in the gap in this literature and test the claim that a meaningfully learning
classroom requires silence. Unlike most studies in this field, the present study
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examines meaningful and significant learning experiences that were reported by

adults many years after their school days. Thus, by analysing these significant
learning experiences, the present study attempts to examine whether these
experiences occurred in classrooms that were silent, and if not, to assess the "noisy"
activities in those situations.
2.1 The Study
In contrast to studies that use scholastic achievements as a criterion, the
current endeavour uses meaningful, key learning experiences to assess the nature of
effective instruction. Key learning experiences are those that have proved to have a
decisive effect on pupils' lives [36-38]. They were episodes that allowed learners to
evaluate their wishes, capacities and opportunities, and enabled them to break free
from prior limitations and set themselves on a new path. These are the educational
episodes that adults deemed to be the most influential in their lives, therefore serving
as keys to their lifelong development.
2.1.1 Sample
The present study is based on a snowball collection strategy that culminated in
a sample of 505 respondents, aged 21 and above (with a range of 21 to 75, and a
mean age of 37 years). The sample is representative of the Israeli population, with
the exception of rural residents who were over-represented. Students from two
universities interviewed two adults from their neighbourhood, and personally reported
on their own key educational experiences. After narrating their experiences,
respondents filled out a questionnaire, which focussed on their best key experience.
The present study focuses solely on school-related experiences. It is based on reports
of 379 of the 505 respondents who reported on key experiences that took place in
school. Overall, these respondents reported on 483 learning experiences. We used
several criteria to select experiences: (a) we only used experiences we could tie with
socioeconomic and educational background variables; (b) we focused on experiences
which incorporated all the necessary features of organization, phenomenology and
outcomes (see below); (c) we selected only those experiences which matched the task.
The extracted experiences were divided by school level. Most key experiences
were recorded in high school (n = 229), with a smaller share in middle schools
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(n = 92) and primary schools (n = 162). Statistical testing did not show any correlation
between respondents' age and the type of institution that most prominently affected
their life. This finding suggests that the results do not reflect memory-related recency
effects. Moreover, it is possible that the design of the study triggered respondents to
tell a story as a "turning point" narrative [39], though the phrasing of the questions
asked respondents to report their best life experiences, or the most significant ones,
without hinting at the fact that the study focuses on critical moments.
2.2 Methodologies
Data gathering was based on in-depth interviews in which the respondents
were asked to report their three most significant learning experiences, whenever and
wherever they occurred. After the interview, respondents were asked to choose the
most significant experience of the three, and to answer a closed questionnaire related
to it. Respondents were taped during the interview and the entire transcripts were
taken from the tapes. Respondents were asked to address three main aspects of
their key experiences:
Organisation - in this part the respondents were asked to describe the organisation of the activity, focusing on teaching practices and methods.
Phenomenology - in this part the respondents were asked to report their
feelings during the activity, while discerning between intellectual, emotional, and
identity-focused phenomenological experiences.
Outcomes - in this part the respondents were asked to report the long-term
effects of their key experiences, while discerning between effects on their values,
behaviours, pragmatic decisions, and personality.
2.3 Data Analysis
The study used a grounded-theory approach, combining deductive and
inductive content analysis of the interviews. The analysis started with a deductive
coding of the narratives using categories derived from the pilot study. Further
categories were inductively gleaned from the data. Each experience was divided into
segments (sentences and paragraphs), and each was assigned a main title. Similar
titles were grouped into theoretical categories, which were developed and refined as
the coding continued.
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Grouped categories relate to different teaching characteristics (i.e., authenticity,

surprise), and to attitudes toward a "silent" and a "noisy" classroom. Other categories
served to count episodes where noise indeed reflected disciplinary problems. After
completing the coding, the frequency count of key experiences in each category was
summed up. While we focus on the qualitative aspects of those key experiences,
we thought that a quantitative estimation of the "ecology" of outstanding instructional
practices is important in delineating the prevalence of various features of those events.
2.4 Rationale of the Present Study
The present study examines instructional characteristics that were salient
during key educational experiences. The main objective is to characterise the
instructional methods and strategies that teachers used during these episodes.
Conceptually, this approach seeks to assess whether these are "silent" strategies, and
whether these methods indeed controlled and silenced pupils. This exercise is of
utmost significance for the present study for two reasons.
First, if key educational experiences were not formed when teachers used
"silent" methods, but rather when instruction was "noisy", then the claim that
meaningful learning can take place in seemingly uncontrolled and noisy classrooms
is borne out by the data. Second, to the extent that key educational experiences have
indeed occurred in silent classrooms, we will be in a position to examine what actually
happened during these silent episodes, namely whether pupils were passive (simply
listening to a teacher), or rather were busy with disciplined learning activity. Finally,
our approach enables us to assess the extent to which Israeli cultural codes drive
"noisy classrooms" to prove effective in creating lifelong learning experiences [40].
3. FINDINGS
The reporting of findings is divided into four sections. The first two sections test
the assumption that meaningful learning experiences mainly occur in silent classrooms. They examine the instructional strategies and methods that teachers used
during key educational experiences, focusing on informal activities on the one hand,
and on the contents of the activities on the other. The third section shows that a
significant number of key experiences occurred outside the classroom, during field
trips and "noisy activities". The fourth section suggests that even teacher-centered,
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lecture-type instruction can remain engraved for life, conditioned on their instructional
characteristics.
3.1 Contents and Activities in Key Educational Experiences
Table 1 presents the frequency distribution of the categories, which were used
to describe instruction during key, highly meaningful learning experiences. Based on
the analysis of the narratives, we distinguish between content and activity characteristics. The reports suggested that many key experiences occur in silent classrooms, but that the content of instruction during these episodes was relevant,
authentic and challenging. However, the results clearly suggest that many key
experiences took place in noisy classrooms, where the activities did not allow teachers
to maintain a silent, orderly environment.
Table 1. Frequency distribution of content and activity feature in key
educational experiences
Teaching Strategy
Authenticity
Relevance
Challenge
Performance in Public
Experimentation
Use of Multiple Skills
Constructing Peaks
Allowing Choice
Using Competitions
Using Surprises
Type
Content
Content
Content
Activity
Activity
Activity
Activity
Activity
Activity
Activity
Frequency (N)
121
63
58
56
34
32
25
21
20
10
The following exegesis of the results uses original transcripts from respondents'
reports in order to exemplify the contents and activities during key educational
experiences, and to characterise the atmosphere during these episodes. We usually
cite one quote for each category, although we could have provided many more. The
numbers appearing at the bottom of the quotes refer to respondents' ID code and
memory number.
3.2 Content Characteristics
The most salient content characteristic appearing during key educational
experiences is authenticity. Authentic instruction is usually defined as teaching reallife topics, or as doing real-life activities [5]. Most respondents considered authentic
instruction as "learning from life and about life" - learning that is neither scholastic
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nor disconnected from real-life and the adult world. Rather, the contents of instruction
extend from real-life topics and connect pupil learning to their surrounding world.
Authentic instruction brings pupils into direct contact with reality, without the mediation
of a formal and emotionless school curriculum, which by its very nature relates to
pupils' "ratio", or cold reason [41]. In contrast, direct contact with real-life situations
allows pupils to feel and think at the same time, thus engraving the educational activity
for a long time.
The analyses suggested that authentic instruction usually took place outside
the ordinary classroom, immersing pupils in real-life situations. These settings were
devised using learning expeditions and by visits to institutions, or by an active
participation in an event [42]. These visits and active participation in authentic settings
can turn routine topics into lifelong, key educational experiences. For example, a 24
year old respondent described an authentic lesson his teacher devised instead of a
routine social studies lesson.
"In our social studies class in the 11th grade, we conducted discussions about
motor vehicle accidents. At one time we went to visit the hospital where many accident
casualties were hospitalised, some in critical condition, some even comatose. It is
rather difficult to admit, but no teacher, no lecturer, nor traffic professional who came
to the classroom to talk to us, no officer or doctor could ever be such a strong and
real education figure as that critically wounded person in that ward. The learning
method was the situation itself... healthy children standing face-to-face with an
accident victim" (44/3).
The second most frequent category was relevance. Understanding, as John
Dewey claimed, happens only through an experience, which is related to pupils'
lives [43]. Learning must stem from past experiences and build up from the local to
the universal. Similarly, many scholars claim that learning has to happen "close" to
the individual (in his "proximal zone of experience", as Vigotsky says), and relies on
pupils' original experimental discoveries. This perspective indeed promotes school
reform in many places, which opt to adopt relevant instruction and curriculum that
connect with pupils' lives. As children differ from each other in their abilities, interests
and past experiences, a relevant curriculum must allow each one to choose his or her
personal topic of interest. Noteworthy in this respect is Theodore Sizer's dictum that
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"Kids Differ" [8,44], a basic principle later developed in his Coalition of Essential
Schools.
Examples for relevance in teaching reappear in respondents' narratives of their
key educational experiences. For example, a 30 year old educational counsellor told
us about the research project she did during the seventh grade.
"Seventh grade was the Bar Mitzvah year in the kibbutz, part of which was
dedicated to a project which examined a topic related to Israel. At that time I was
reading a book by Dvorah Omer, called "Love unto Death", which describes a love
affair between a young girl from the army during 1947-8, and one of the boys there,
who was later killed. As a seventh grader I was touched by the story and decided to
write my project on that. It was a true story and I decided to write my paper on that
topic... My father drove me to Dvorah Omer's house and I talked to her... she let me
read some of the diaries that the girl (Zohara) kept, which were the raw material for the
plot... My father also drove me to see one of Zohara's childhood friends... reading
Zohara's diaries and talking with her friends linked the reality and my imagination (the
book)... the mere connection of something I read with its reality made that experience
that much more unique and fascinating... my decision to study literature and education
rose out of my feelings and interest in studies which could be applied to reality" (279/1).
The third most frequent content characteristic is challenge (n = 58). Many
respondents, some of whom had previously defined themselves as mediocre or poor
pupils, noted that their "great moments of learning" were characterised by the difficult
challenge they faced. Often, those were tough research assignments given to pupils
in or out of school. In other cases, pupils were faced with topics and assignments
that were intellectually and emotionally challenging, and promoted stormy and
lengthy debates in class. All in all, challenging assignments demanded that pupils
make the most of their personal resources (thinking, will-power, self-discipline and
motivation), while requiring high performance levels, concentration and engagement.
One of the most challenging instructional strategies was based on teamwork where
pupils had to solve difficult problems and assignments in a group. A respondent who
reported on his physics class provided an apt example for this category.
"The teacher presented us with a time-limited challenge, namely to build a
device which produces its own energy... the pupils spent the whole weekend trying out
different ideas and methods, using all the material and knowledge they possessed as
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well as their creative imagination... of course we did not make it, but... we did not feel
we were busy learning, but rather that we were dealing with the challenge of proving
to that teacher that we could do it" (200/1).
The challenge in those tasks is often accompanied by a time limit, which
creates a sense of urgency among pupils. In this and other cases we learnt that pupils
dropped all other activities and focused their energy on solving the problem, since it
was important for them to prove to their teacher that they could meet the challenge.
3.3 Characteristics of Informal Activity
Besides content characteristics, the analysis has pointed to seven other
informal features of key educational experiences. The frequency count of these
features appears in Table 1, and the following discussion elaborates on a number of
them.
The most frequent instructional strategy we found (n = 56) is performance
in public. Respondents have a varied perception of an "audience", including peers,
adult guests (e.g., parents), and external evaluators. Performing in front of an
audience puts pupils in a stressful situation and encourages them to attain their best
performance. We have found that public success and immediate feedback arouse
intense feelings and self-fulfillment among respondents. For example, a 44 year old
respondent recounted that at the age of 15 she enjoyed her geography classes
particularly because the teacher appointed her as a "little teacher". At the beginning
of every lesson the respondent conducted a 10-minute rehearsal with her class peers.
"I enjoyed the activity very much. It was lots of fun standing in front of the class,
explaining the issues and discovering that pupils are interested and understand my
explanations. I felt I was in command of the curriculum, that I was a good pupil,
and that I was well able to explain the lesson to my classmates. The presence of
the pupils prompted me to continue and explain and repeat it every time. This made
me highly satisfied" (368/2).
The
second
most
frequent
instructional activity
was
research
and
experimentation. As many scholars already noted, significant learning occurs when

pupils actively understand the material, through experimentation and research activity
[5,43,45]. Respondents' recollections of key experiences suggest that they were
asked to gather data, perform tests, systematically document incidents, analyse
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data, and prepare a research report. Experimental work in biology class, or writing a
theoretical paper in a social science class, created an almost singular experience
where pupils felt that they are finally responsible for creating, criticising, and validating
knowledge. For example, a respondent reported that as part of his high school
geography lessons he had to choose one elective course out of several options, and
he chose navigation because it interested him. In this informal framework, the
geography teacher taught the pupils to read maps and draw navigation routes.
"Learning was practical. We went out for two- or three-day field trips. At the
beginning of each trip the teacher explained the maps, and then the pupils went out
for a hands-on experience, alone or in pairs... The independent experimentation was
very enjoyable. It gave us a feeling of independence and control, confidence, and a
sense of orientation... In time, this preoccupation with navigation turned from a hobby
into a semi-professional career. I took part in many navigation competitions in Israel
and won first prize in quite a number of them" (384/3).
The third instructional strategy we deciphered was skills. Indeed, supporting a
rich research tradition [46-48], the present study found that instructional activities that
used a variety of pupils' skills tended to leave their mark for many years. Examples
are numerous and varied: artistic skills (acting, dancing, singing, painting), technical
skills (building and dismantling construction) or personal skills (handling time
pressures, organisation management, teamwork). In all the narratives in which this
strategy appeared, the activity demanded that pupils use more than one skill. A good
example is the story of a respondent who today works as a guide in a science museum.
"In the ninth grade biology class, we were asked to write a paper on air pollution.
Later, the teacher asked for volunteers to put up an exhibition on air pollution. I
volunteered and together with a team of five other pupils we were busy for a whole
month preparing the exhibition. It was important for us to put across the message to
all pupils, in a clear and understandable way, so that even those who were not
interested in the subject would support the issue. Our cause was sublime: to arouse
awareness of the risks of air pollution. Unlike our theoretical paper, here we had to
use many skills, working under a pre-set timetable and using creative and original
skills. For example, we drew the globe crying for help: "My hole in the ozone layer was
growing and the icebergs were melting..." On another poster, we pasted all kinds of
sprays ejecting preones, which attack the ozone layer. In order to illustrate acidic rain
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we drew black forests, deserts and wilderness, versus green and fresh grass with
budding flowers. The teacher gave us a free hand in deciding which topics to focus
on, and how to present them... The exhibition, which we built single-handedly, was
positioned at the entrance of the school and was highly successful... we received
praise from other pupils. During the activity I felt self-fulfilled and experienced a sense
of vocation. Constructing the exhibition by ourselves gave me a sense of motivation
to learn and apply myself; it taught me what teamwork and cooperation is all about,
and I felt in control of the subject matter" (451/1).
This report illustrates the importance of using pupils' skills. Firstly, the use of
skills can influence pupils' engagement in class, as they are given the opportunity
to express their skills and capabilities - a very different feat to what is commonly
demanded in silent, orderly classrooms. Secondly, exhibiting their prowess using
different media (painting, writing, putting up exhibitions, theatrical shows) allows
otherwise lesser involved pupils to take part in organising such activities [6].
Furthermore, the multi-media character of such activities promotes the use of many
senses (touch, vision, hearing, smell, and even taste) and touches a variety of
interests, thus allowing almost every pupil to take part in the activity and enjoy learning.
Another strategy that teachers used to challenge and motivate pupils was
evident in their use of competitive situations. Respondents reported that their peak
motivation occurred during the competitions that their teachers conducted in class.
Competitiveness was not the main theme of the activity, but rather a catalyst that the
teacher used to prompt pupils to take an active part in learning. Nevertheless,
competitions can transform a dull lesson into a highly emotional endeavour. As a
result of such arousal in class, pupils retain long-lasting memories of the content of
instruction, or of its moral principle. For example, a young respondent described a
covert though significant competition that her teacher initiated between her pupils.
"As part of my high school curriculum I chose to study Arabic. In my final year
we had to pass an oral graduation test. But most pupils, myself included, had a very
hard time with that. We felt stressed and tense, fearing the test... One day the teacher
invited us over to her house. We watched a short videotape of her last visit to Egypt,
listened to songs in Arabic, and she gave us some refreshments. We talked and
laughed like friends... Then the teacher asked us to tell a story in Hebrew, and she
helped us write it in Arabic. Then she prompted us to have a dialogue in Arabic about
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the meaning of the stories. Thus, we began a sort of invisible, but positive,
competition, as each pupil wanted to express his own opinions and oppose the
others... Finally, we learnt to love Arabic and succeeded nicely" (451/1).
Surprise - although the least prevalent strategy we extracted - represents
another unique means by which teachers arouse intense feelings and motivation.
Surprises in activities create highly emotional excitation and promote pupils' cognitive
insight. Furthermore, such situations create high motivation among pupils, who seek
to discover or solve the mystery that the teacher cast into the activity. Surprising
activities could take form in a variety of ways. According to some reports, key
educational experiences took place when pupils did not know what to make of the
teacher's plotted lesson. For example, one respondent described a surprising
activity that her science teacher created in primary school.
"The teacher, a colorful personality, called for a volunteer and asked him to lie
on her desk (usually covered with test tubes). She blindfolded him and forbade us to
react throughout the experiment. In addition, we were neither told what the subject
matter was, nor about the purpose of the experiment, so we did not know what to
expect. The teacher inserted pieces of paper between the volunteer's toes and lit
them. The pupil began rotating his legs as if he was riding a bicycle and just in time
the teacher removed the burning pieces of paper. This is how I learnt the fascinating
topic of instincts. The surprise caused excitement in class" (51/1).
This story demonstrates that pupils had no clue as to what was about to happen
in class. Then, in what seemed like a scene from a highly charged emotional
gathering, e.g., where the preacher is inspiring his congregation, the respondent had
an insight - the topic of the lesson, which earlier had seemed to be an unfocussed,
chaotic educational activity, became clear to her.
In reviewing the results, it appears that key educational experiences did not
take place in silent classrooms. The analyses have shown that pupils were all but
slumber: they were active, fervent, enthusiastic, and keenly interested in the topic;
they were emotionally aroused, feeling excitement and fulfillment. The content
and activity characteristics described here suggest that for instruction to have longlasting effects on pupils' lives, it cannot be based on simple teacher-centered
strategies. Likewise, teacher-centered, controlled and supervised classrooms left few
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traces in pupils' recollections. Rather, instruction that passed the test of years was
based on "noisy" and seemingly disorderly strategies.
Performance in public was necessarily predated with uncontrolled, cheerful
rehearsals; competitions generated shouts and enthusiastic engagement; relevance
and authenticity made things dear to pupils' lives, thus implicating their selves in
the activity, resulting in highly emotional and fervent involvement. Although we do not
test this hypothesis here, we conjecture that instructional activities that combine
several of the above mentioned content and activity features are more likely to have
long-lasting effects on pupils' lives than those that use only one or none at all. All
in all, the evidence suggests that although key educational experiences did not
necessitate noise or disorder in class, they rarely occurred in silent, highly supervised
classrooms. The next section elaborates on this claim.
3.4 Outward Bound: Learning Outside the Classroom
Dewey and Whitehead, the American pragmatic philosophers, noted at the
beginning of the twentieth century that instruction through the use of experimentation
could translate disconnected scholastic knowledge into the child's own reality, and
thus revive "dead ideas" [43, 49]. According to their position, only experimental
learning, which connects classroom learning with authentic and relevant topics
outside the school, deserves the title of education. The findings of the present
study support this philosophical view, by showing that key educational experiences
occur "in the real world", i.e., outside schools' boundaries [42].
Indeed, many respondents (n = 65 or 13.5% of the experiences) pointed to the
fact that their key educational experiences took place outside the classroom. Learning
through field trips, visits to an orchard, and excavating genuine archaeological
sites combined theoretical content (previously studied in class) with its authentic,
natural setting. Outward-bound activities are enriching, helping pupils gain insight
about the topic and its natural context. For example, a 45 year old respondent spoke
about her high school biology classes, which took place outside the classroom. She
described how enjoyable these field trips were, and why pupils were cooperative the
whole time.
"My high school science teacher was an avowed science lover and an expert
on reptiles and plants of all kinds... Few were the lessons we had indoors. Sometimes
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we were in the lab, and sometimes we strolled in the fields surrounding the school, or
travelled far away on field trips... he used to talk about the topics while picking up
stones and telling us: "look, under this stone I found the reptile which is called so and
so..." We never dared interrupt his lessons, because the experience was so engaging
that we did not want to make trouble in class and be punished and miss the next field
trip" (304/1).
3.5 Silent Engagement in Teacher-Centred Classrooms
Significant learning experiences rarely occurred in silent classrooms. Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that under certain conditions even teacher-centred
instruction can produce key educational experiences. The analysis found that many
respondents reported their significant learning experiences to have occurred in
teacher-centred classes (n = 75), where teachers combined authenticity, relevance,
surprise, or peaks into the curriculum. Integrating these characteristics in teaching
resulted in pupils' cognitive curiosity and emotional involvement with instruction. For
example, one respondent described her high school history teacher as follows:
"The teacher entered the classroom and said she was going to talk about
the Holocaust. This was not surprising, as it was part of the curriculum. We took
out our notebooks and pens but the teacher said, 'there is no need'. I have to admit
that I personally did not like history nor did I like the teacher. I used to disrupt and
disobey from time to time. She started the lesson with a presentation from that period.
She said she was going to speak as a Holocaust survivor. She talked about her
parents, about their life in the community. She didn't ask questions - it was one
continuous lecture... we sat there for two long hours mesmerised. We even gave up
the break. At the end of the lesson she opened the box that stood on her table, and
took out a bar of soap, displaying it as her family members. We were shocked. I can
still remember that lesson in detail" (232/1).
There is reason to believe that the silence in this and in similar classrooms was
due to the pupils' keen interest in what the teachers had to convey. To the extent
that the contents were authentic, challenging and relevant to pupils' lives, they willfully
cooperated with their teacher's agenda. To the extent that such encounters required
pupils to incorporate their personal resources into learning and forced them to think,
to introspect or retrospect; to the extent that they learnt new things about their
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environment and about their own selves - to that extent pupils had immersed
themselves in learning, entering a state of flow [50]. Unlike traditional teachercentered instruction, learning in highly challenging and authentic classrooms does not
allow pupils to remain passive. Silence in these cases resulted from attentive listening
on the part of the pupils, rather than from an enforced discipline by the teacher. In
conclusion, the testimonies that we analysed prove that it is possible to significantly
affect pupils even in teacher-centred classrooms - without the need to use
"firecrackers", charisma, or highly charged rhetoric.
4. DISCUSSION
The present study has provided an initial description of instructional practices
that teachers used in what time proved to be adults' most meaningful educational
encounters. It has demonstrated that certain content and activity characteristics
generated cognitive and emotional involvement among pupils that affected their life
henceforth. The following discussion of these results touches upon four main
conclusions.
First, the study has shown that most key educational experiences occurred in
a "noisy classroom" rather than in a "silent" one. While the literature assumes that
teacher-controlled and silent classrooms constitute arenas conducive to learning, the
present study shows that meaningful, key educational experiences mostly occur
during an active and noisy interaction among class peers, during a public performance
in front of an audience, while working in pairs, through interviewing and arguing, and
by utilizing different skills and capabilities.
Teachers' use of competitions often led to pupils shouting at each other with
excitement. The construction of peaks and surprises in the curriculum generated
involvement and enthusiasm. The requirement to exhibit diverse skills and capabilities often created a carnival-like atmosphere in class.
Thus, in contrast to pupils' usual silent attendance in school, the instructional
strategies described here necessitated pupils to attend to relevant and authentic
issues, which demanded their utmost cognitive effort. During these key educational
episodes, learning did not require silence. On the contrary, silence in class would have
annihilated learning and dulled the emotions that surfaced during the activity, replacing
them with a cold, meticulous scholastic activity. One respondent summed up her
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experiences poignantly: "That was not a silent classroom, there was a lot of noise, but
such a healthy noise, where everyone called out to the other: 'I found, I discovered,
come see what I've got'. That was extremely interesting, the noise, the sounds,
the voices. These are things I remember until today" (200104622).
Second, some of the experiences mentioned here did not involve stormy verbal
interactions. Nevertheless, the pupils were far from being passive. Instruction in such
contexts impelled pupils to use their capabilities in an active and motivated manner.
For example, the paper that the respondent wrote on the protagonist in Dvora Omer's
story (relevance), or the preparation of drawings and presentations for the air pollution
exhibition (skills), did not require that the respondents work in a noisy setting.
Indeed, pupils can perform such assignments without talking, some without need for
interaction whatsoever. Nevertheless, these tasks definitely demanded respondents
to use their cognitive ability, skills and capabilities, while exhibiting enthusiasm and
learning derived from inner motivation. All in all, it seems that a passive engagement,
which characterises silent classrooms (where teachers talk and pupils listen), is rarely
mentioned in the context of significant, key learning experiences.
Third, admittedly, in about 10 percent of the experiences the activity took place
in the context of a teacher-centred classroom, which could be externally described as
a silent classroom. Nevertheless, the results have indicated that the key experiences
that occurred in these settings were not like any other silent, teacher-centred lesson
in school. In almost all cases we found the lesson to be authentic, relevant and
challenging, and the topics were mostly connected to pupils' lives, or to burning issues
that had to do with the community, the school, or their country. Thus, although the
teacher controlled the classroom and instructed in a structured method, pupils in
these settings participated enthusiastically, with overt excitement or covert emotional involvement. This implies that teachers can maintain conservative instructional
activities, yet modify the contents of the curriculum in creative ways, connecting with
and reaching to the life-world of their pupils. Such curricular modifications can
promote exciting debates that would set them apart from the tradition of neutral,
insignificant and routine school learning.
Fourth, the current study suggests that the alleged contradiction between noise
and meaningful learning has little empirical support. It has shown that "positive
noise" was evident during key educational experiences, yet it did not harm order in
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the classroom. In fact, quite the reverse: respondents remembered many teachers
because they promoted noise in their classroom, without losing control over instruction
or discipline. Actually, the reports have indicated that some teachers (n = 25)
considered noise as a positive factor that improves learning and discipline in the
classroom. This contrasts with the common belief held by most teachers that such
noise harms the pupils' ability to learn. Moreover, 40 respondents explicitly referred
to active learning and noise as beneficial, because these features formed a positive
learning atmosphere, aroused interest in the topic, and caused enjoyment and,
paradoxically, even order and discipline in class. The following quotes attest to this
statement: "The classes were conducted as a debate, the theoretical material which
we were all familiar with was taught in the most interesting way possible, and this I
believe is the reason there was no need for disciplinary measures. The pupils came
to learn, because of the lesson" (178/1). "The experiment related to the topic... we
worked in teams and the teacher passed between us and talked with us... The noise
of talking did not bother us. It was almost like a "free hour" which nobody wanted to
miss" (215/1).
Finally, this study supports the thesis by Waller (1932), Bidwell (1965), and Yair
(1997), who claimed that instruction is undertaken in a sociologically ambivalent
setting [51], with teachers torn between the need to motivate pupils and to discipline
them at the same time. The results suggest that teachers who preferred to inspire their
pupils and excite them through learning have been remembered in the long term. In
contrast, the efforts to discipline pupils result in boring them. Thus, the bureaucratic
emphasis that compels most teachers to emphasise discipline, social order and
silence in class results in pupils remembering very few teachers and meaningful
learning experiences. An emphasis on order, discipline and silence curtails the
potential influence of teachers on pupils, and neutralises the basic goal of schooling:
developing interest and love for learning, and influencing pupils' lives.
Nevertheless, the contradiction between discipline and motivation is not
inherent in classroom instruction [9]. The present study suggests that by creating high
motivation for learning, teachers can neutralise the need to discipline pupils since
learning results from pupils' inner interest. The study has indeed shown that when
instruction was authentic, relevant and challenging, when it was built on suspense,
surprise, peak moments and competitions - pupils participated energetically, without
308
causing discipline problems. The noise - and there was much noise during these key
experiences - was the noise of learning, of enthusiasm, of the enjoyment involved in
acts of creation. There is evidence that the insistence on disciplining pupils results in
boredom and - as a consequence of that - in noise, discipline problems, and
alienation from instruction [52]. Upon reflection, it seems that teachers fear discipline
problems in their classroom because they understand that what they do in their silent
classroom actually bores their pupils.
5. CONCLUSION
To conclude, it seems that the question is not whether noise is conducive to
learning, but rather what type of noise. The current study has shown that high noise
levels that derive from enthusiasm and interest in learning do not contradict school
goals. Therefore, if schools wish to affect pupils, they need to find ways to allow more
teachers to be authentic, relevant and challenging. They need to expand the use
of surprises, peaks, competitions, and independent research. The present study has
shown that silent classrooms conceal what time will prove to be meaningless
instruction. In contrast, it has shown that what externally seems to be a disorderly,
chaotic classroom may actually constitute an arena that is educative and will be
meaningful for a lifetime. In concluding this paper we suggest that there might be
some Israeli uniqueness to our results, as culture always plays a part in learning and
instruction [40]. The Israeli national habitus fits the features we identified here [53],
and it is possible that students in other countries might be shocked by some of the
outstanding activities we described here. Comparative studies need to ascertain this
conjecture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on data collected by the first author in a large study of key
educational experiences and on the doctoral dissertation of the second author. The
study was supported by small grants from the Shaine and Eshkol foundations at the
Department of Sociology & Anthropology, and the NCJW Research Institute for
Innovation in Education, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
309
COMPETING INTERESTS
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Kaarina Mtt, Anne Koski-Heikkinen, Satu Uusiautti,

Faculty of Education, University of Lapland, Finland,
Kainuu Vocational College, Kuusamo, Finland
Ideal Teacherhood in Vocational Education

ABSTRACT
Aims: Ideal teacherhood in vocational education has not been widely studied
or comprehensively defined. However, in the changing work life, the role of
vocational education teachers (VET) becomes more and more important as they
are responsible for educating future employees in numerous professional fields.
What does ideal teacherhood consist of in vocational education?
Study Design:
The narrative research approach was chosen to study
VETs perceptions of ideal teacherhood in vocational education.

Methodology: In this study, twelve Finnish VETs were recruited from one
vocational education college with multiple fields. The data obtained included
oral (N=5) and written (N=7) narratives.
Results: According to the results, the conception of ideal teacherhood turned
into a more realistic one as the VETs work experience increased.
Concolusion: Ideal teacherhood in vocational education occurred in the VETs
descriptions through six features of which three are connected with VETs
professional self and three with personal self. Ideal teacherhood in vocational
education can be found in the confluence of these two areas of VET identity.
Keywords: ideal teacherhood; teacherhood; teacher identity; vocational
education; vocational education teacher.
1. INTRODUCTION
The core goal of vocational education is to provide vocational education
students with good professional expertise. Vocational education teachers (VET)
introduce necessary skills and knowledge to be learned in a form that students can
learn and practice [1]. These skills and knowledge support their learning processes
and motivate them to enter work life. VETs are expected to create quality learning
environments and guarantee excellent learning results. In addition, VETs have to
314
update their knowledge and skills constantly as well as to renew professionally,

personally, and communally. VETs interact not only with diverse students but also
with other personnel and rapidly changing work life. Along with these goals, it is
possible to refer to the ideal teaching in vocational education and to the concept of a
good teacher. Uusiautti and Mtt [2] state that it is not possible to define strictly
the criterion of a good teacher ideal teacherhood in this case but a teacher is
always a unique personality. Personality is a teachers essential tool [2], which
means that development toward ideal teacherhood mean somewhat the same as
development toward a good personality [3].
Notwithstanding, it has been questioned whether the essence of good
teacherhood can be even defined [4]. Conceptions are contradictory [5,6], nor is it
always that straightforward to list the factors of good teacherhood [2,7].
Still, attempts to create definitions of good or ideal teacherhood are abundant.
Teachers continuous and determined self-development and commitment to the
personal and professional growth make the prerequisites for the development of
good personality [1,8]. Renewal and personal growth necessitate also redefinitions
of ones professional identity including reflection of ones self at work and in free time
as well as evaluation of ones values, dreams, and commitments [9]. Resulting
positive conception of oneself as a skillful expert and developing individual lays the
foundation of a good professional identity [10,11,12]. Likewise, the definition of good
teacherhood is necessary in vocational education. Next we will discuss the
challenges of and possible outlines of such a definition. The purpose is to analyze
how VETs themselves perceive ideal teacherhood in vocational education.
2. THE DIFFICULTY OF DEFINING IDEAL TEACHERHOOD IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
Constant change is an essential part of VETs work. Because of this, the
definition of ideal teacherhood in vocational education seems unreachable. In
Finland, the reform of curricula in vocational education brought new challenges in
VETs work [13]. Likewise, new conceptions of learning, more and more diverse
student groups, and new teaching arrangements have changed VET qualifications
[14]. Students are still seen as the core of VETs work, but instead of education and
teaching, current conception of learning emphasize more guidance of learning and
learning processes [15,16].
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Various organs of society target expectations and pressure to teachers work.

Teachers should be simultaneously supporters of holistic psychological and physical
development, collaborators who are equipped with exquisite interaction skills, users
of the latest technological innovations and social media who can renew their
teaching and search actively new information, as well as, first and foremost, societal
contributors and activists [17].
VETs have to enhance students learning processes by organizing various
learning situations in diversified and updated learning environments that resemble
actual work situations, methods, and places. Almost every student group includes
students with special needs, which means that teachers must be able to design
individualized study paths for each student [18]. Work with students with profound
and multiple learning difficulties reflects on teachers professional identities aswell
[19]. VETs are expected to be familiar with the latest societal and work-life changes
and the related influence on qualification requirements. A teachers role in relation to
students involves more than ever education about the roles of society and guidance
of study processes [20,21,22].
Along with new learning environments arrangements of workplace learning
periods necessitates that VETs possess specific 277 familiarity with society, work
life, and business life as well as active and developmental cooperation with these
instances [23,24,25]. Multiprofessional cooperation also makes a more salient part
of VETs work [26]. Due to VETs multisided work description, the limits of a teachers
role have been questioned: When is a teacher not a teacher? [27]. Where are the
limits of a teachers qualifications is an essential question when defining ideal
teacherhood and reflecting on its relationship with the reality of teaching in practice.
VETs work can include the requirement of ideal activity and ideal teacherhood [28].
Ideal teacherhood has been greatly studied in the light of different students
opinions [29,30,31,32]. For example, student teachers have been asked to compare
themselves with their conception of ideal teacherhood [33]. Indeed, differences
between students and teachers opinions have raised interest already for a long
time [34], and there are studies analyzing how concepts of ideal student and ideal
teacher are connected to each other [35], how ideal teacherhood contributes to
teacher effectiveness [36], and the relationship between teachers and students [37].
However, ideal teacherhood in vocational education has not been widely
studied. This study aimed to contribute to this gap in knowledge. We wanted to
316
analyze what ideal teacherhood consists of in vocational education in the first place
according to VETs perceptions. This viewpoint was chosen because VETs own
conceptions have not been profoundly analyzed thus far.
3. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TEACHERS IDENTITY
Ideal teacherhood in vocational education is connected with a teachers
identity. Our previous study analyzed VETs identity [38] revealing that it consists of
four areas:
(1) Substance knowledge, including the know-how of VETs professional field,
professional expertise, and work-specific skills.
Teachers are traditionally perceived as subject matter experts. Knowledge of
subject matter has always been the core feature of a good teacher [39]. However,
instead of distribution of information, todays teachers are merely expected to handle
transmission of knowledge. Moreover, evaluation of information and skills is
important in these days. In addition, professional expertise has to be updated
constantly, and the readiness to professional change and development has to be
provided already in vocational basic education.
(2) Pedagogical expertise, including the ability to lead teaching, learning, and
study processes, organize and analyze teaching situations, and encounter and guide
students.
Although technology and teaching methods develop all the time, teachers
personal inputs still matter. It is especially apparent in the pedagogical, ethical, and
moral dimensions of teaching. Pedagogical expertise is a combination of many
knowledge and skills related to student interaction and how they are applied in the
practical complexity of teaching situations [2].
(3) Work-life skills, including co-operation skills, willingness to create networks,
ability to work in various teams, and economic and administration skills.
VETs work in collaboration with colleagues in the college and with employers
and other representatives of the professional field. VETs function as mediators
between vocational education students and work-life professionals.
(4) Developmental abilities, ability and will to develop ones mastery over the
knowledge and skills in ones vocational field, participate in the development of ones
field and work life, and trust in the progress of vocational development through
teaching and learning processes.
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Due to the professional change and variation, VETs are required to possess
such knowledge and teaching skills that helps vocational education students adjust
to the days professional expectations. VETs are expected to work for and influence
the appreciation of their vocational field.
The classification of professional identity in many ways reminds earlier
illustrations of a teachers professional identity [40,41,42,43,44]. Our research was
focused on less studied teachers: VETs perceptions have not been studied much
compared to, for example, elementary school teachers. However, their work differs
greatly from other teachers work.
In this study, we continue our analysis of VETs perceptions of their work. The
focus is especially on their ideas about ideal teacherhood and its connection with
professional identity.
4. METHODS
The purpose of this study is to describe VETs understanding about ideal
teacherhood in vocational education. At the same time, the goal is to analyze how
VETs try to develop professionally and how ideal teacherhood is connected with
professional identity. The following research questions were set for this study:
(1) How does ideal teacherhood in vocational education appear according to
VETs descriptions?
(2) How is ideal teacherhood in vocational education connected to
professional identity according to VETs perceptions?
In this study, twelve Finnish VETs were recruited from one vocational
education college with multiple fields. The request to participate in the study were
sent to all 28 VETs in this college. The teachers had the following questions to help
them to create their narratives: (1) How long you have worked as a VET and how
old are you now?; (2) How did you end up in a VETs profession?; (3) How did you
develop as a VET of this kind that you are today?; (4) What were you like at the
beginning of your career and how are you today as a teacher?; (5) What kind of a
teacher would you like to become?; and (6) What would yo like to achieve in your
teachers career?
The teachers were asked to either write their narratives or record them with a
digital recorder that the researcher would transcribe afterwards. The data obtained
included oral (N=5) and written (N=7) narratives. The narrative research approach
318
was chosen to study VETs perceptions of ideal teacherhood in vocational education.

The approach was considered suitable because of its context-bound, personal, and
subjective nature. In this kind of research, the power is given from the researcher to
the research participant [45]. The narrative research approach simply refers to
analysis of narratives told by people [46].
The concept of narrative defines narrative analysis [47]. The analysis of
narratives means that situations and events, peoples characteristics and other
elements in narratives are categorized into themes and types. In this study, the
purpose was to analyze how ideal teacherhood appears in VETs narratives and what
kinds of themes and types emerge from the data. The narrative analysis pursues
constructing a new narrative that is based on the original narrative data [48] a
description of ideal teacherhood in this case. According to Polkinghorne, a result of
the narrative analysis is a time-bound, structured, and plotted entity with a
conclusion [47]. This kind of meta-narrative reveal various parts of the data and
their confluences.
The data analysis was based on the qualitative data, twelve narratives that
were categorized with the analysis of narratives and combined as conclusions with
the narrative analysis [49]. The analysis of narratives means categorizing based on
types, metaphors, or classes [50]. Marjatta Saarnivaara [51] pointed out that, in
narrative research, description can be seen as the foundation of the construction of
narratives. Description can be widened and specified with analysis. In this study,
categorization followed the idea of the analysis of narratives pursuing the identification of key factors and their interconnectedness [49]. In this sense, the analysis
was data-based, which means that the themes emerging in the data were analyzed and
reduced as the categories introduced as results. According to Jerome Bruner [52],
paradigmatic knowledge is typically rigorous and formal, and produces argumentation that follows from logical statements and careful definition of concepts and
categories.
In narrative research like this one, the reliability and validity of the data are
worth discussing. Transferability criterion refers to sufficient detail of the context and
whether the findings can justifiably be applied to the other setting [53]. In this study,
VETs presented various occupational fields and therefore, their descriptions of
professional identity covered vocational education teacherhood widely. The meeting
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of the dependability criterion is difficult in qualitative work in general because the

research themes and data are often impossible to repeat [53].
Careful description of the select methods and data obtained strengthen the
dependability and trustworthiness of the study [53]. The narrative method seemed to
suit extremely well to the research on teachers professional development and
identity: teachers create and construct their identities by talking, interpreting, and
reflecting their experiences and opinions, which can be seen the foundation of their
perceptions of ideal teacherhood as well [54,55].
5. RESULTS
5.1 The Possibility of Ideal Teacherhood
When defining ideal teacherhood in vocational education, VETs answered to
the question of what they set their sights on as teachers, what kind of teachers they
would like to be, and what is important in teacherhood. Many VETs described their
insecurity and mistakes taking place at the beginning of their teacher careers. This
has been noted by earlier research as well [56,57,58]. The VETs in this study also
talked about their pursuit of being a perfect teacher. VETs reflected on their
unrealistic goals quite aptly:
I made plenty of mistakes. I tried to be a strict, assertive buddy, and this
caused the conflicts with the adolescent students - You have to be an honest
personality (7).
In general, VETs seemed to become able to reflect on the possibility of
reaching ideal teacherhood more realistically after they had gained practical
experience of a VETs work:
Experience makes you strong. Experience has made me into what I am today (5).
Teaching necessitates constant reflection [9]. Likewise, the data in this study
showed that ideal teacherhood seemed to arise from evaluations between oneself
and professional and communal factors influencing teaching (see also [59,60]). As
the VETs developed their individual personality as teachers and could strengthen
their professional identity, they started to accept themselves a they were. This
provided them with strength to work as personalities which meant that they had to
give up on the preconceived, perhaps unrealistic, role of an ideal teacher and have
courage to indulge in teaching situations as themselves.
My teaching style is quite colorful. But now I dare to be myself! (4).
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Following ones own path is not easy nor can any teacher avoid new
challenges and learning or new goals. The uncertain future of professions fester
many VETs minds, but still they want to do teaching well.
I am more like a coach, expert, educator, and some guide who shows
various opportunities that are reasonable for the youth (6).
My dream is to work with balanced and nice youngsters who are highly
motivated to learn a profession for themselves (9).
The heterogeneous student material sets pressure for the pursuit of ideal
teacherhood in vocational education. Many VETs learned to understand that not all
students aim at the top in their field but students goals and readiness are extremely
variable.
The fact that you have more and more difficult students and their life
situations are hard. So, you always have a feeling that, in addition to being
able to provide them with right kind of teaching for work life, I should be able to
give them good guidelines in life (4).
5.2 The Features of Ideal Teacherhood in Vocational Education
The conception of ideal teacherhood turned into a more realistic one as the
VETs work experience increased. The idealistic ideas from the beginning of their
careers became more practice-based and turned into fields of expertise guiding
their work and illustrating their core know-how. Ideal teacherhood in vocational
education occurred in the VETs descriptions through six features.
5.2.1 Mastery of ones professional field and ability to act as a reformer
VETs own experiences and learning about the profession can function
as students support, especially when it comes to the acquisition of good professional skills and knowledge. Mastery of ones professional field means that
the VET knows the nodes and critical points as well as the phases of professional
development.
You have to keep updated all the time, and that is hard for sure. In our field,
the technology develops so fast, that you really have to work hard to keep in the
picture (7).
The purpose is to widen my own expertise. Then I will have more information
to distribute to students and more opportunities to realize practical teaching (11).
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Along with their profound mastery of the profession and teaching it to students,
VETs influence the renewal of professions and enhance students readiness for lifelong learning.
And I think that I will never be ready as a person, and therefore, I cannot
become ready as teacher either. As I grow as a person, I also develop as a teacher.
- You always have to keep up the profession by developing the professional side.
And you cannot become a master in that either. You mature as a human being (4).
5.2.2 All-round pedagogical expertise
Ideal VETs know different teaching methods, are able to plan and be flexible in
teaching situations according to students needs, and give room to individuals and
various students learning abilities. Evaluation at its best can also enhance students
learning motivation.
I would like to develop and know more all the time. I do follow my
profession a lot and I like this field and these subjects I teach. And I would like to
study, too, in the future (5).
I would like to develop into a better expert, for example, of learning difficulties
and to encounter the youth with problems (9).
5.2.3 Networking and collaboration
Ideal VETs can develop professional expertise and students careers by
creating connections with work life. Networks and multi-professionalism necessitate
cooperation, and so does the updating of vocational education. Electronic communication, real-time flow of information, and internationalization also demand new forms
of cooperation.
independent and autonomous teachers work has more and more changed
into cooperation and team work. Teachers have to be able to adjust their teaching
and especially evaluations within predetermined dates mastery over ICT and various
registers and follow-up systems, as well as cooperation and interaction skills (12).
5.2.4 Encouragement and support for students
With even the smallest gestures, VETs can help students
to achieve the
greatest results a few words of encouragement can be enough. Teachers
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ability to encourage students is also self-enhancing because it strengthens teachers

contentment with their ability to guide, teach, and support.
teaching is not the most important thing but learning I would like to be a
VET who never gets into a rut. I would like to develop all the time and know more.
I would think that I could transmit this field so that students could construct their
professional identities in their own way (5).
5.2.5 Fostering of justice and equity, bearing responsibility
VETs are responsible for distributing information, support, and guidance to all
vocational education students concerning their study processes and goals, and the
contents to be studied. The ultimate goal is to make each and every student feel
welcome to education regardless of various background factors, learning histories,
and study abilities.
You have to be extremely fair with them but simultaneously very differentiating
as well. VETs work requires high physical and mental shape (8).
5.2.6 Positive basic values and ability to act as a bellwether
Teachers can teach students about necessary life skills, resources, strengths
and values, as well as attitudes toward oneself, work, and other people. VETs can
become irreplaceable and primary models, idols, or bellwethers to their students.
Their teaching can show the direction in life or encourage to find ones own goals for
studies and life in general.
...if only you could have the student understand what is best for him or her,
why to do this job and study. And why to put ones heart in this job. To become a
teacher who inspires them. Or they could fear a little, but not too much, not too
frightened to enter. To find a balance in this work, so that it would not become
too flaccid (10).
To find success in life, students need to learn about, for example, diligence,
joy, good manners, politeness, modesty, and taking care about the basics in life:
take care that your clothes are clean, do not use dirty language and behave
well, and do not drink during the weekend, and try to foster your good reputation as
the prospective professionals in the field, and teach how to eat healthy, and
everything that I as a parent have done with my own children (4).
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5.3 The Connection between Ideal Teacherhood in Vocational Education

and Professional Identity
In this study, VETs referred to two professional identity selves when talking
about ideal teacherhood in vocational education. These identities are interconnected
but can als be viewed separately. They are professional self and personal self
(cf. [38,59,61,62]). In Results section 5.2, three first mentioned features represent
professional self and three last mentioned belong to personal self.
VETs develop their professional identities and construct their conception of
ideal teacherhood in vocational education during their whole careers through
reflecting on these two selves in professional identity. Teachers reflect on their
experiences of acting as a teacher and compare them with their personal selves and
conceptions of their inner beliefs, ethicality, and values.
It is like two different people fighting (6). Reflection helps VETs to form a
conception of their professional identity and themselves as ideal VETs: who am I and
what am I like as a VET and what do I want to accomplish in this profession. The
professional and personal selves in professional identity are in constant, even
demanding, dialogue over how to work ideally, how an ideal VET behaves in the
first place, what kind of substance knowledge is appreciated and how to develop and
update it, what kinds of pedagogical solutions are made in teaching situations,
and how to act and participate in the developmental work at the workplace.
Mostly work seems to be guided by the professional self, which may not
necessary represent the true, realistic, and relevant guide for teaching work but
merely an ideal image of a VET with unrealistic demands. However, it seems that the
personal self, along with a VETs age and work experience, tries to balance between
idealistic demands with encouraging, practice-based thoughts.
At the beginning, I used to take everything really personally, and students all
actions were like I had did them. I worried so much about students problems and
perceived them even too close. This year I have consciously tried to get rid of this
feature but I always have to remind myself about it. I am a demanding teacher, strict
too when necessary, but still I try to establish a relationship with students that
makes the study atmosphere relaxed and active (9).
Along with time, the personal self helps VETs to act as genuine personalities
at work and to accept the incompleteness. This means that VETs understand that
324
it is impossible to reach ideal teacherhood in vocational education, but it is important

to pursue toward it.
Nowadays, I can speak openly like this. Is it because of my age or profession? (10).
Sometimes, the professional self functions as a sort of shield in a VETs work.
On the one hand, it can regulate a VETs behavior so that the teacher does not
bring out his or her characteristics, values, or convictions that do not fit in the
vocational education context in general. On the other hand, the professional self can
help the VET to cope when the work feels overwhelmingly busy, tiring, or mere
monotonous toil.
6. DISCUSSION
The study showed how VETs found it difficult to describe ideal teacherhood
in vocational education at first [63,64], but eventually they connected it with explicit
work-related expectations, successful solutions, and goals. Ideal teacherhood in
vocational education was also closely connected with a teachers professional and
personal identities. The aforementioned features of ideal teacherhood in vocational
education can also be considered as the manifestations of professional and personal
self in professional identity. Therefore, the ideal professional self consists of the
mastery of ones professional field and ability to renew it, versatile pedagogical skills,
and networking and cooperation skills. Personal self consists of students
encouragement and supporting skills, equality and justice as well as responsibility in
teaching, and good basic values and bellwethers role as a teacher. This connection
is illustrated in Fig. 1. It shows how the professional self and personal self are
interconnected, and ideal teacherhood in vocational education is located in their
borderline. When in balance, the emergence of or pursuit toward ideal teacherhood
in vocational education is possible.
For VETs, this illustration contributes information about ideal teacherhood
from many perspectives. First, when it comes to teachers themselves, the role of
professional identity has a great emphasis in VETs work. They are not only teachers
but also experts in their own vocational fields. Therefore, their identity includes
elements that, for example, teachers in general education do not necessarily
possess. Nevertheless, VETs are teachers too, who, in order to be good teachers,
must use their personality as a part of their work.
325
Second, VET characteristics make a salient part of ideal teacherhood. The

combination of these identity dimensions is relevant to realize when dissecting the
development of professional identity in VETs. In this study, the research participants
were VETs from various occupational fields. Therefore, the illustration in Fig. 1 is
not limited to just one field of vocational education but covers various fields: each
profession has its own specific features related to a VETs professional self that
must be considered when analyzing ideal teacherhood.
Third, this study was based in Finland where vocational education has
increased its popularity among the youth having finished compulsory education.
Therefore, it is more and more important to focus on ways to enhance the
development of teacherhood in vocational education. The new interest in vocational
education necessitates thorough understanding about the importance of proper
professional identity in VETs, but as teachers in all education levels, personal
identities as teachers should not be overlooked either. This viewpoint contributes to
the discussion of future development of VETs work and education not only in
Finland but also abroad.
Fig. 1. Ideal teacherhood in vocational education and teacher identity
326
7. CONCLUSION
Meaningful work is the source of human well-being [65]. This study showed
that identity reflection makes a salient part of VETs perceived well-being at work
[66,67]. The development toward ideal teacherhood in vocational education happens
through each teachers personal reflection including the shift from the dominating
professional self to the flourish of personal self and, finally, toward the balance
between them. Perhaps, ideal teacherhood in vocational education lies not so much
in teachers outer performances but intrinsic reflection and balance. This does not
mean that they would need excellent work-life skills, knowledge, and networks in
their special fields, but, when acquired, they make a salient part of their wellconstructed professional identity [68]. Eventually, teachers, who are in the first name
terms with their vocational education teacher identity, can act as bellwethers and
true developers of their fields. They are inspiring and motivating teachers who, due
to their expertise, enhance students learning and are able to educate future experts
for the needs of work life.
Therefore, VETs work includes a distinct ethical dimension. This study
showed how VETs perceptions of the realities of the profession and ideal
teacherhood emphasize the ethical side of the work. Teachers work in general is
focused on significant phases and situations in peoples lives [69,70,71]. According
to Elena Seghedin [72], teachers ethical action in teaching develops alongside the
development of professional expertise and vice versa: professional expertise
develops also through ethical action. In Finland, Emmi Enlund, Mari Luokkanen, and
Taru Feldt [73] studied teachers ethical burden and ethical dilemma, and ended up
recommending that education institutions should utilize the ethical guidelines
composed by trade unions. They would support teachers work. Common models to
help teachers action in problematic situations could be created based on the
guidelines, which would provide teachers with collective certainty in ethical
considerations. Williamson McDiarmid and Mary Clevenger-Bright [74] point out that
teachers work and professional development are closely tied in the wider society.
According to Kirsi Tirri [75], expertise in teachers work develops through education
and experience and includes freedom and, first and foremost, responsibility to act in
the profession.
Indeed, a well-balanced teacher identity and core values are the sources of
stability and sense of purpose for teachers [76]. This viewpoint contributes also to
327
the current discussion of stress and coping as well as the sense of self-efficacy
in teachers [77,78,79,80]. For example, studies about perceived level of self-efficacy
have proven to be the core dimension of preventing and treating teachers stress
[81]. When considering the findings from the point of view of ideal teacherhood, it
seems relevant to suggest that a successful identity development and a positive
conception of oneself as a VET contributes to the sense of self-efficacy at work and
respectively to ones well-being at work as well. These kind of perspectives appear
of increasing importance in todays rapidly changing work in all occupational fields,
including that of VETs.
COMPETING INTERESTS
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334
Yulia Goncharova, Alexandra Kolomoychenko,

Oles Honchar Dnipropetrovsk National University,
Associate Professors, Ph.D. of Philological Sciences,
the Faculty f Ukrainian and Foreign Philology and Arts
Anglicisms in modern Ukrainian economic

and financial discourse: specificity of functioning
Abstract: This article is devoted to the problem of peculiarities of using English
borrowings in the sphere of economy and finances. Our attention is focused on
linguistic and extra linguistic factors of the use of Anglicisms, the adaptation of English
borrowings to the norms of modern Ukrainian at phonetic, graphic, grammatical and
lexical levels, the peculiarities of economics and finances discourse.
Keywords: nglicisms, adaptation staging, economic discourse.
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348
Alla Khomenko,
Poltava V.G. Korolenko National Pedagogical University,
Doctoral Student of the Department of General Pedagogics
nd Andragogics, Physics and Mathematics Faculty
The typology of upbringing paradigms

in the system of pedagogical scientific knowledge
Abstract: This article analyzes the typology of upbringing paradigms in pedagogical theory. Methodological fundamentals of scientific systematization of the leading upbringing paradigms are considered and analyzed. On their basis the pedagogical
realities of the past and present are explained and evaluated, their generative content
is set, and their prognostic potential is defined.
Keywords: pedagogical scientific knowledge, pedagogical paradigm, upbringing paradigm, typology of upbringing paradigms.
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355
A.A. Opletin,
Candidate f the Pedagogical Sciences,
Associate Professor f the Perm National Research Polytechnic University
Facilities of the physical culture in creating

the pedagogical system of a personality
self-development on base of the synergy theory about
realized and nonrealized in psyche of the person
Abstract: The article deals with the question of the personality self-development complex pedagogical system and technologies of its realization in high school
pedagogical process, oriented on provision of the motor and intellectual potential unity,
physical and spiritual-moral development on base of the competence approach.
Keywords: personality self-development, pedagogical system, program, pedagogical technology, physical culture, inspiring, belief, synergy of realized and nonrealized in psyche of the person.
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8. Aftimichuk O.E. Pedagogiko-psikhologicheskie I medico-biologicheskie problem
fizicheskoi kultury I sporta, 2015, 2(35), pp. 28-38, available at: http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id= 21744097. DOI 10.14526/01_1111_04.
362
Natalia Chebotareva,
Moscow University of Economics and Liberal Arts,
Associate Professor, Ph.D. in Pedagogics, Faculty of Humanities,
Svetlana Kovaleva,
Moscow University of Economics and Liberal Arts, Associate Professor,
Ph.D. in Sociology, Faculty of Humanities
Social and Communicative Strategies of Influence

on Society in Information Warfare
Abstract: The article covers the issues related to the social and communicative
strategies used for making impact on mass consciousness. It discusses various aspects of information warfare, its subjects, objects and manipulative techniques applied
in pursuit of a competitive advantage over opposing forces.
Keywords: information warfare, manipulation, media manipulation, social communication, strategic communication.
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372
Moseychuk Ann,
Odessa Regional Basic Medical School
Diagnostics of research competence of future

middle ranking medical workers
Abstract: The main aspects of the operational structure of research activities
have been considered, the results of diagnostics of the research competence of freshmen have been analyzed, the conditions of formation of the research competence in
the system of training of future middle ranking medical workers have been determined.
Keywords: the future medical technicians, research activity, formation, competence, research competence.
Introduction. In accordance with the WHOs global strategy Health for All in
the 21st Century, which determines the bases of policy for health achievement, for the
full realization of the health potential by all people, it is necessary to promote and
protect peoples health throughout their lives; to reduce the incidence and severity of
major diseases, the implementation of which is possible through participation in health
activities of individuals, groups, population and organizations.
Of course, certain professional tasks aimed at the improvement of society
should be taken by the middle ranking medical workers, as their professional competence and objective availability for the population cause real possibilities of a positive
effect on public awareness and involve the need for active participation in forming national health. It is known that middle ranking medical workers, along with the provision
of primary and emergency care, are the professionals in other areas of health care,
providing assistance to the population in maintaining health, preventing diseases, they
are experts in using medical products, they carry out educative activities. These professional tasks require the formation of professional competence of middle ranking
medical workers, among which the research is becoming more important in conditions
of todays society.
Analysis of the recommendations of the state educational standard has shown
that a lot of attention in the preparation of health professionals is paid to the formation
of research competence of future experts.
373
Along with this the acquisition of new educational standards of the general secondary education involves the active introduction of research and design activities in
school.
Analysis of current research. Bases of the organization of research activities
are described in the works of L.S. Vygotsky, V.V. Kraievsky, V.A. Krutetsky, I.Ia. Lerner, S.Ia. Rubinshtein, Iu.A. Saurov, V.A. Slastenin.
The process of formation of research abilities of students is examined in the
studies of: O.A. Abdullina, S.I. Arkhangelsky, N.V. Kuzmina, etc.
The problem of revitalization of research activities of students is represented in
the works of: D.V. Vilkeiev, M.A. Danilov, M.I. Makhmutov, A.M. Matiushkin, R.I. Malofeiev, P.I. Pidkasisty.
The goal of research is to consider the totality and composition of actions that
characterize the main aspects of operational structure of research activities, based on
which to analyze the results of the diagnostics of research competence of medical
school freshmen, to determine the conditions of formation of research competence in
the training of future middle ranking medical workers.
Results of the research and their discussion. In light of the economic and
administrative reforms in recent years, vocational school adaptation to modern conditions, the role of the research component of the educational institution along with the
traditional academic and educational segments has significantly increased.
Today, the society is interested in personnel, ready and able to the introduction
of modern technologies. In this regard, the importance of the primary function of professional educational institutions training of highly qualified professionals takes on
a new meaning. Today a professional educational institution not only needs to provide
the graduates with strong, systemic, deep theoretical knowledge and practical abilities
and skills, but also to train personnel capable of independent scientific, research and
innovative activities, who have organizational skills.
The solution of the set tasks requires a high level of productive human activity,
the ability to generate information, which is new compared to the information contained
in the training materials, to solve problems arising in the course of educational activities
(Iu.G. Tatur) [6].
Accordingly, the development of research skills, the implementation of research
activities becomes a relevant direction of modern education.
374
In our view, this trend is a key link in the complex chain of competitive training
of a modern specialist. In this connection, we consider it necessary to define the essence of the concepts of research activities, research skills, to consider the totality
and composition of actions that characterize the basic aspects (sides) of the operational structure of research activities.
In the general context of the activity theory, A.N. Leontiev and S.L. Rubinshtein
define research activities as a specific human activity on the subject, means, methods,
products and results, as well as requirements to the very subject of this activity, which
is regulated by consciousness and activity of a person, which aims to meet the cognitive needs [5]. The result of this activity is to obtain new knowledge in accordance with
the intended purpose, objective laws and available circumstances defining reality and
achievability of goals through specific ways and means of action, through the formulation of the problem of isolating the object of research, conducting experiments, description and explanation of the facts obtained in experiment, creating a hypothesis (theory),
prediction and verification of acquired knowledge.
Mastering of ways (informational, logical, methodological, technological, etc.)
and techniques (methods) of research activities by students becomes of particular significance, as research skills are formed on this basis (I.A. Zimniaia) [3].
V.A. Andreev understands research skills as ... the ability to apply an appropriate technique of the scientific method in solving a problem, performing a research
task [1].
V.V. Uspensky considers research skills as ... the ability of independent observations, tests, searches, acquired in the process of solving research tasks [7].
E.A. Shashenkova considers sides of research activities as sides of a multipleaspect, multi-stage process, defined by a nomenclature actions included in it, where
the first side intellectual and research includes the actual intellectual operations
and the actual research activities (choice of research methods: comparison, analysis,
synthesis, abstraction, substantiation, generalization, systematization, classification,
modeling; critical assessment, planning of work, setting goals, objectives, determining
object and subject of research, hypothesizing), the second informational and receptive actions with information permanent work with the scientific literature, derivation
from texts and understanding of required information, bibliographic search, study
(reading) of a text, its analysis, fixing, work with a computer (sensing of information,
understanding and interpretation of information, mastering reading strategies: viewing,
375
analytical, searching, sampling), and the third the productive side of research activities includes a study, processing of the obtained data, facts (carrying out research,
processing of research data: quantitative and qualitative data analysis, statistical analysis of the results, their interpretation, planning, thesising, preparation of graphic
schemes, referencing, bibliographical activities, their textual fixation, selection of facts,
formulation of provisions, concepts, annotating, note-taking; conclusions on the work)
[8]. The third side of research activities reflects the results of research conduct in such
forms of literary products as a library-research paper, scientific paper, research report,
report, theses, term paper, graduation paper, monograph, dissertation.
Mastering the methods and techniques of research activities by a student determines the level of research competence of this student.
As part of a thesis research, a questioning Research activities of students of
medical school was held in the Odessa Regional Medical School in the 2014-2015
academic year.
The research involved 208 students of the 1st year in the specialty Nursing,
Paramedic work. The following results were obtained during the research. At the initial stage of training, 156 students (75% of the total number of respondents who participated in the experiment) showed a low level of research competence, which is characterized by a complete lack of interest in carrying out research work, inability to work
with the scientific literature, unwillingness and inability to analyze and systematize it.
Students do not want to raise their own level of scientific activity and they do not have
any scientific interest.
42 students (about 20% of the total number of research participants) are assigned to the base level of research competence. They have some knowledge of scientific research, understanding of specific areas of scientific knowledge, primary skills
of research work. This group of students does not have a desire to implement it.
10 freshmen, which accounted for 5% of the total number of participants of the
experiment, have a sufficient level. These students demonstrated scientific interests,
ideas about scientific research and personal experience of its implementation, the ability to analyze and systematize scientific data, to allocate the most important facts, to
define the goals and objectives of the research, to determine a hypothesis of the scientific research, to confirm or deny it, to select and implement a primary diagnosis, to
make scientific conclusions based on the scientific data received and to exhibit the
376
results of their research before the public in the form of public speaking, defense and
(or) presentations.
The results obtained evidence that the secondary school still does not pay
enough attention to the formation of research competence of students.
In the formative stage of our experiment, the learning of basic educational programs is aimed at increasing the level of research competence due to: the contents of
the working education programs and disciplines, where the disciplines of biological
cycle play the determining role; training and methodological support of independent
and individual scientific work of students; organization and development of various
types of practices; organization of scientific groups of interest; scientific-themed competitions, conferences, implementation of the state certification of future middle ranking
medical specialists, writing and defense of graduation qualifying papers, taking into
account the interests and needs of medical institutions.
It should be noted that today the traditional system of education and training in
a vocational educational institution does not provide the full formation and development
of research competence. In our formative experiment, it is compensated by a research
and education club (modified system of scientific groups of interest). The club is
needed for the development of skills, improving personal position, and ultimately for
the development of activities (including research) or in the production [2], or in an educational institution.
The work in the club is carried out in parallel with the educational process of
medical school by students and teachers as members of the scientific and educational
club.
Conclusions. Thus, even at a low level of formation of research competence
of freshmen, the conditions that enhance its formation in the course of training, prepare
future middle ranking medical workers to solve research problems in the structure of
their professional activities, were created in the Odessa Regional Basic Medical
School.
References:
1. Andreiev V.A. Key features and logic of pedagogical research. M., 2002.
247 p.
377
2. Gnezdilova A.I., Ivashkin I.F., Folk O.V. Professional club as a form of design and
implementation of innovative activity of the company. Scientific support to agricultural production. Vol. 1. - Vologda-Molochnoe: Publishing Center of Vologda
State Dairy Academy, 2010. 201 p.
3. Zimniaia I.A. Key competences a new paradigm of education results // Higher
education today. 2003. 5. P. 34-42.
4. Karpov A.O. Research education: key concepts / A.O. Karpov // Pedagogy. - 2011.
No. 3. P. 2030.
5. Rubinshtein S.L. Principles of general psychology. SPb., 2000. 476 p.
6. Tatur Iu.G. On the design of educational programs in the modern university // University book. - 2000. 1.
7. Uspensky V.V. Research approach in training as a condition for the development
of students interest in studies // Development of informative activity and independence of students: KSPI scientific works. Issue 3. - Kuibyshev, 1975. 147 p.
8. Shashenkova E.A. Development of research skills and culture in the early stages
of continuous education // Collection of scientific works of teachers of pedagogical
colleges of Moscow. M., 2000. 207 p.
378
Valentina Bilan,
Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor, the Department of Special Education and Psychology
Psychological and pedagogical conditions of formation

aesthetic relations future defectologist to correctional
and pedagogical work
Abstract: This article is devoted psychological and pedagogical conditions of
formation aesthetic relations future defectologist to correctional and pedagogical work.
The publication focuses on the concepts "education", "conditions", "pedagogical conditions" and characterises methodological approaches of formation aesthetic relations
future defectologist to correctional and pedagogical work.
Keywords: psychological and pedagogical conditions, aesthetic relation, future
defectologist, correctional and pedagogical work, pedagogical conditions.
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386
Valentina Lyapunova, Melitopol Bohdan Khmelnytsky

Pedagodical University /Ukraine/, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences,
Associate Professor, Pre-school Education Department
Sources of development of the ideas of tolerance

in Ukraine
Abstract: The author analyzed the development of the ideas of tolerance in the
history of education and pedagogical thought in Ukraine, examined the national
sources of tolerance of Ukrainians, highlighted the idea of tolerance in the cultural heritage of outstanding personalities of Ukraine.
Keywords: tolerance, ideas of tolerance, sources of tolerance, moral and spiritual values.
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5. . . , 2014. 248 .
395
Panachev Valery,
Perm National Research Polytechnic University, Russia, Perm,
Professor, Doctor of Sociological Sciences
Pedagogical aspects of the public home rule

in university for improvement of sanitary
and atheletic-mass work
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400
:
1. Vilensky, M.Y. Physical education and healthy lifestyles student: textbook. Benefit
/ M.J. Vilensky, A.G. Pots. - M.: Garuariki, 2007. - P. 34-38.
2. Bondin, V.I. School health teacher in higher education: Theory and Practice of
Physical Culture. - 2004. - 10. P. 21-25.
3. Kazin, T.M. Scientific-methodical and organizational approaches to the creation of
a regional program of "education and health" / T.M. Kazin, N.E. Kasatkin / Valeology. - 2004. - 4. P. 45-49.
4. Bezrykhih, N.A. Formation of setting students on a healthy lifestyle in the educational process of professional schools: Dis .... Cand. Ped. Science. - Saratov 2006.
P. 13-16.
401
Valeriia Gutman,
Sholom-Aleichem Priamursky State University,
Associate Professor, Candidate f Pedagogical Sciences,
Faculty f European nd Eastern Languages,
Natalia Shklyar,
Associate Professor, Candidate f Psychological Sciences,
Faculty f Education
Methods of instrumentation in the process

of subjectivation of education content in the institutes
of higher education
Abstract: In the article the author describes the most effective methods of organizing the educational environment of a university, facilitating students personal
and professional competence. Formation of these qualities is possible in the course of
subjectivation, an activity appealing to the inner educational space of a student, his
purport that he finds on his own. The means of subjectivation of educational content
is an independent educational activity.
Keywords: rofessional competence, self-education, content of education,
educational environment of university, methods of subjectivation.
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5. .. . / .. .
.: : , 1994. 480 .
6. .. -
// Life Science Journal 2014;11(12s).
P. 501-505.
7. Bugental J.F.T. The art of the psychotherapist. New York et al. 1987.
408
Volodymyr Mokliak,
Poltava V.G. Korolenko National Pedagogical University,
Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor,
Associate Professor f the Department f General Pedagogics
nd Andragogy, Doctoral Student f the Department f General Pedagogics
nd Andragogy, Physics nd Mathematics Faculty
The autonomy of higher educational establishments

of Ukraine in the statute of 1835
Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of level of the autonomy and the
academic freedoms of the universities of Ukraine declared in the statute of 1835. It is
proved that high-quality training of the graduate of a higher educational institution is
closely connected with the level of an autonomy of higher educational establishment
(which can be of three types intrinsic, procedural and organic and provides independence in study, carrying out educational, cultural and public work in society and
creations of own academic structure) and academic freedoms (freedom of teaching,
studies and scientific researches).
Keywords: the autonomy of higher educational establishment, academic freedoms, university statute of 1835, trustee of the educational district, university council,
university board.
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409
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10. (26 1835 .) [ ]. : http://letopis.msu.ru/documents/2123.
11. (5 1804 .) [ ]. : http://letopis.msu.ru/documents/327.
12. : : . . ., . .: ,
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415
Vugar Mammadzade,
Lecturer of the Azerbaijan State University of Economics,
Department of International Relations
Participation of non-governmental organizations (NGO)

in the Republic of Azerbaijan for the formation
of civil society at the present stage
Abstract: In a democracy, it is impossible to imagine the political process without the participation of local non-government associations, organizations, etc. and
without taking into account their views and opinions. They make a significant contribution to the rule of law and protection of human rights.
Keywords: participation, non-governmental, organization, the Republic of Azerbaijan.
,

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:
1. AMEA nsan Hquqlar nstitutu. nsan Hquqlarna dair milli tsisatlar. Bak, 2000,
s. 45-58.
2. - . : // Dirali-XXI sr,
2006, 98-99.
3. . . //
. 2006. . (&, ), 2007.
4. http://cp.1news.az/society/20101125112141926.html.
5. . . //
. 2007. (&, ), 2008.
6. : // -I , 1999, 11, . 8-12.
7. lham liyevin Prezidentliyinin 365 gn v vtnda cmiyyti // Sosioloji
tdqiqat, sentyabr-dekabr 2004, s. 23-25.
8. AMEA nsan Hquqlar nstitutu. Azrbaycan Avropa hquq mkannda. Bak,
2001.
9. - .. : . , 1995.
10. .. : // Dirli-XXI
sr, 2007, 112-113.
424
Galina Vasilievna Alekseeva,

Far Eastern Federal University, Professor,
Doctor of Art Sciences, School of Humanities Studies,
Dang Chuynh Mai,
President of Vietnamese Association
of People with Disabilities,
Hanoi, Vietnam,
MSc. Huynh Ngoc Hong Nhung,
Vice President of Can Tho Association
of People with Disabilities,
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
The system of program events for social-labor integration

of disabilities into Russian social environment through
development of the decorative and applied arts
(in view of the experience of Vietnam)
The work prepared with support of the FEFU Scientific Foundation
Abstract: This article is devoted to social-labor integration of disabilities into
Russian social environment through development of the system of program events
(based on the experience of Vietnam). The publication focuses on the political legislative proposals and scientific aspects of the social-labor adaptation of disabilities
through decorative art in the Primorye and Vietnam.
Keywords: social-labor integration of disabilities, decorative and applied arts,
the system of program events, Primorye.
Introduction
Discourse of the social activity of the people with disabilities is very acute in the
whole of the world. Two months ago in Vladivostok have been international conference
with exhibition of decorative art, which discussed the main problems of the activity of
disabilities. This idea of conference was awarded a special prize (for social theme) of
425
the All-Russian competition of the national event tourism Russian Events Award.
The participants from Vietnam, Australia, China, Korea, Russia made a lot of suggestions for use mechanisms of decorative art for laboring adaptation disabilities [1]. Authors of this article are active participants of the public processes for development of
Civil Society in own countries. A number of these proposals were discussed at the
Cultural Forum in Moscow and in Yakutsk in September 2015 with initiative by Galina
Alekseeva, as a member of Public Chamber of the Primorsky Kray [2]. The experience
of Vietnam, which many years struggling with the effects of dioxin Wars, is very important also.
According to statistics, in the 2015 there are about 0,65 billion of people with
disabilities around the world, which constitute about 15% of the human population.
Russia has about 10 million of people with disabilities, 4 million of whom are the people
of an active working age [3].
Now we can see so-called cumulative disability, which develops with increased
life expectance and natural aging population. At the same time the challenge of adaptation to the social environment and living conditions to the disabled people and to their
special needs require the use of new methods and forms. It becomes important to
make changes in legislative approaches and the development of forms of employment.
On social protection of people with disabilities in the Russian Federation this law
was approved in Russia in 1995. After this date introduced significant amendments to
this law. Today a new policy of rehabilitation of people with disabilities develops in
Russia. In 2011 An accessible environment program was adapted to address the
needs of people with disabilities through year 2019. In the context of this program, the
conditions for the comforts of life and movements of persons with disabilities are created today in Russia. However, laws and programs have to get adjusted. Folk art in
these programs may take a much bigger role than we see now.
Purpose of article: to explore the practice of public and scientific discussion of
legislative initiatives for the formation of a new cultural policy for people with disabilities.
Object of study: the practice of public and scientific discussion in the International scientific Conference and within the framework of scientific research for adaptation of disabilities with support artistic methods.
426
Subject of study: the system of program events for social-labor integration of

disabilities into Russian social environment through development of the decorative and
applied arts.
Hypotheses of this research is composed of several provisions. In modern
society prevails the trend of development of culture on the principles of market relations. In the Presidential Decree of December 24, 2014 N 808n "On approval of the
Fundamentals of state cultural policy" declared "the territorial and social equality of all
citizens, including people with disabilities, in the implementation of the right of access
to cultural values, participation in cultural life and cultural organizations". However the
contradictions are expressed quite clearly between the declared objectives of national
cultural policies and their implementation mechanisms. As writes G.G. Karpova, "The
lack of mechanisms to ensure the functioning of the cultural sphere in the market environment significantly reduces the social impact of the cultural policy of the state, resulting in deformation of its functions The functioning of the sphere of culture in market conditions should lead not only to a reduction in funding, but also to the development of project activities for the mission to spread the values of tolerance, inclusion
and solidarity-based partnership" [4].
Development of decorative and applied arts is the one of the instrument for development of systemic programs for disabilities.
The experience of Vietnam - a good reason for the legislative initiatives in
Russia.
Empiric base and methods of research:
Monitoring of the culture state in the 30 municipalities of the Primorye territory
in 2014 year, which were prepared with support of the Primorsky Kray Public
Chamber.
A questionnaire survey of the population (N = 400), consumers of culture and
a questionnaire of culture workers (N = 150) conducted in 2014 in the Primorsky Kray,
the cluster sample.
A questionnaire survey of persons with disabilities (N = 200) in order to analyze
the level of accessibility of institutions of social and cultural sphere within the framework of the international project "People decorative work of Russia and Vietnam as a
labor resource for the adaptation of people with disabilities", supported by Science
Foundation FEFU implemented in 2013-2015 in the Asia-Pacific region with the participation of the authors, according to quota sampling. The obtained data were processed
427
using the statistical software package for the social sciences SPSS using frequency,
correlation, regression analysis of distributions.
The experience of Vietnam, which is represented by Dang Chuynh Mai, the
president of the Association of people with disabilities in Vietnam and MSc. Huynh
Ngoc Hong Nhung, Vice President of Can Tho Association of People with Disabilities.
Results:
Monitoring of the culture state in the 30 municipalities of the Primorye territory
in 2014 year, which were prepared with support of the Primorsky Krai Public Chamber
showed, that people with disabilities have a little possibilities for development their
decorative-applied activity. They can get help from Primorye territory grants program,
but they dont know about these program usually. Only 30 percent of Young people
are working in the Primorye Department of Culture now. According to data for 2013 in
the region 6805 is left of cultural workers (in accordance with the presidential decree
of 07.05.2012 597 "On measures for realization of the state social policy" has been
a significant part of the employees dismissed or transferred to part-time). Of these
employees higher education has 1950 people (in relation to the key personnel of
52.5%). As you can see, the percentage of workers with higher education culture varies
to the same parameters - about 30-50 per cent of the authorized strength [5].
A questionnaire survey of the population (N = 400), consumers of culture and
a questionnaire of culture workers (N = 150) conducted in 2014 in the Primorsky Krai,
shows, that It should be on quantitative culture jump to quality - in a program of cultural
development of Primorsky Territory for 2013-2017 prevail quantitative indicators.
A questionnaire survey of persons with disabilities (N = 200) in order to analyze the level of accessibility of institutions of social and cultural sphere within the
framework of the international project "People decorative work of Russia and Vietnam
as a labor resource for the adaptation of people with disabilities", supported by Science
Foundation FEFU, shows several proposals for laws in Russia and Primorye territory,
contributing to the advancement of persons with disabilities in Russia and Primorsky
Kray through the Traditional Art.
Offers are the following (included in the resolution of the conference):
1. The proposed changes to the Law 181 "On social support to persons with
disabilities" of paragraph 7 of Article 5: "The participation of the state authorities of the
Russian Federation in the provision of social protection and social support to persons
with disabilities" to create conditions for social adaptation of people with disabilities
428
authors of this article are proposing to include among the targets of the Law the idea
of stimulating the development of jobs masters - manufacturers of decorative and gift
items with a view to ensuring the country's territories with branded products of arts and
crafts.
2. Proposed to include to the state program of the Primorsky Territory "Social
support of the population of Primorye Territory on 2013 - 2017 years" as target indicators of the program:
A) The proportion of employed persons with disabilities.
B) The number of newly established workshops of arts and crafts.
3. To strengthen the control over the observance in the Primorsky Kray of Article 21 of the Federal Law "On social support to persons with disabilities", in accordance
with the approved amended on November 22, 2012, which provides the expansion of
powers of public authorities of subjects of the Russian Federation in the implementation of job quotas for the employment of people with disabilities.
4. Convert the draft Program of development of culture on Primorsky Territory
for 2013-2017 "On the distribution of subsidies from the budget of the Primorsky Territory nonprofit organizations for reimbursement of expenses related to the organization and carrying out of the projects ..." to the Resolution of the Primorsky Territory.
5. It is important to use the experience of Vietnam, his Association to support
people with disabilities, and other Pacific Rim countries (Australia, Korea, China) for
the development of programs to support people with disabilities in the Primorsky Territory.
Experience of Vietnam shows several results.
According to statistics, in Vietnam there are 5 million people with disabilities ,
representing 6.3% of the total population. In order to help improve the quality and efficiency of external action to support the people with disabilities, the Vietnam Association of People with Disabilities (the VFD) was established in October 2010 with the
permission of the Ministry of Internal Affairs; VFD First Congress was held in March
2011; VFD Charter was approved on August 2, 2011, which marked the beginning of
activities of the Association. VFD - a public organization, which is a national organization people with disabilities in Vietnam. At the first Congress of VFD (2010) was attended by all 19 member societies, including the central level 7 Societies: Society of
the Blind, Agent Orange, the Red Cross Society to support people with disabilities and
429
orphans ...; 12 provincial Societies of Hanoi, Da Nang, Quang Binh, Lam Dong, Hai
Duong, Lang Son .., now 17 Societies provincial and city levels and 7 Central level.
The character of the activity Vietnamese associations for people with disabilities
we can see on the example Nhip Cau Foundation. Vice President of this Foundation
Huynh Ngoc Hong Nhung of Can Tho Association of People with Disabilities has took
part in our conference.
Nhip Cau Foundation is belongs to Can Tho Association of People with Disabilities. It was established formally after the winning project in the program "Innovation
Day" in 2003 which was launched by the World Bank. It was sponsored by Canada
Fund in the first stage and Ford Foundation in the second stage 2009 to 2011.
From June 2009 to 2011 Nhip Cau Foundation was manager of the project
Enhancing Production Skill for the Coconut Handicraft Products Made by the Disabled
in Can Tho, Viet Nam, sponsored by Ford Foundation (FF) in during 2 years 2009 2011.
In December 2009 Nhip Cau Foundation was coordinator of the project Training
for Community Development and preparing writing proposal for 26 representative of
Associations of People with Disabilities in the South of Viet Nam, sponsored by Center
for Educational Exchange with Vietnam (CEEVN).
It is clear, that Nhip Cau Foundation has unique vision of own development,
which suggests encouraging and empowering people with disabilities (PWDs) their involvement in the labour market, hence contributing towards a reduction in poverty, thus
enabling PWDs to be valued as equal members of society. Values of the Nhip Cau
Foundation activity include the following: an integrated citizen valued society for all, he
has employment opportunities, independence, financial security, public participation.
Main activities the Nhip Cau Foundation activity includes: providing vocational
training for PWDs, creatation of paid employment, production of craft products, participation in marketing and selling of handicraft products made by PWDs, participation in
peer group exchange programs, accession to the competitive sports/recreational, direction to the practice for social work students, service provision for tourists.
The results of Nhip Cau Fund expressed successes in social adaptation, in the
aspects of education, economy and other aspects. Nhip Cau Foundation is one of the
success stories in Vietnam, which develops the integrated approach of community development [6].
430
References:
1. http://www.dvfu.ru/newspaper/news/events/russian-event-awards-dvfu.
2. http://./index.php/programma.
3. http://politicallook.ru/_social_policy/_help_invalids/statistika-invalidno.html.
4. . / . . . . 2011, . 2.
5.
http://givc.ru/projects/passport cultural regions /562/ item6806/ [

20.11.2014].
6. http://coady.stfx.ca/tinroom/assets/file/ABCD%20Stories/Nhip%20Cau%20Foundation.pdf.
431
Gohar Meliksetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical

University named after Khachatur Abovyan,
Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences,
Associate Professor, the Faculty of Art Education
"Recitatives and Fugues" for piano

of Aram Khachaturian
Abstract: This article is devoted to polyphonic compositions of Aram Khachaturian who is the classic of Armenian music of the 20th century. The publication is focused on the dramaturgical, compositional, thematic features of "Recitatives and
Fugues" where the composer preserving the classical traditions, creates originally national and contemporary works.
Keywords: Recitative, Fugue, polyphony, theme, diatonic, dissonance, national, classical.
,
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438
Hakobyan Greta,
Ph.D., Associate Professor at the Chair
of the Theory and History of Pedagogy,
Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh. Abovyan
Some peculiarities of communication between lecturers

and students at higher education institutions
Abstract: The article discusses questions concerning the formation of socialcommunicative competences at higher education institutions. Issues related to the
improvement of techniques for pedagogical intervention, interactive relationships,
formation of social-psychological and professional competences of lecturers and
development of components of pedagogical techniques have been observed in the
article. Some peculiarities of rapport between lecturers and students as a way of
showing mutual understanding and building reciprocal positive emotional relationships
have been analysed in the article.
Keywords: lecturer, auditory communication, social-perceptive abilities, highcontext culture, low-context culture, verbal and non-verbal means, rapport, mirroring.
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444
Antropova Gyuzel Raviljevna,

Associate Professor, Candidate f Pedagogical Sciences,
Kazan Federal University, Naberezhnye Chelny Institute
(Naberezhnye Chelny Branch),
Matveev Semen Nikolaevich,
Associate Professor, Candidate f Physical
nd Mathematical Sciences,
Kazan Federal University, Naberezhnye
Chelny Institute (Naberezhnye Chelny Branch),
Shishkina Svetlana Mihailovna,
College Teacher f The Volga State Academy f Physical Culture,
Sports nd Tourism, Naberezhnye Chelny
Using of factorial and cluster type analysis

in pedagogical researches
Abstract: This article deals with potential of organization students experimental
activities concerning formation of professionally-applicative qualifications on mathematical statistics materials, using factorial and cluster type analysis. The possibilities
of multivariate statistical analysis in the implementation of the classical test in educational research are exploring. The examples of applications in psychological and pedagogical studies of factorial and cluster type analysis by processing experiment to
identify specific motives of educational activity are considered. It is proved, that the
most effective motivation of educational activity is the motivation related with planning
of professional activity.
Keywords: method of principal components, factor analysis, cluster analysis,
learning activity motive, pedagogical researches.
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450
Dimitrina Hamze,
Plovdiv University Paisii Chilendarski,
Assistant and University Lecturer, the Faculty
of Slavonic Philology
The communicative dynamic of the grotesque

a direct successor of the communicative essence
of language
Abstract: This survey aims to cast light on the genetic link between the
communicative character of language and the grotesque communicative specificity in
an attempt to gain a proof that the grotesque is not that shocking and excentric, it is
not the fortress that cannot be overtaken of the audience as it may seem at first, for it
not just inherits and creatively exemplifies the language potential. The semantics, the
understanding and communication are seen as a triad, immanent and emblematic for
language, but also for the grotesque, while the coherence is viewed as one of the most
valuable characteristics of language, as the essential, constituting characteristic of the
grotesque.
Keywords: language, grotesque, semantics, understanding, communication,
coherence.
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Ojciec
A kto by na ojca swego rk witokradcz, ten zbrodnie tak okropn, tak
niewymown. Tak, ach piekieln, diabelsk, nieludzk, e z pokolenia w pokolenie w
krzyku strasznemu, w jku, we wstydzie, w udrczeniu od Boga i Ntury wyklenty,
przeklenty, wyrzucony, pozostawiony, opuszczony...
Henryk
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Ojciec
Dobra zupa.
Henryk (do Wadzia)
. :
( 2010) [11].
3
458
Mgby pobi tego ojca?

Wadzio
Jeeli ty moesz, to i ja mog.
Ojciec
Daj mi troch soli.
Henryk
I nie czuby z tego powodu wyrzutw sumienia?
Wadzio
Jakbym sam by, tobym czu, ale jak we dwch co si robi, to nie, bo jeden
drugiego naladuje4 (, 111) (. . .)
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Gombrowicz W. lub. Dziea, tom IV. Dramaty. Krakw: Wydawnictwo
Literackie, 1986, S. 89224; o. .
:
1. Kiklewicz Al. Podstawy skadni funkcjonalnej. Olsztyn: UWM, 2004. - P. 5.
2. Jakobson R., Waugh L. Magia dwikw mowy. W: W poszukiwaniu istoty jzyka
1. Roman Jakobson. (Wybr i red. naukowa) M.R. Mayenowa, Warszawa: PIW,
1989. - P. 361, 362, 363.
3. Langacker R. Fondation of cognitive grammar. I Theoretical prerequisites.
Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987a.
4. Derrida J. Marginesy filozofii. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR, 2002.
5. Gadamer H.-G. Jzyk i rozumienie. Warszawa: Fundacja Aletheia, 2003. - P. 40.
6. . . :
. IV 78 2011,
: . - ,
, ISBN: 978-954-9685-64-0. - P. 5357.
460
7. . . :
. . . :
, 2011. - P. 436448.
8. . .
:
, , . : , 2011 . - P. 217232.
9. Hejwowoski K. Kognitywno-komunikatywna teoria przekadu. Warszawa: PWN,
2007. - P. 38.
10. . -
. In: Development of the spoken and written language at the current stage of the intensive information turnover. London: IASHE, 2015, 2333. . : http://
gisap.eu/ru/node/76763#comment-77502.
11. .
. : . , 48,
. 1, . , 2010. - P. 373384.
461
Kislov Denis,
Ph.D. in Political Sciences,
Associate Professor of the Department of Marketing nd Advertising,
Kiev National University of Trade and Economics (KNTEU),
Founder of the Limited Liability Company
Corporate Research and Consulting International Bureau (LLC CRC IB)
Mythological component of marketing

communications
Abstract: The article discusses specific features of functioning of contemporary
marketing communications. It depicts the role of a mythological component in representing the information product of non-commercial state marketing communications.
The article presents a version of intensification of the mythological component of mass
consciousness manipulation methods.
Special attention in this article is paid to the impact on the minds of Ukrainian
population, to the reality of relations between Ukraine and the EU and their mythologizing.
The results of this article can be further developed and used in marketology,
imageology, and law combined with computer science, for the integration of scientific,
industrial and managerial opportunities. The conclusions received from the primary
material of the article confirm that the myth as a marketing communications tool serves
as an operator and appeals to the level of universality through such notions as the
mass character and the vast majority, and it can also function as a double-edged
information weapon that can be used to destabilize the socio-political situation in the
country.
Keywords: state, marketing communications, myth, mythological component,
society.
Problem identification. Mythology, a mythological component, and certain
myth elements are present, in one way or another, in the majority of contemporary
types of non-commercial state marketing communications. However, the role and the
place of such specific forms of marketing requires constant interpretation in different
462
conditions of their use and application. One needs to objectively evaluate proportional,
ethical, socially relevant and many other parameters that would reflect the efficiency
and legitimacy of including the myth-making elements in the structure of marketing
communications tailored for the target audiences, individual groups of population or
society as a whole.
Analysis of previous publications and theoretical research. The role and meaning of myth in social and political activities were subject to fundamental research by
many recognized scientists and thinkers. This area became promising in view of the
fact that mythology and myth-making were studied by such authors as Aristotle,
K. Abraham, A. Anisimov, L. Anninsky, S. Antonenko, H. Arendt, R. Barth, M. Berdyaev, M. Weber, W. Wundt, K. Gadzhiev, G.W.F. Hegel, A. Gede, E. Husserl,
A. Donini, M. Eliade, E. Cassirer, Z. Kosidowski, L. Levy-Bruhl, K. Lvi-Strauss,
S. Moscovici, V. Nechaev, J. Ortega y Gasset, O. Panarin, K. Popper, G. Pocheptsov,
Jean Sartre, G. Tarde, S. Tokarev, Z. Freud, E. Fromm, V. Khalipov, K. Hbner,
G. Schiller, K. Jung, K. Jaspers, and many other researchers.
Among the modern Ukrainian scientists, one should mention those writing about
political mythology: V. Bebik, M. Golovatyi, D. Dutsik, M. Karmazin, I. Kresina, N. Mikhalchenko, Yu. Romanenko, Yu. Shaygorodskyi and other authors.
However, myth-making approaches in the theory and practice of developing the
state systems of marketing communications in the conditions of contemporary transformational trends, post-modern influences, sharp competitive contradictions, escalation of political struggle for power, quick socio-economic changes as well as external
challenges and threats have so far been addressed inadequately and without sufficient
attention paid to the mental and psychological consequences caused by the influence
of such myth-making experiments on the population.
Goal of the publication to evaluate the state and conditions of functioning of
the mythological component in the structure of non-commercial state marketing communications, and to characterize the trends of development of these processes.
Principal points. Historically, myth was and still is a significant element of private, public and state life. It has played and will continue to play the role of a regulating
mechanism and a lever used to influence the public and individual consciousness. In
the conditions of dominating market paradigm, the mythological component of marketing communications plays a special role in the systems of relations between the state
463
authorities and society, which can significantly influence the nature of social and political confrontations complicating them to the level of sharp protests.
Counterbalancing the rational and mythological components in the state management sphere, in particular, for the development of a balanced and sustainable perception by the countrys population of inevitable social and political transformations,
should be a mandatory form of interaction between the state management bodies and
civil society. Otherwise, if this requirement is ignored for a long time, a severe imbalance emerges between the declaration of policies by the government and realization
of the meaning of social and political activities by the citizens. The experience of
Ukrainian realities in the second half of 2013 and the first half of 2014 demonstrated
this vividly and tragically.
Mythology used in the techniques of managing the social consciousness of
Ukrainian population balanced between the irrational in terms of its natural essence
and the rational in terms of marketing activities. For instance, the long-term and gradual European integration ideas that were declared for the population in a non-transparent and abstract manner were implemented at a diplomatic and foreign policy level of
governance and reflected in the mass consciousness as fluctuations within the statistic
and partisan error as a classic correlation of 40 to 60, i.e. approximately 40 % of the
respondents were for the EU association, and 60 % were against it. Later on, the correlation between these figures achieved the 50-50 level. The turning point in the consciousness of the surveyed groups of the population was achieved through intensification of the coverage of respective activities in the mass media and through concentration of the mythological component of the EU integration prospects based on the principles of the EU associate membership. At the same time, the mythological component
of marketing means of influence on the popular consciousness began to prevail over
the understanding of the reality of Ukraines relations with the EU.
The impact of the mythologem involved subconscious implantation in the thinking processes of the populace of an automatic transfer of the level and quality of life in
the leading EU member states to the Ukrainian realities immediately after signing the
respective international agreements. Consequently, the expectation of a very distant
bright future was projected for the nearest time, so to speak, which totally contradicted the reality. Yet, this mythologem was able to completely reverse the rating correlation making it 60 to 40 (In other words, according to the results of special sociolo-
464
gical surveys, the majority now support the EU association of their country due to certain youth audiences from central and western parts of Ukraine). The fact that the authorities flatly turned down the association agreement tore the mythologem out of the
consciousness of those (mostly younger citizens of the country) whose preferences
were already formed. It was like depriving them of their dream and hope, however
irrational they might have been, which immediately turned into quite real protests. At
the same time, the authorities were not aiming at eliminating, dampening or suppressing such protests. Furthermore, the government did not even have the mechanisms
corresponding to these goals of state marketing communications that could quickly and
efficiently remove this conflict from the civil society agenda.
Hence, the entirely ungrounded myth of the close and careless European prosperity after its sharp formal collapse served as a trigger for rather ordinary peaceful
protects. Yet, they were immediately used by both internal and external political forces
to invigorate the struggle for power among the oppositional groups as well as to promote the interests of competing oligarch clans and implement certain geo-political aspirations. The absence of a clear and viable marketing communications concept that
could deliver rational and understandable ideas to the populace concerning the principles of Ukraines development made it possible for the myth of the omnipotent maidan as a form of expression of some popular will directly on the streets and squares
of the capital to emerge and become dominating within a short period of time.
The myths of the popular assembly and the revels of maidans and Euromaidans, which in their essence are a bright manifestation of controlled ochlocracy
processes but are widely advertised by the mass media concentrated in the private
hands of national mediacrats, relatively quickly resulted in pseudo-revolutionary ideas
engrossing the masses. This, in its turn, was a result of the controlled chaos and the
violent change of power in the country accompanied by tragic deaths of hundreds of
people and thousands of injuries. The bright, eternal, and seemingly innocent myth of
the better life again was painted with the blood of real victims.
Consequently, the problem of a correlation between the rational and the mythological in contemporary social and political processes of social development plays a
key role from the viewpoint of efficiency and effectiveness, the necessity and sufficiency of the use of technological myth-making means in the systems of marketing
communications of the governmental bodies. Such managerial tasks can only be resolved if they are viewed comprehensively in inter-disciplinary terms from the points of
465
view of political science, psychology, sociology, law as well as the theory of information, marketing and communication sciences.
Pragmatism as well as various post-modernism movements do not provide answers to the questions asked by the nations, peoples and governments of many countries about the directions of their search, about finding adequate methods and means
to successfully confront the challenges of modern civilization, or about development of
efficient models of overcoming possible negative outcomes. For instance, in the opinion of a number of leading Ukrainian researchers of correlations between politics, state
and law, the reason is that it is nearly impossible to identify any definite trend of their
development, not to mention a single paradigm of research and political discourse with
regard to the current transformational processes [1]. At the same time, all national and
foreign researchers refer to the ambiguity and vagueness of the changes, and even to
the fact that the humanity tests itself with the unknown [2, p. 85].
Under such conditions, old political myths and mythologems are combined with
the contemporary myth-making processes both spontaneously by the populace, and
intentionally by the mass media communicators in order to close the embrasures,
from which more and more new salvos are fired at the humanity in the form of the
most complicated social and economic problems, challenges and threats.
Consequently, the specific marketing forms that were introduced as new tools
to the state management systems to replace the non-marketing forms of influencing
(campaigning and propaganda) the consciousness of citizen consumers should also
actively use all the already known forms of myth-making as well as their combinations,
transformations, and interpretations represented in the disguise of fashionable philosophical, populist, post-modernist and other trends. Such solutions should in the first
place take into consideration the basic principles of creation purposefulness and effectiveness of their use as offensive governance mechanisms.
Since the myth is a tool for assimilation of ideas by the collective consciousness,
it can become as demonstrated above an effective manipulation and political double-edged sword in the confrontation of governmental and protest marketing communications. At the same time, the myth performs the function of re-targeting human mental reactions from the casual to the permanent, and stabilizes human thinking, selfesteem and self-determination in the given existence circumstances [3, p. 93]. Hence,
the prevalence of the myth-making influence will mark the victory of some of the opposing political forces.
466
J. Ortega y Gasset in his book, The Revolt of the Masses, wrote that modernity
is characterized by the emergence of a new type of culture mosaic. It differs from
humanitarian culture, which is characterized by order and hierarchy of ideas and
knowledge, in what this new culture represents some semi-structured fragmentation of
random loosely connected notions [4]. Such mosaic culture leads to the appearance
of mass human, an ideal subject for manipulation with his consciousness [5]. At the
same time, the myth becomes an operative tool fulfilling tasks and objectives set to the
myth-making communicators by political players and mediacrats for the sake of their
own, often egoistic and narrow, interests.
Some of the main features of the modern social and political myth are its archetypal and universal nature, symbolism and synchronicity, universality and integrity [3,
p. 358]. G. Pocheptsov described the reflection of these features and characteristics
of the myth in the image, marketing, governmental and party performance [6, p. 150].
He maintained that the myth is unfolded in the mass media as a scenario that immediately identifies the roles of friends and enemies of the protagonist. The latter in practice
is intentionally highlighted and endowed with symbolic virtues by a specific media outlet, for instance, a popular TV channel. Such a protagonist on a TV channel may be,
for instance, a candidate for presidency in the country during the respective election
campaign, who is at the same time the owner or a co-owner of this TV channel. Consequently, the rating of such TV channel becomes the rating of the respective protagonist.
G. Pocheptsov also mentioned that the myth is a special form of communication
because it has a listener but there is no author; and for this reason the myth becomes
irrefutable, since there is no one to argue with; moreover, the myth is an integral construction. Therefore, such myths are presented axiomatically and are not subject to
examination with regard to their compliance with the reality [6, p. 151]. This is the factor
that dominates in the country engrossed in turmoil and emotions, which however lead
to completely opposite behavioral manifestations: from neutral pacifist to extremely
aggressive. That is why almost at the same time and in same place one can observe
purely peaceful protests and bitter military confrontations.
Using the entire vast arsenal of the mechanisms and tools of informational and
psychological operations, mass media being guided by the will of private mediacratic
groups set the mythologems, the meaning and contents of which are delivered to the
subjects the masses, audiences, groups of population, military formations to ensure
467
the most efficient impact on their consciousness and further behavior [7, p. 182]. These
are rather typical forms and methods used both in marketing communications and in
large-scale information wars.
Conclusions and areas for further research
1. Research of contemporary myth-making used in state and political marketing
communications should be carried out comprehensively in the context of a synthesized
multidisciplinary approach.
2. The myth in marketing communications is like a universal operator appealing
to the level of generality through the notions of the mass, overwhelming majority, core
values, etc.
3. The myth in modern marketing communications acquires increasingly blurred,
discourse-oriented, post-modernist forms, but in the conditions of the state and protest
communications it returns again to the more specific and more precise forms.
4. The myth in marketing communications today also acts as a realizer of specific tasks related to the struggle for power both by political and by violent means in the
conditions of severe confrontations between the existing management structures and
representatives of the social protest forces.
5. The myth generally represents some way of interpreting the worldview, modelling the world and national development trends, specific social life activity of the
masses. It can act as a double-edged information weapon that can be used to destabilize the socio-political situation in the country.
References:
1. Rymarenko Yu.I., Vivcharuk M.., Kartunov A.V., Kresina I.A., Rymarenko S.Yu.,
Teleshun S.O., Shkliar L.E. Nacia. Derzava: Ukraina v konteksti svitovogo
etnoderzavnyckogo dosvidu: monografia. - Kiev: Inst.derzavy I prava NAN
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468
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469
Yelena Kuvarova,
Candidate in Philological Sciences, Associate Professor,
the Faculty of Ukrainian and Foreign Philology and Art Criticism
Variation of onymous and appellative vocabulary

in structure of Russian epistolary vocative
Abstract: In the article under consideration the variation of antroponymic nomination forms, used in function of address in epistolary text, is studied. The functionning of cognate synonyms, which vary common word-formative meaning, in structure
of Russian epistolary vocative, is demonstrated.
Keywords: epistolary vocative, address, antroponym, appellative, variance.
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477
Osmina Elena,
Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University,
Doctor of Psychological Science,
Professor of Department of Sociology, Psychology and Culturology,
Ponomarenko Ekaterina,
Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University,
Senior Teacher of Department of English Language
Subjective Image of Educational Interaction as

a Social-Psychological Factor of Its Development
Abstract: The paper presents the research results of subjective representation
of foreign language teachers about peculiarities of educational interaction in audiences
having different academic programs at technical university. It is shown that subjective
images of teachers as main actors (subjects) of educational interaction, ultimately, determine the form of this interaction.
Keywords: subjective image, reflection, teaching objectives, image of an academic discipline, image of a learner, self-image, forms of educational interaction.
Introduction. At the present time the value of education is not only decreasing
but increasing, conversely. The reason for it is that there are multidirectional processes
in the world the process of globalization, the phenomena of unprecedented migration,
and the formation of common education space with the unification of educational
standards. Moreover, in an age of information society with exponential data accumulation and update the questions of curriculum content (what to teach), its intensification (how to teach), and technologisation (who can teach) are unavoidable areas of
concern. Over the past two decades the main approaches have been set to solve these
issues - at the level of education space (educational models), at the level of didactic
and technological aspects (innovative teaching methods), and at the level of a leaner
(psychological activation methods) [9]. It is implied that a teacher is always in the position of a subject of professional educational activity [8]. However, a psychological
analysis of teaching activity allowed us to state that an educator has a great way of the
professional and personal development, and he does not always succeed in retaining
478
the status of subject (in the strict sense a responsible and scrupulous actor by
S.L. Rubinstein) [7].
It should be noted that in Russian psychology and pedagogy the issue of professionally important qualities of a teacher has a long-standing research tradition since
the works of N.V. Kuzmina who introduced the notion of pedagogic competence and
presented its content analysis as a personality trait [3]. Over the past several decades
the designated functional components of competence subject-specific, methodical,
psychological-pedagogical, differential-psychological, auto-psychological have been
further investigated and operationalized due to a great number of practical and theoretical works [2]. A final stage of the professional and personal development of a
teacher is professionalism which is an integrated characteristic of a subject of labour.
Among integrated characteristics of teacher personality A.K. Markova defined: professional consciousness, individual style of activity and communication, creativity [5].
The psychological source of professional and personal behavioral patterns in
real-life situations is mans subjective image or mental model of these situations. A
mental model is the key notion in psychology it is developed in an activity and belongs
to a subject of reflection [4]. Psychic reflection is active by its nature subjective images mediate an activity of a man determining his control and regulatory actions towards the outside world, his own activity and other people. From these considerations
it was supposed that subjective images of teachers about peculiarities of educational
interaction in audiences having different foreign language programs determine the possible forms of this interaction.
Objective. The objective was to study English teachers subjective image of
educational interaction, which is developed during their work with students having different training programs at technical university.
Materials and methods. The teachers of English language department at technical university participated in the research. The respondents (n=39) had different
teaching service and experience of professional interaction with students from different
academic majors. In our research the targets of reflective analysis of the teachers were
two groups of students - bachelors of engineering having a standard language program
and students receiving an additional qualification "Translator in the Field of Professional Communication". Interviewing was in written form. In interviewing there were
common questions (teaching service; educational technologies used in the teaching
process; preferred teaching methods; professional and teaching objectives; evaluation
479
of knowledge and cultural level of students). And there were questions focused on
reflection, such as about benefits and challenges of teaching students receiving an
additional qualification; personality qualities providing successful foreign language
learning; external and internal reasons for ineffective language teaching; personal difficulties in work with students from different academic majors; support expected from
colleagues.
Results and Discussion. The participants of interviewing were divided into
three groups in accordance with the stated teaching objectives. In this case subjectively meaningful objectives of professional activity were meant. The achievement of
these objectives requires not only personal and time resources but the implementation
of meaning-making function of individual activity (as opposed to the strategic objectives
of educational institutions and educational standards).
The first group included the teachers focused on the development of student
personality. These respondents prioritize a learner-centered approach and individualcentered teaching strategies. It is of great importance for them to involve students
emotionally and personally in educational interaction. The involvement is perceived by
them as a necessary condition for successful language learning, professional development for a student and a teacher as well. According to the teachers factors that
prevent the effective educational interaction are external constrains and circumstances
having, most likely, technical character. A categorial analysis of answers of the participants allowed us to make a generalized social-psychological portrait of a teacher focused on students personal development in the process of foreign language learning.
The distinctive features of the first group of respondents are an ability to build up pedagogically appropriate relationships with students and apply in work results of psychological-pedagogical diagnostics; focus on abilities, ambitions and resources of a student that provides a productive learning process in which an academic subject becomes a means of developing creativity in learners, intropunitive reactions to failures,
psychological-pedagogical and auto-psychological competences (Kuzmina N.V.).
The second group was made up of the teachers whose objective of professional
activity is the development of certain language skills. The respondents prefer a didactics-centered approach which provides an accomplishment of teachers mission to
teach translating and speaking on the specific technical subjects and eliminates interpersonal relationships in educational interaction. In the psychological context a teacher
reflects the outcomes of didactic activity rather than a student who is evaluated in terms
480
of know does not know. Such an evaluative attitude towards another person demonstrates indifference and a fixed opinion [1]. As a consequence of this, the teachers
agree on the reasons for ineffective language learning - personal weaknesses of students (poor knowledge, poor communication skills, lack of efforts). A generalized social-psychological portrait of a teacher from the second group includes such characteristics as extrapunitiveness in difficult pedagogical situations, subject-specific and
methodical competences (Kuzmina N.V.), neglecting a duty of personal interaction in
a group.
The third group comprises the teachers who were not able to formulate the subjectively meaningful objectives of language teaching at technical university. Unfortunately, the analysis of respondents answers confirmed their indifferent attitude towards their own professional activity, which was clearly exposed in the negative position to the invitation to participate in the psychological investigation.
The analysis of the obtained results allowed us to establish that a subjective
image of educational interaction contains three structural components an image of
an academic discipline, an image of a learner and a self-image. A subjective image of
Foreign Language as an academic discipline is presented by three variations: foreign
language as a set of teaching (didactics) units, foreign language as a tool of professional interaction, and foreign language as a subject of professional activity. A subjective image of a learner in the context of his attitude to foreign language (from teachers
angle) also has three components: social-pragmatic attitude, professional-pragmatic
attitude, and potentially subjective attitude. Finally, a self-image in the context of subjective preference of teaching methods and strategies provides an opportunity to distinguish three types of teaching activity - standard-oriented, learner-oriented, and subject-oriented. A social-psychological model of educational interaction of foreign language learning at technical university was developed on the basis of the defined constructs [5]. Within the frame of the model three possible forms of educational interaction
- social-role; personal-professional; subject-and-professional - were defined in a triad
of teacher-foreign language-student. It was shown that there are different forms of
educational interaction in the process of foreign language learning at technical university, and the adequate application of the forms is determined by goals and aims of a
certain lesson. Social-role interaction is feasible in the learning situations when a
teacher performs guiding and control functions. Personal-professional interaction contributes to creating a favorable atmosphere, eliminating excess stress and sparking
481
cognitive creativity in learners. Subject-and-professional interaction provides the optimal conditions for building subject-subjective relations.
Conclusions. Social-psychological peculiarities of professional activity of foreign language teachers at technical university are primarily determined by a subjectively meaningful objective. Further, teaching activity is directed towards the accomplishment of this objective. Two overarching objectives were defined personality development by means of language learning and language knowledge itself. Subjective
image of educational interaction has a complex structure including an image of a
learner, an image of an academic discipline and a self-image. A variation of the images
gives an idea of three forms of educational interaction - social-role; personal-professional; subject-and-professional - functionally equivalent in the aspect of achieving final
results.
References:
1. Batishev G.S. Introduction into dialectics of creativity. Saint-Petersburg: Russian
Christian Humanitarian Institute Publ., 1997. P. 464.
2. Kozyreva O.A. The phenomenology of teachers professional pedagogical competence / Educational Technology & Society.11(2). 2008 // http://ifets.ieee.org/russian/depository/v11_i2/html/3.htm.
3. Kuzmina N.V. Professionalism of the personality of the teacher and the master of
industrial training. M.: Higher School, 1990. P. 119.
4. Leontiev A.N. Lectures of general psychology. M.: Smisl, 2001. P. 511.
5. Markova A.K. Psychology of professionalism. M.: Znanie, 1996. P. 312.
6. Osmina E.V., Ponomarenko E.P. A social-psychological model of effective development of foreign competences of technical university students // Kazan Pedagogical Journal. 2015. 2 (109). P. 34-40.
7. Rubinstein S.L. The man and the world // Problemy obshchei psikhologii. M.: Pedagogika, 1973. P. 255382.
8. Symaniuk E.E., Sinyakova M.G. Psychology of vocational educational space of a
person // Pedagogical Education in Russia. 2011. 5. . 46-52.
9. Zeer E.F. Psychology professional development. M.: Academia. 2006. P. 240.
482
Astrakhantseva Irina,
FGBOU VPO "Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University
named after I.N. Ulyanov", The First Vice-Rector - Vice-Rector for Financial
nd Legal Activities nd Personnel Management,
Kuznetsova Zinaida,
FGBOU VPO "Naberezhnochelninsky Institute
of Socio-Pedagogical Technologies and Resources",
Doctor of Education, Professor,
Nazarenko Aleksandr,
FGBOU VPO "Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University
named after I.N. Ulyanov",
Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor
The initial stage of the environmental education

as a basis of rational human interaction with nature
Abstract: Environmental education, as developed in the second half of the XX
century requires a fundamental improvement, besides, it does not cover all age groups.
In the context of unfavorable habitat are particularly vulnerable young children.
Keywords: environmental upbringing, environmental education, preschool age.
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490
5. Nazarenko A. Some approaches to improving the system of environmental education / A. Nazarenko, A. Kolesnik // Proceedings of the IX International Academic
Congress "Contemporary Science and Education in Americas, Africa and Eurasia"
(Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, 18-20 August 2015). Volume III. "UFRJ Press", 2015. 436-443 .
491
I. Parfanovich
Comparative analysis of psychological and pedagogical

reculiarities of underage girls with normative
and deviant behavior
Abstract: Comparative analysis of psychological and pedagogical peculiarities
of underage girls with normative and deviant behavior revealed, that girls social
behavior is determined by social norms, values, guidelines, up-bringing, and control.
Violation or bias in the socialization of girls leads to the formation of deviant behavior.
The analysis of the specific behaviors of girls of all ages on normative and deviant
levels is given. In determining the manifestations of behavior, based on certain criteria,
the consideration of the mechanisms of behavioral deviations is required according to
the characteristics of young children, teenagers, and adolescent the periods in childs
life as they are classified in the social pedagogy.
The positive changes in individual indicators, criteria and as a whole - the level
of formation of responsible attitude to social norms, the components of which are cognitive, emotional evaluative, and behavioral demonstrate the effectiveness of preventive work with girls. It was found that in the prevention of girls deviant behavior the
functional capabilities of institutions, organizations, and services which are responsible
for the prevention, are not fully captured. This is confirmed by the analysis of the social
and psychological indicators and displays of various types of schoolgirls deviant behavior according to criterion of residence.
The analysis of statistical data, concerning girls, living in different locations allows us to state, that there are no differences, that characterize the dependence of
deviant behavior displays on health, life and values from the type locality. This is confirmed by the analysis of the social and psychological indicators and displays of various
types of schoolgirls deviant behavior according to criterion of residence.
Keywords: girls, psychological and pedagogical peculiarities, normative behavior, deviant behavior, young children, teenagers, adolescent.
Introduction. Categorical analysis of the concept of deviant behaviour of girls
of secondary schools demands review of compliance or non-compliance with social
492
norms, that describes girls social or antisocial responsibility. Also it requires learning
differences between manifestations of deviations in behaviour of individuals of different
sex and age-specific manifestation of normative and deviant behaviour among girls of
primary school age, teen and young girls. So that we could soundly speak about gender socialization and identification of girls, must be analyzed characteristics of deviant
behaviour, determinants of its forming, mechanisms of deformation of personal development and degree of social and educational neglect.
Literature review. O. Kikinezhdi [O. Kikinezhdi, 2003] and B. Yavir-Iskra
[B. Yavir-Iskra, 2005]. points out that masculinity becoming a characteristic feature not
only of men but also of woman. There is weakening of stereotypes and displacement
of gender roles happening in society [Kon, 2003]. On the other side, increase of strictness level from mens side towards girls and woman could mean increase of feminity
level among men.
Girls are becoming more active, enterprising, aggressive and independent.
However, manifestation of social activity does not always have a positive direction.
Mens psyche is more rational and able to switch from one person or event to another
faster [Kornienko M.V., Romanyuk B.V., Melkin I.M., 2001]. Girls owe complex forms
of self-consciousness earlier then boys [Kuznecova L.,1995]; girls reaction to frustration is more brutal and directed at reaching goal [Petrova T.V., 2007]. It is hard to
understand inner world of woman within logic, it is too much tangled, capricious, complex; woman gives more advantage to ideas then concepts [Yavir I., 2005].
There are different approaches to the prevention of various types of behavioral
deviations in foreign countries. Also there are approaches to improve the prevention
of deviations by: 1) by amplifying a differentiated approach to girls based on their sociopsychological characteristics and the degree of socio-pedagogical neglect [Farrington D.P., 1994]; 2) the complex organization of prevention (with a help of families, law
enforcement, social services, strengthening the interaction of various social institutions) [Melton G., 1995]; 3) consideration of social, socio-pedagogical conditions of
prevention and the correlation of theory and practice [Bulter I., Gwenda R., 2007];
4) taking into account the type of behavioural deviations and state of psychological
health; 5) the organization of the positive impact of the informal environment [Donnell S.O., 2007]; 6) the realization of group work; 7) amplification of the preventive
work in the formal team [llomki E., 2012].
493
The study of foreign experience of educational work with girls with normative
and deviant behavior is an urgent problem while forming the system of social work in
Ukraine. The situation is intensified with the change for the worse of criminal background in the youth surrounding. It prearranges the necessity of the search of ways
and methods of juvenile delinquents upbringing in conformity with social-economic
and spiritual development of the society on the whole.
To reach the aim of article were used theoretical (analysis, summarizing, systematization) and empirical (observation, analysis of papers, questioning) methods.
The aim of the study and research methods. The article aims to provide a
comparative analysis of girls behavioural manifestations of various phases of social
and educational neglect.
Results. Girls behaviour deviations are often caused by hypertrophy of social
demands in their consciousness and by ignoring gender stereotypes. Inability to adapt
to social realities, to determinate positive ideals of gender and gender roles leads to
deformation of gender identity. Behaviour can be identified as deviant when gender
identity is misshapen. Regulation of gender behaviour is particularly tense in adolescence. Analysis of behavioural deviations made it possible to identify the distinctive
features of such deviant manifestations among girls: lack of clear standards and attitudes of behaviour according to demands of gender socialization and identifications;
irresponsible attitude to herself as a future women, mother; aggressiveness, hardheartedness, cruelty in relation to surroundings; illogicality in actions; psycho-emotional instability as individual quality; contradiction of world-view and attitudes; unawareness of their self-condition and well-being; breach of positive relationships with
parents; deformation of relationships with surroundings and emotional estrangement;
duration of the latent period of formation deviations.
There are several characteristics that distinguishing girls from boys on normative and deviant behaviour levels. For this purpose we have analyzed the scientific
papers on this issue, written both by Ukrainian [3; 5; 6] and foreign scholars [7; 8;
9; 11].
1. Special features of girls normative behaviour, reasons of deviations in
behaviour. Girls are more impulsive, they are characterized by active searching for
new solutions, methods and ways. Also they are more ingenious. All of this makes
girls deviations more various, sudden and unexpected. It is observed that girls are
more emotional in perception of facts, events and occurrences. Sometimes it leads to
494
fussiness, ambiguity, unreliability, frequent change of solutions and hesitations in making decisions. In extreme conditions girls are less adaptive.
Girls often characterized by subjective inner experience. They have more critical
attitudes to realities of life, future and independent life. But girls are less confident in
psychoemotional aspect, despite the fact girls want to look strong and independent.
Searching for support they are sometimes becoming a victim of negative addiction.
Attitude to own appearance is one of the most important features of gender differences.
The range of behavioural deviations in this aspect is really wide: refusal from food
(anorexia), brutal deviations, criminal actions.
Having compared Ukrainian research files to the similar done abroad, we found
out that foreign researches put more emphasis on social work with children [Bultera I.,
Roberts G., 2007], individual work with families [Melton G., 2007], and the development
of theoretical models of prevention [Donnell S., 2007].
2. Features of the manifestations of deviant behavior of the girls. Under
purely female specific features girls are more capable of flexibility, variability, polymodality in behavior. Modern society creates conditions for increased activity, aggressiveness, independence women, it provokes if not masculinity, then androgenetic in
behavioral manifestations.
Also gender personality differentiation implies taking into account the fact that
in the basis of deviant behavior of girls very often lies resentment, guilt. In many cases
their deviant behavior based on unpleased feelings of security. The manifestation of
aggression, anger, bullying, cynicism, cruelty takes place in cases when girls can't express a positive feminine trait. Girls with deviant behavior are characterized by the fact
that they are mostly impatient, stubborn, self-centered, always strive to be the center
of attention, but consider themselves as independent and communicative personalities. To achieve their goals they are using any means and are often the initiators of
aggressive showdown. Offences are very often associated with immoral lifestyles; desires are focused on a beautiful life.
Deviations in girls behaviour are presented by prevalence of spite, aggression,
cruelty, willfulness in their nature. There is a tendency among girl to gain clearly male
deviation subcultures that displayed in low cognitive activity, cynicism, apathy, hardheartedness in relationships with others.
495
For most girls with obvious negative behavioural deviations is usual: primitiveness of life goals; poverty of interest and hobbies; removal from the educational process; smoking, amoral lifestyle, criminal behaviour, alcoholism; focus on immediate
pleasure; receiving desired items in acceptable and unacceptable forms. Responsibility, shyness, temperance, delicacy, empathy, aspiration for beauty and high spiritual
ideals are absent.
In connection with the manifestations of clearly feminine qualities girls are more
labile and can easily adopt rules of social environment in which she is living. Gender
approach analyses behavioural deviations of person from particular social environment. Girls have more hidden character of deviations and extreme manifestation of
deviations. The result of the negative behaviour of girls is their approach to masculinity.
Due to the comparison of manifestations of girls behavioral deviations in our
country and abroad, the following peculiarities of the deviations were found out: the
dynamics of deviations manifestation in puberty [Donnell S., 2007], polymorphism of
deviations types among the minors [Kuznecova L., 1995], the impact of the variety of
communication links in the young age [Petrova T., 2007], the role of prevention in the
lives of girls with deviant behavior [Farrington D., 1994].
Conclusions. Thus, the age differentiations of pedagogical and psychological
characteristics of girls with behavioural manifestations of deviance are characterized
by a number of attributes. Highlighted are some of them: primary school age lack of
discipline, anger and aggression, reticence, stubbornness, resistance to positive influences; adolescence conflict behavior, frequent symptoms, inadequate behavioral reactions, due to dissatisfaction with their appearance, uncertainty of self-esteem, presence of the complexes, extremes in behavior for exposure to emotional and psychological influence of various factors; youth age disharmony of personality development
through understating or overstating of self-esteem, deformation or absence of positive
life values, low behavioral self-regulation as a consequence of the excessive desire of
self-realization and to please the opposite sex.
Thus, the problem of formation of behavioral deviancy in ontogenetically personal development was investigated. This gave the opportunity to identify specific
characteristics that distinguish younger girls, teenage, and young girls from the boys,
especially normative behaviour, preconditions and specificity of the manifestations of
deviant behavior.
496
In the characterization of deviant behavior attracted the attention of explicit behavioral manifestations of deviant behavior and the invisible girls at risk, the characteristics of the manifestation among children of different age categories.
References:
1. Kikinedgy O. (2003). Gender identity of youth as psychological and pedagogical
problem, p. 711.
2. Kon I. (2003). Sexual culture of XXI century. Pedagogies, No 4, p. 315.
3. Kuznecova L. (1995). The education of girls, Education of schoolchildren, No 1,
p. 2728.
4. Kornienko M.V., Romanyuk B.V., Melkin I.M. (2001). The criminology course,
Ukraine: Kyiv, p. 480.
5. Petrova T.V. (2007). The differential approach in the education of boys and girls of
primary school age, Elementary school, No 8, p. 78.
6. Yavir I. (2005). Features of gender behavior of boys and girls depending on the
way of socialization, Osvityanin, No 5, p. 1821.
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Faculty of the University of New Orleansin partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of/ S. ODonnell. M.S. Acadia University, 2007 312 .
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11. Social Work with Children & Familys. Getsng into Practice. Ian Bulter and Gwenda
Roberts. London and Briston, Pennsylvania: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2007.
287 p.
497
Inna Boyko,
Odessa National Maritime Academy,
Associate Professor, Candidate of Political Sciences,
the Faculty of Maritime LAW & Management
Doctrinal Approaches to the Definition

of Legal Validity Concept of International
Judicial Institutions Decisions
Abstract: This article covers the analysis of pluralism of doctrinal views on the
legal validity of decisions of international judicial institutions.
Keywords: types of international law sources, legal force of court decisions,
stare decisis rule.
Introduction. The modern international law science puts forward a number of
topical theoretical problems on whose solution the effectiveness of international relations regulation depends. The definition of the term "source of international law", its
classification and legal validity is a problem, within which scientists and practitioners
are required to come to common understanding of the legal validity essence of decisions made by international judicial institutions.
Methodology. The study is carried out with the use of integrative methodology:
the views of the formal approach representatives are studied in conjunction with the
philosophical and legal ideas. I.e. the positivist tradition, according to which today the
sources of international law are classified into basic and optional (special) ones, is
complemented by the natural and legal understanding of the source of international
law. Jusnaturalism as a type of law understanding enables analysing both the form of
existence and axiological content of IL source. In addition, this approach allows to define the place and role of the category "justice" as the basic category of modern international law, as well as to help to define the concepts of "source of international law"
and "quasi-source of international law" [1].
The purpose of this article is to analyse the content of the main doctrinal approaches to the definition of the legal force of decisions made by international judicial
institutions.
498
Research results. The term sources implies many different, sometimes conflicting meanings. For example, Herbert Briggs was pointing out that the confusion of
the term sources describes it as the methods or procedures, by which international
law is created [2, p. 44]. George Schwarzenberger proposed the term law creating
process for primary sources i.e. treaties, customs and general principles of law; and
law determining agencies for subsidiary means for determination of law, i.e. judicial
practice and doctrines [3, p. 79]. Lassa Oppenheim was discussing its various meanings differentiates between formal and material sources: formal being the source from
which the legal rule derived its legal validity; and material providing the substantive
content of that rule, e.g. the formal source of custom might had its material source
found in a treaty concluded [4]. J.W. Salmond also holded the same opinion [5]. Therefore, it can be said that there are, in the context of International law, recognized and
accepted methods, by which legal rules come into existence (formal sources), as well
as several ways, in which the precise content of legal
rules can be identified
(material sources) [5, p. 555]. According to Salmond, a formal source is that from
which a rule of law derives its force and validity. The material sources, on the other
hand, are those from which is derived the matter and not the validity of the law. The
material source supplies the substance of the rule to which the formal source gives
the nature and the law [Ibid].
An unavoidable degree of flexibility and overlap in the use of the terms with
various meanings such as cause, basis and evidence are observed. Discussing the
difference between basis of law (common consent of international community), causes
of law (particular circumstances in the development of communities suggesting need
for a rule of conduct), and sources of rules of law (the process, by which it first becomes
identifiable as a rule of conduct with legal force and from which it derives its legal validity), Robert Jennings concludes that sources of the rules of law as distinct from the
basis of law are as a whole related to the basis of the legal system [6, p. 23].
Article 59 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice provides that decisions of the courts have no binding force, except for the parties and in respect of the
case concerned [7]. Contrary to the Common Law the doctrine of precedence does not
exist in the international law, still we find that the Court itself in its decisions, the states
in their disputes and legal writers in their scholarly works quote judgments of PCIJ and
ICJ as those of an authority. Thus, even as a subsidiary source, judicial decisions are
499
important in the determination of the existence of legal rules and their content. A unanimous, or almost unanimous, decision plays an important role in the progressive development of law, e.g. the decisions and advisory opinions in the Reparation, Genocide, Fisheries cases have had decisive influence on general international law [8].
In national legal systems precedent constitutes the starting-point of judges' reasoning. Most of the time judges hew closely to the precedent for the purposes of legal
certainty and for fear that their decisions might be challenged before higher instances.
This practice translates into the stare decisis rule in Common Law, and into the concept
of jurisprudence constante in Roman-German Law. In international law the stare decisis rule has been excluded since 1922, but permanent jurisdictions constantly refer to
their previous decisions. Nonetheless, the former are still led to reassess their jurisprudence by various methods in order to take into consideration the evolutions of the law
and of international society. Regional jurisdictions are more inclined to do so than the
global ones. As for arbitral tribunals, they have recourse to legal precedents in a very
variable manner according to the area: interstate relationships, international trade, investment or sport. Furthermore, the increase in the number of courts and arbitral institutions introduces the question whether precedents from one dispute settlement institution are relevant to the others. The question arises when two courts or tribunals apply
the same national law or treaty and when they apply general international law. The
challenge is to navigate between two risks: that of jurisprudential incoherence and that
of government by judges. Legal precedent in international dispute settlement is neither
to be worshipped nor ignored [9, pp. 21-23].
One of the dominant positions in the traditional version of international law is as
follows: the International Court of Justice and other international courts are not entitled
"to form customary law" [10, p. 183]. Mathias Herdegen supports this position and believes that it can be complemented by the statement that "... international courts
only apply the existing law, but they should not shape it". At the same time Herdegen
admits that "decisions of international courts can be attributed to the parties to the
dispute that have contractually subordinated themselves to a corresponding jurisdiction" [Ibid]. It should be noted that for Herdegen "... if the decisions of the International
Court of Justice receive approval of the majority of states", then "a new norm of customary law can be formed" [Ibid]. By using this authoritative opinion as an example we
stress the availability of the position of the international law specialists concerning the
500
role of international judicial institutions in the formation of common, and not of case
law.
In the legal literature of the post-Soviet space the content of Article 38 of the
Statute of the International Court of Justice is often defined as an exhaustive list of
sources of international law [see for example,11].
The situation today is quite different because of the proliferation of international
courts and increasing institutionalization of arbitration. Globally, the International Court
of Justice has found new life. Then came the International Tribunal for the Law of the
Sea, international criminal courts, the Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization
and many international administrative tribunals. At the regional level, the European
Court of Justice and the European, Inter-American and African Human Rights Courts
were created. The traditional forms of arbitration prospered, but new forms have
emerged, with the Iran-US Claims Tribunal, the Court of Arbitration for Sport and the
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).
This development has led to increased attention to the issue of precedent in
both public and private international law. It became obvious that in these areas the use
of precedent poses two problems:
- as in domestic law, we must consider the methods followed by each of the
judicial and arbitration bodies in the use of its own precedents; and
- further, due to the proliferation of autonomous jurisdictions, it is also necessary
to investigate the extent, to which each court or tribunal makes use of the precedent
that other courts or tribunals create. A similar problem arises for arbitration institutions.
In the first case, the legal certainty in a given field is in question. In the second, it is the
coherence of international law in its entirety.
We might associate positivism with the view that sources discourse could supplant other doctrines by mapping the interests of state authority. Maintaining the supplemental position of sources discourse (its dependence upon an authority apparatus
articulated elsewhere) seems similar to avoiding the pitfalls of extreme positivism,
which postulates an authority that it cannot ground. We might associate naturalism
with the view that sources discourse could be consumed by doctrines of substance
and process. Maintaining the independent position of sources discourse (its ability to
validate other norms) seems similar to the dilemma of extreme naturalism that posits
an order, to which it cannot give content. In this view, we would equate the struggle to
501
blend hard and soft rhetorics with the dilemma confronting a theory of international law,
which is to be neither naturalist nor positivist [12, p. 82].
Judicial decisions are confronted in two different ways: they are either considered as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law, an argument based
on the ICJ Statute itself, or as having the potential to be elevated at the sphere of
formal sources. This controversy is highly interconnected with and affected by both the
force of precedent and the role of international judges as law-makers. It is claimed, on
the one hand, that precedent does not exist in the international legal order, since judgments are binding only upon the parties to dispute; on the other hand, practice has
shown that past cases are highly cited by both the Courts themselves and the international community, and they can have a multiple role to play. Consequently, it is thought,
on the one hand, that judges only apply law and, on the other end of the scale, that
they contribute to the promotion of law in generating or crystallizing custom, jus cogens
norms and general principles. It is incontestable that International Courts have long
contributed to the evolution of the international legal order and it is expected that they
will continue to do so, a fact that foretells that controversy on the place judicial decisions should have is about to be continued and reinforced [13].
For a more precise clarification of the essence of the norms created by international judicial bodies, such norms need to be clearly separated from other rules of international law. Opponents of the recognition of the international judicial precedent as
the source of law often distort its legal nature. Without denying the fact that the court
in its decisions fixes new legal provisions, they either believe them to be customary
norms, or associate with the doctrine. Indeed, Court has the right to apply customary
norm in their proceedings and, therefore, they are reflected in its decisions. However,
we cannot agree with the assertion that any norms of extra-contractual nature contained in the judicial decisions have the nature of customary law. This approach is not
consistent with the concept of "custom", which is current in the international law. Acts
constituting the practice that leads to the formation of customary law, according to
Members of the International Court of Justice "should be such or be carried out in such
a way as to serve as proof of the belief that the practice has become mandatory due
to the existence of the rule of law. The need for such a belief, i.e. the existence of a
subjective element, is defined by the concept of opinion juris sive necessitatis. States
that are parties to the dispute should understand that they perform a legal duty. The
frequency or even the customary nature of actions is insufficient by itself" [14]. The
502
Courts influence on the custom formation process is that by using the custom in the
dispute resolution the Court is only authoritatively confirms the fact of its existence
while the judgment does not act as a source of customary law. Court cannot create a
custom due to the peculiarities of its legal nature. This rule of conduct consists in the
process of relationships between States and is recognized by them as legally binding.
Court may not act as the discoverer of rules either as they have been created not by
Court, but by other entities of law. On the contrary, the collective decision of judges
and not the practice of states is the primary basis of an international judicial precedent.
Therefore, the definition of custom stipulated in Article 38 of the Statute of the UN
International Court of Justice cannot be applied to judicial decisions that contain provisions specifying a particular rule of international law or narrowing a gap in the law.
Conclusion. Thus, some authors attribute the decisions passed by the international court to sources of law insofar as it derives from the provisions of the Statute.
Other researchers representing the Soviet school of international law state that judicial
decisions are not recognized as a source of law, i.e. such decisions are no more than
the reference ones, general guidelines, and so they are called "evidence of customary
rules existence", or "subsidiary means for the interpretation of rules".
Supporters of the independent role of judicial decisions as source of international law with special legal nature argue that the analysis of rules fixed in the decisions
of international judicial bodies enables highlighting the features of case documents.
Rules of law in the international law are always used in the development of any of
existing rules: contractual, conventional or peremptory norms. This implies that rules
of precedence in relation to the above-mentioned international legal rules act as derivatives. This feature is reflected in the fact that their action is directly connected with the
action of "primary" rules. Therefore, any change or cancellation of, for example, certain
provisions of an agreement, based on which a precedent has been established, entails
the termination of such rule of precedence. The precedent may only be applied to the
states, which are bound by the "basic" rule. The court that has created the precedent
can cancel it or change as "outdated", i.e. inconsistent with the new life conditions of
society.
References:
1. Brownlie I. Principles of Public International Law / Ian Brownlie. 7th ed. Oxford;
New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 784 p.; Cassese A. International Law
503
/ Antonio Cassese. 2nd ed. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
558 p.; Degan V. D. Sources of international law / V. D. Degan. The Hague:
Kluwer Law International, 1997. 564 p.; Lauterpacht H. International Law. Collected Papers / Hersch Lauterpacht; systematically arranged and edited by E. Lauterpacht, Q.C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970 [The digital print
version of 2009]. 539 p.; Mendelson M. The International Court of Justice and
the sources of international law / Maurice Mendelson // Fifty years of the International Court of Justice: essays in honour of Sir Robert Jennings / ed. by Vaughan
Lowe and Malgosia Fitzmaurice. Cambrige: Cambridge University Press, 1996
[Digital printed version 2008]. P. 63-89.
2. The Law of Nations: Cases, Documents, and Notes [ Second Edition ]. Briggs,
Herbert W. [Ed.] Published by Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc, New York, 1952.
1108 p.
3. George Schwarzenberger. The dynamics of international law. Paperback: Professional Books, 1976. 139 p.
4. Oppenheim L. Lectures on Diplomacy as Part of International Law. Lecture 3. Electronic resource // http://www.slideshare.net/Kingnabalu./lecture-3-sources-of-international-law.
5. Salmond J. W. Jurisprudence.Appendix VIi Salmond J. W. Jurisprudence, 7th ed.,
1924) // Frame A. Salmond: Southern Jurist. Victoria University Press, 1995.
287 p.
6. Sir Robert Jennings, Sir Watts Arthur. Oppenheims International Law. Longman, 1996. 1333 p.
7. Statute of the International Court of Justice // Electronic resource: http:
//www.icj-cij.org/; The Statute of the International Court of Justice. A Commentary
[Zimmermann A., Tomuschat C., Oellers-Frahm K. other] / ed. by A. Zimmermann,
C. Tomuschat, K. Oellers-Frahm. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press,
2006. 1664 p.
8. Malcolm N. Shaw. International Law. 6-th edition, 2008. 1710 p. (P. 110); Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations Case, (1949) ICJ
Rep. 174, cited by Hamid A.G. Sources of International Law: A Re-Evaluation.
P. 18; Reservations to the Genocide Convention Case, (1951) ICJ Rep. 15, cited
by Hamid A.G. Sources of International Law: A Re-Evaluation; Anglo-Norwegian
Fisheries Case, (1951) ICJ Rep. 116, cited by Hamid, Sources Of International
504
Law: A Re-Evaluation // IIUM Law Journal. Vol. 11, . 2 (2003). P. 203-240 //

Electronic resource http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/Sources-Of-International-Law-141967.html.
9. Gilbert Guillaume. The Use of Precedent by International Judges and Arbitrators //
Oxford Journals Law & Social Sciences Jnl of Int. Dispute Settlement Volume 2,
Issue 1. P. 5-23.
10. . / . . .: ..., 2011. 516 .
11. .. . 7 . .1 .: 1989. . 183; . . .. .. .
. - .: , 1994.
. 194; / . . .. , .. . .: , ., 2005. . 176.
12. David Kennedy. The Sources of International Law // American University International Law Review. Volume 2, issue 1, 1987. P. 82 // Electronic resource
http://www.law.harvard.edu/faculty/dkennedy./publications/sources.pdf.
13. Evangelia Linaki. Judicial Decisions. What kind of Sources of International Law //
Electronic resource https://www.academia.edu/6421144.Judicial_DecisionsWhat
_kind_of_Source_of_International_Law.
14. Lauterpacht H. The Development of International Law by the International Court /
Hersch Lauterpacht. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. 430 p.
505
Semenets-Orlova Inna Andriivna,

National Academy for Public Administration
under the President of Ukraine,
Doctoral Candidate of Education Management Department
The economic mechanism of public administration

of educational changes
Abstract: The article determines a concept of an economic mechanism of public administration of educational changes and indicates peculiarities of normative and
legal terms of its effectiveness. The author analyzes the unstable projective background of the educational changes in contemporary Ukraine.
Keywords: educational subvention, cost estimate, economic mechanism of
public administration of educational changes.
Formulation of a scientific issue and its importance. Reduction of resources directed towards financing education, rapid wearing down of the material and equipment
basis of educational institutions, decline in status of teachers and scientific and pedagogical staff are inherent to system processes, which occur in the educational field of
Ukraine. These processes contradict increase of a number of tasks, which are set by
a government, increase of amounts of educational programs and duration of the educational activity, and stable social demand for improvement of quality and enhancement of competitiveness of the domestic education. Development of an issue of implementation of educational changes under deficit of financial and material resources is
important for the general theory of educational changes as well as for a particular situation (in the Ukrainian context, in the process of development of a new frame law On
Education).
Analysis of researches of this problem. The issue of financial and material
and equipment support of an educational field has been subject to research of numerous foreign (M. Barber, L. Darling-Hammond, M. Fullan, J. Goodlad, A. Lieberman,
S. Sarason) and domestic (V. Hromovyi, S. Kalashnikova, V. Kremen, S. Nikolaienko,
V. Luhovyi, S. Krysiuk) scholars. Their scientific papers focus on general processual
peculiarities of an educational change. Another group of scientists (L. Parashchenko,
506
N. Protasova) has researched an issue of conceptualization of the economic mechanism of public administration of education, particularly, development of education. Due
to challenges, which threat modern Ukraine under conditions of the protracted social
and economic crisis, a matter of innovative fulfillment of education is of considerable
importance. Solution of this matter consists in search of methodology for determination, usage, and diversification of sources of financing educational changes. To attain
this goal, there is a need to understand specificity and tendencies of functioning of the
economic mechanism for public administration of educational changes.
A purpose and aims of the article. A purpose of the article is to analyze the
economic mechanism of public administration of educational changes. To achieve this
purpose, the author will solve the following problems: consideration of instrumental
peculiarities; examine the Ukrainian context of functionality of the economic mechanism for administration of changes in education.
Presentation of the main material and substantiation of received research results. A public administration mechanism is a functional sub-system of public administration supplemented by specific methods and organizational functionality in each
particular case of solution of social life problems. The economic mechanism of public
administration influences factors and creates conditions, under which actions of economic entities will cost more expensively or cheaply. Except the economic one, there
are administrative and information and psychological mechanisms within the system
of public administration of education. L. Pashchenko points out that economic and information and psychological mechanisms are applied covertly because of centralization of administration and absence of communications between levels of the system
[1, . 255].
Educational changes are non-linear processes of transformations, which express dynamics of progressive transformations in education being distinct in the scale,
the sense, quality, and durability of progressive transformations in the world. Educational changes include concepts of an educational novelty, an innovation, a reform,
development, and various combinations of them. Public administration of educational
changes is an independent part of a general process of public administration, which
encompasses purposeful producing, approval, and implementation of organizational,
regulative, coordinative, controlling, and motivating influences aimed at renovation, innovative fulfillment, and modernization or large-scale reformation of education. Public
authorities for administration of educational changes in Ukraine comprise the following
507
entities: the Verkhovna Rada, the President, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (a
higher level); the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, other authorities participating in formation of a governmental educational policy (a central level); local authorities, local self-government bodies (a local level). The educational field activity, including a process of its development, is regulated by the Constitution of Ukraine
(1996), the Law of Ukraine On Education (1991), On Professional and Technical
Education (1998), On General Secondary Education (1999), On Preschool Education (2001), and On Higher Education (2014). The lawmaking activity concerning
development of a new progressive frame law On Education has been occurring in
Ukraine since the end of 2013. This activity should initiate renovation of state norms of
the interaction at different levels of education. The main novelty of a project of the Law
On Education is implementation of professional high school through transformation
of 11-year education into 12-year education (5 years (elementary school) + 4 years
(middle school) + 3 years (high school) in order to unburden an educational program
and to put into practice certification of teachers aimed at encouragement of their professional self-improvement. The institution of teacher certification proposed by legislators hardly differs from the previous post-soviet procedure of pedagogue attestation
and does not fix a right of a teacher to an individual educational trajectory. On account
of absence of an appropriate information and explaining campaign and regular communications with a society on the part of the Ministry of Education and Science, only
30% of parents has understood advantages of 12-year school and supported this
change. Analyzing the current situation in the field, the author may predict that producing a consensus solution regarding the final project of the frame educational law will
take considerable time. In addition, all the stakeholders should be oriented towards
achievement of this consensus. Thus, the author should analyze norms of the current
law.
An economic mechanism of education is, primarily, a set of rules regarding division of societys resources in favor of education. A financial mechanism of public
administration is aimed at improvement of a system of financing and material and
equipment support of education [1, . 281]. A financial mechanism of public administration of educational changes is a functional component of the former. A function of
providing quality of education initiates specific mechanisms of public administration (for
instance, public attestation). A function of development and providing competitiveness
508
hardly possesses mechanisms of public administration. Thus, to manage tasks of innovative fulfillment of education, the government frequently uses mechanisms for administration of a regime of functioning of an educational system. These mechanisms
are not able to create conditions for implementation of full-fledged progressive educational changes.
Ukraine provides accessible and free education at public and local educational
institutions and development of all the levels of education (Article 53 of the Constitution
of Ukraine). According to the Law of Ukraine On Education, a government provides
budget assignations for education, which account for at least 10% of the national income (approximately equals 8% of the GDP). However, since 1991 the government
has not been adhering to this norm, even in a period of economic stability (the greatest
figure in 2010 accounted for 7.4%). It is worth mentioning that the Final Provisions of
the current Budget Code of Ukraine enables the government to exercise a good few of
norms of the educational legislation in a case of a sufficient amount of resources. Thus,
the author agrees with L. Parashchenko concerning urgency of solution of a problem
related to determination of a degree of responsibility of the state authorities for observance of amounts of financing education.
The main problems of economic support of the Ukrainian educational field are:
a) significant unbalance of financing different levels of education (a too large share of
assignations for the higher education (31%) and insufficient financing the secondary
education (41.5%, at an average world rate of 75%); b) a small amount of pupils in a
class (18 pupils, at an average rate in the G-20 countries of 27 pupils); c) a low index
of a number of pupils per teacher (8 pupils, at an average rate in Europe of 17 pupils).
During the independence years, a number of pupils in Ukraine reduced nearly twice
and a number of teachers reduced only by 13%. Such a situation leads to disproportion: the government allocates 7 thousands of hryvna per pupil in densely populated
cities (a class contains 35 pupils) and 19 thousands of hryvna per pupil in rural areas
(a class contains 5 pupils). Recently, the government and the society has reached
consensus regarding necessity of functioning of the elementary school in rural territories regardless of figures of a number of pupils in a class. In a case of an insufficient
number of pupils in a class, a problem of teaching pupils of the middle and high school
should be solved in accordance to capacities of local budgets (by amalgamation of
schools and the solution of a problem related to transportation of pupils or distance
education).
509
For a long period, Ukrainian schools as subjects of local ownership were financed by local budgets. Factually, not every local budget, which was pumped up owing to the individual income tax, had a sufficient amount of funds for financing schools
at its disposal. At the same time, governmental assignments were not received on time.
In order to provide equal financing schools regardless of a region, since 01.01.2015
the government has been subsidizing current expenditures of schools by central
budget funds. Nevertheless, there are no guarantees of an amount of this subsidy in
the legislation now [2]. Responsibility for coverage of capital expenses of schools was
handed over to local authorities.
The Ukrainian legislation determines that a cost estimate of an educational institution must include expenditures for educational institution development. Factually,
an absolute majority of school cost estimates is deficient and these estimates finance
only so-called protected items, i.e. staff salary, payments for local utilities. Funds for
school development or for current needs (medicines, payments for communication services, expendables, etc.) are not usually allocated. Under conditions of resource scarcity, education authorities significantly edit cost estimate projects in accordance to
available recourses. As a result, principals should not only look for sponsorships, but
also form underground economy of institutions.
Since 2000, the government has been including the special funds of school cost
estimates in the single state treasury system. Not a school, but a district education
authority is an administrator of these funds. Since a school is not de facto a legal entity,
a direction of usage of earned funds depends on a will of a governmental official. Such
a situation does not motivate innovations at schools. A functional component of the
economic mechanism of public administration of educational changes at the secondary
school level consists in state support of development of innovators among pedagogues, performing the experimental activity at schools, and extension of opportunities
for self-education of teachers.
In the nearest future, the normative and cost-based financing education according to an allowance principle will persist. In a case of enacting the progressive law
On Education, there can be gradual transition to allocation and usage of funds, which
are oriented towards educational goals and expected results. Stabilization of the educational policy, determination of priorities for medium-term prospects, formulation of
an expenditure strategy, taking notice of real financial needs, and decentralization of
administration will foster the mentioned process.
510
Conclusions and prospects of further researches. Governmental financing

education is a social priority in the developed world and it tends to grow faster than
state budgets. Strategical priorities of a country in the educational field and available
resources should be coordinated. There will be more prospects for implementation of
an educational change if sources of needed resources are transparent, open, clear,
and strictly determined for everyone. Under conditions of the unstable projective background of educational changes, the government should strictly determine economic
mechanisms for administration of these changes and provide guarantees concerning
impossibility of unpredictable reduction of declared expenditures. If there is no such an
opportunity for the government, complex educational changes should be postponed
until finding required resources.
Under conditions of changeable economic development in Ukraine, the declared dependence of budgetary assignments for education and, particularly, for education development on a rate of the GDP negatively influences the educational field.
As a result, the field depends on political conjuncture and other factors being beyond
the education field scope. These events considerably restrain potential and stable capacities to change, which are products of evolution of the very educational system. The
frame law defines the education as a major national priority (upon the pattern of the
Code of Education of France) regardless of a rate of the GDP, which will be invested
in the field. No doubt, an issue of education is a matter of safety for contemporary postrevolutionary Ukraine. Therefore, there is a need of operative recognition of budgetary
assignments for education as a so-called protected item of the state budget. Cost
estimates of educational institutions should contain at least minimal expenditures for
development and its future growth prospects.
Taking into account increasing significance of educational changes and their
continuous character, the government should declare a requirement of providing continuous innovative development of education as a principle of the state policy in the
educational field. The author understands that it is difficult to discern funds spent for
general educational needs from those spent for educational changes. To develop skills
of coping with educational changes, at least small-scale changes should occur (improvement of new methodical instruments, technologies, and managerial approaches).
Thus, responsibility of the state education authorities (at each level) for support of educational changes should be clearly determined in the legislation. The legislation
should also determine sanctions for non-compliance with the law.
511
References:
1. Parashchenko L. Public administration of secondary education development in
Ukraine: methodologies, strategies, mechanisms [ ] / L. Parashchenko. Kyiv: Master
Books, 2011. 536 p.
2. Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine (Education Legislation) [Internet Resources]. Mode
to access: www.rada.gov.ua.
512
Bondarenko Irina,
Department of Journalism of
Zaporizhzhya National University,
Ph.D., Principal Lecturer
Ethical Category of Honor, Dignity

nd Professional Standards of Ukrainian Journalist
Abstract: The article deals with the specifics of Ukrainian journalist professional
standards regarding ethical categories of honor and dignity. It also analyzes the legal
rules, which govern the professional activities of media workers. Ukrainian journalism
self-regulation practice is considered.
Keywords: dignity, business reputation, discrimination, ethics, morality, professional standards, honor.
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518
Iryna Pogorska,
Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University,
Doctor of Political Sciences, Senior Researcher,
the Institute of International Relations
Strategic ulture: specificities of discourse about

the concept efficiency in analyzing the international
political
Abstract: This article is devoted to specificities of scientific discourse about
analytical efficiency of the concept of strategic culture in the context of the development
contemporary international political studies.
Keywords: strategic culture, concept USA, international political studies.
,

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:
1. Sewell W. The Concept(s) of Culture. Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions
in the Study of Society and Culture. - Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
P. 48.
2. Gaddis J.L. Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American
National Security Policy. - Oxford: Oxford University Press. - P. 8.
3. Goldman E.F. Building a Culture That Encourages Strategic Thinking // Journal of
Leadership & Organizational Studies. - May 2010, vol. 17, no. 2. - P. 119-128.
4. Jack L. Snyder. A Project AIR FORCE report prepared for the rand.- [ ]. - .: http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/
pubs/reports/2005/R2154. pdf.
5. Gray C. 1981. National Style in Strategy: The American Example. - International
Security, Fall, vol. 6, 2. P. 21-47.
6. Jhonston A.I. Thinking about Strategic Culture // International Security. - 1995.
V. 19, 4. - P. 36-43.
7. Johnston A. Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese
History. - Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton University Press? 1998. - P. ix.
525
8. Johnston A. Cultural Realism and Strategy in Maoist China / The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics, ed. Peter J. Katzenstein. P. 216-268.
9. Lantis J.S. Strategic Culture and Tailored Deterrence: Bridging the Gap between
Theory and Practice. - [ ]. .: http:
//www.contemporarysecuritypolicy.org/assets/CSP-30-3-Lantis.pdf.
10. Culture and Foreign Policy (Ed. by Valerie Hudson). - Boulder: Lynn Rienner Publishers, 1997, - 28-29293 p.
11. Farrell T. Constructivist Security Studies: Portrait of Research Program // International Studies Review. - Spring 2002 Volume 4, Issue 1. P. 49-72.
12. Berger T. Cultures of Antimilitarism: National Security in Germany and Japan /
Berger T. - Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1998. - P. 9.
13. Van Dijk T.A. Text and Context of Parliamentary Debates. Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Parliamentary Discourse Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2004. - P. 339.
526
Larysa Udovyka,
Zaporizhzhya National University,
Associate Professor, Doctor of Law,
Head of the Department of History and Theory
of State and Law, Faculty of Law
Areas of national legal systems in the context

of globalization
Abstract: The author examines the directions of national legal systems based
on the new typology of legal systems. The criterion typology act of transformation the
legal system caused by globalization, glocalization, location.
Keywords: globalization, globalization transformations, national legal system,
legal globalization, legal integration, transformation.
,
,
, ,
,

: .
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,
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527
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533
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,
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, ,
(, ),
, .
:
1. Robertson R. Globalization or glocalization? / Robertson R. White K. E. (Ed.)
Globalisation. Critical concept in sociology. Volume III, London 2003. - . 31-51.
2. Mendis P. Glocalization: the human side of globalization as if the Washington
consensus mattered. Morrisville: Lulu Press, 2007. . 2.
3. . . : [.]. , 2014. . 273-274.
534
Lesya Petrenko,
Poltava V.G. Korolenko National
Pedagogical University, Doctoral Student f the Department
f General Pedagogics nd Andragogics, Physics and Mathematics Faculty
The fundamentals of the new Ukrainian educational system

in Gr. Vashchenkos pedagogic heritage
Abstract: The article addresses the scientific heritage of the great pedagogue,
the founder of the Ukrainian pedagogy Professor Gr. Vashchenko, whose name was
interdicted in the Soviet period. The analysis of his works has made it possible to present his opinions regarding the development of the Ukrainian system of education and
to reveal the scientists influential views on the youth upbringing in the Ukrainian school
of the future.
Keywords: national education, national traditions, goal of education, willpower,
character, system of education, educational ideal.
,

. . ,
,
-

.
:
,
, . (1878-1967).
.
535
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. . : - , 1952. 256 .
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3. . / . // / . . : , 1997.
. 65101.
4. . : . , , / . . : . ., 1994. 190 . (; . 1).
540
5. .. / .. //
: / . .. ; . .. .
., 2003. . 478493.
6. . / . . : , 1957. 48 .
7. . /
// [] / . ., 2003. [. 5]:
. . 616.
541
Liudmyla Bakhmat,
Municipal Establishment Kharkiv Humanitarian-Pedagogical Academy
of Kharkiv Regional Council, Tutor of Foreign Philology Department
Pedagogical conditions for developing

self-assessment of learning achievements
of future teachers
Abstract: The article deals with defining pedagogical conditions for self-assessment development of learning achievements of future teachers. The basis of the scientific experiment is the analysis of personal self-assessment and ways of its developping to separate inner and outer factors. Both groups have simultaneous influence
which indicates necessity of defining inner and outer pedagogical conditions for selfassessment development of learning achievements.
Keywords: self-assessment, pedagogical conditions, learning achievements,
professional pedagogical training.
,
-
,

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.
542
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543
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547
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:
1. .. - : . . .
. , 1998.- 22 .
2. - .. ( ). -, 1995. - 64 .
3. .. . ,1992. 52 .
4. .. . . . , 1975. 304 .
5. .. . -, 1998.
688 .
6. ..
: . . . : 19.00. 03.
, 1998. 192 .
548
Pastushenko Ludmila,
National University of Dnipropetrovsk,
Doctor Sc. of Philological Sciences,
the Faculty of Philological Sciences
Ethical Principles of Constantia in the German

Romance of XVII century
Abstract: The analysis of the ethical concept of Constantia from baroque to the
gallant romance with his polemical tendencies is the main point of this article.
Keywords: ethical principles of Constantia, poetics of baroque, gallant romance.
,
,
, ,

XVII
:
.
: Constantia, ,
.
, - , ,
. - ,
- -
-
549
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, ,
.

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[1]. , ,
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Bestndigkeit, -
550
, . constantia ,
, Bestndigkeit
Unbestndigkeit der Welt [2]. ,
,
,
,
. , , , bestndige Glckseligkeit [2],
, , , .
Bestndigkeit XVII .
,
, ,
, , . ,
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(in meiner Liebe bestndig zu bleiben) , , , : unbestndiger Wehrt [2]. ,
, Bestndigkeit, , , : , ,
bleibe standhaftig [3]. , , , ,
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-
551
, : Meine Bestndigkeit soll keinem Glck unterworfen bleiben ( ) [2].

,
Bestdigkeit,
. . (),
, ,
, - [4], [5], [6].
,
. ,
, ,
, -
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[7] (1698). , - , constantia: ,
, . -, , .
, . , , ,
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Empfindsamkeit.
552
, ,
, :
, [8]. , , , der Himmel und die Natur [8].

, . (Politik), , unter einem politischen Vorwande [8], , . ,
artig, anmutig, liebreitzend, angenehm, hflich, polit, liebenswrdig, manierlich, .
, Bestndigkeit, : - , constantia, ,
. constantia , ,
- .
:
1. Merkel I. Philosopie // Zwischen Gegenreformation und Frhaufklrung: Spthumanismus, Barock. 1570 1740 / Hrsg. von H. Steinhagen. Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1985. Bd. 3, S. 91.
553
2. Anton Ulrich von Braunschweig. Die Durchleuchtige Syrerin Aramena: In 5 Th.

Nrnberg, 16701678. Th. 2, S. 276; Th. 5, S. 135; Th. 1, S. 27; Th. 2, S. 198.
3. Grimmelshausen H.J. Ch. Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus Teutsch // Grimmelshausens Werke: In 4 Bd. / Hrsg. von den Nationalen Forschungs- und Gedenksttten der klassischen deutschen Literatur in Weimar. Berlin und Weimar, 1984.
Bd. 1, S. 38.
4. Hettner H. Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im achtzehnten Jahrhundert: In 2
Bd. Berlin und Weimar, 1979. Bd. 1, S. 119.
5. Brger Th. August Bohse // Deutsche Schriftsteller im Portrt: In 2 Bd. / Hrsg. Von
M. Bircher. Mnchen, 1979. Bd. 1, S. 43.
6. Rtzer H.G. Der Roman des Barock 1600 1700. Kommentar zu einer Epoche.
Mnchen, 1972. S. 128129.
7. Bohse A. Die Albanische Sulma. Clln, 1689. S. 38.
8. Bohse A. Die Liebenswrdige Europerin Constantine. Frankfurt und Leipzig,
1698. S. 157, 554, 183.
554
Savchenko Lyudmila,
Kharkiv Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy, Senior Lecturer,
Faculty f Preschool nd Special Education
Interaction between the family and the institution

in the national-patriotic education
children and youth
Abstract: This paper is devoted to the peculiarities of interaction between family
and school in organizing patriotic education as the foundation for the realization of the
national values of the Ukrainian people under globalization.
Keywords: national and family education, national consciousness, patriotism,
national traditions, family.
, -
, ,

-

:
.
: , , , , .
555
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. ,

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556
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:
1. -
, - - . 641 [ ]: [-]. .
: http://osvita.ua/legislation/Ser_osv/47154/ (
24.11. 2015).
2. .. // , 1998.
6, . 52-55.
3. .. / .. // :
5- . . 5. .: . , 1977. 312 .
4. .. // . : 5 . .:
, 1976. . 2. 670 .
562
Filimonyuk Lyudmila,
North Caucasian Federal University,
Professor f Department f Pedagogics nd Psychology
f Professional Education, Doctor f Pedagogical Sciences,
Nevinnomisska State Humanitarian
Technical Institute, Professor,
Burljaeva Viktoria,
Nevinnomisska State Humanitarian Technical Institute,
Head of the Department of Professional Training,
Doctor f Social Sciences Professor,
Chebanov Konstantin,
Nevinnomisska State Humanitarian Technical Institute,
Candidate f Pedagogic Sciences, Associate Professor
The process of multicultural socialization of young

Abstract: The article is devoted to a problem of polycultural education and training of younger generation. In the publication basics of development in the person of
ability to perceive and respect an ethnic variety and cultural identity of various groups
of the population are covered.
Keywords: polycultural education, polycultural training, ethnopedagogics, culture of international communication.
Language and culture of each ethnos have the unique original face expressing
the individual beginning of the corresponding society. At the same time in all national
cultures standing at the same civilization step, for example, as in Russia, is much in
common that allows to identify this "face" as the person Russian and universal [1].
This general also is that center which became the basis of the all-Russian mentality
based on the principles of connection of ideas of national identity of this or that ethnos
with ideas of belonging to Russia, entries into the Russian culture. Historically national
character and national consciousness of each Russian ethnos were formed in pro-
563
cesses of centuries-old interaction and mutually comprehension with the Russian national character, the Russian world view, the Russian national consciousness in the
conditions of uniform geopolitical interests [2].
Ethnopedagogics studies process of social interaction and public and national
influence during which the personality acquiring social norms, values, experience is
brought up, develops collects and systematizes national knowledge of education and
training of children, all popular wisdom reflected in religious doctrines, fairy tales, legends, bylinas, parables, songs, riddles, proverbs, games, toys and other in family and
communal tenor of life, life, traditions, and also philosophical and ethical, actually pedagogical thoughts and views, that is all pedagogical potential, cumulative experience
of historical and cultural formation of the personality [3]. A teacher, providing national
education, forms national consciousness of the child by training in the native language,
by acquaintance with customs, traditions, valuable orientations of the people. However, putting in structure of the personality national into the forefront, it is necessary to
consider two possible extremes: the nihilistic the denying and not recognizing its
nationality and culture; and nationalistic and chauvinistic the role preaching only the
national priorities and installations and belittling and value of other nationalities. Therefore parallel work on acquaintance with other ethnic collectives is very important not to
miss the sensitive period of assimilation of other languages and cultures, not to limit
the world of social contacts of children [4].
National consciousness or ethnic identity as understanding of the belonging to
a certain ethnos, is formed at the person in the first years of his life, this period is
defining in formation of bases of character and development of the standards of behavior in many respects depending on a social environment. One of the major factors
defining process of formation of ethnic identity are safety and full value of existence of
ethnic traditions in surrounding society [5].
Recognition and acceptance of distinctions of ethnic collectives can be considered norm of cross-cultural interaction at the present stage of development of humanity [6]. At the same time it is also a standard of behavior for the modern polycultural
educated person. Polycultural (international) training is understood as development in
the person of ability validly to perceive an ethnic variety and cultural identity of various
human groups. Absence of due consideration to polycultural education of the individual
leads to social-cultural intolerance and hostility manifestation to other ethnic origin surrounding people.
564
Polycultural education is based on polycultural education, which includes

knowledge of the following elements of culture of the nations:
material culture: a basic type of settlements, dwellings, main household items;
clothes (national suit), jewelry; national food; vehicles; instruments of labor; work taking
into account its specifics;
spiritual culture: folksy customs, ceremonies, holidays; language, national creativity (fairy tales, proverbs and sayings, childish sports, music); art (songs, dances,
works of art and arts and crafts creativity, literature);
standard culture: general human moral qualities; rules of communication between people in ethnos and out of it.
It is necessary to consider that at the heart of the reported knowledge of customs, cultural values, stereotypic standards of behavior of other people full mastering
ethnic features of the culture has to lie only the person who is deeply respecting and
understanding identity of the people will be able to understand and accept specifics of
cultural values of other ethnic collectives [7].
It is represented that in polycultural training the following sequence is expedient:
the national training understood as instilling of love and respect for the people, pride
of its cultural and historical achievements; acquaintance of pupils with people of the
immediate national environment, formation of the benevolent attitude towards contemporaries and adults of the next nationalities on the basis of familiarizing with customs
and traditions of the next people; message of knowledge of ethnic identity of the remote
people and formation of the emotional and positive attitude towards national variety of
the planet.
Thus, process of polycultural socialization begins with entry into culture of the
people, with process of formation of ethnic identity.
Polycultural training has to be carried out in three directions: information saturation (message of knowledge of traditions, customs of the different people, specifics
of their culture and values, etc.); emotional influence (in the course of realization of the
first direction information saturation it is important to cause a response in soul of
the child); behavioral norms (the knowledge gained by the child about norms of relationship between the people, rules of etiquette has to be surely enshrined in his own
behavior).
Especially it is necessary to emphasize that problems of national training can
be solved only in the presence of appropriately prepared pedagogical personnel. The
565
growing-up person is brought up only by the identity of the teacher, and no textbooks
can replace it, it and is the fundamental principle of national pedagogics.
For intensification of cognitive activity of trainees on problems of national and
polycultural training the following forms of work are used: conversations, debates on
pedagogical views of the different people, an ideal of the perfect person, to methods
of training; creative evenings with speeches of representatives of the national intellectuals (composers, artists, writers, etc.); carrying out KVN on folklore materials, "days
of ethnopedagogics" with the comparative analysis of educational traditions of the different people; preparation of papers about traditions of education of children, standards of behavior of the different people (following the results of independent search
activity); viewing of video movies about the best pedagogical practices on national and
polycultural education [9].
It is very important that problems of education were harmoniously combined
with problems of training and were fixed in behavior of trainees. In the solution of informative tasks expediently use of dialogue form of education. Such form of carrying
out occupations recovers pedagogical process and promotes deeper and conscious
digestion of material. Intensification of the gained knowledge is promoted by "cross
poll": each team prepares a package of questions on the studied problem for team of
rivals and then watches alternation of their collective and individual answers.
The differentiated approach in education is carried out by drawing up tasks for
drawing up stereotypes and autostereotypes of the different people, a scale of values
in national programs of training, etc. Use of nonconventional forms of education not
only makes active and "recovers" pedagogical process, but also allows to involve pupils in the unique world of national creativity, national pedagogics, influencing their
emotional and strong-willed sphere.
Results of education have to find the reflection first of all in behavior of pupils,
in particular, in personal observance of the basic principles of culture of international
communication by them:
the principle of "ethnic indifference", that is abstraction from a national factor
in interpersonal communication, it should be noted that today the opposite behavior
not only among adults, but also among children even more often meets, and the attention of teachers isn't always focused on these cases of immoral behavior of their wards,
becoming isolated only within a didactic educational cycle;
566
a step in communication with people of other nationality the tactful person

will never dare to offend or humiliate the person of other nationality, mocking at traditions, customs of his people or using jokes, jokes, sayings about representatives of
other nationality. However results of many pilot studies speak about that, as this principle isn't always realized;
for the person of any nationality it is peculiar to treat validly rituals, ceremonies,
customs, traditions of the ethnos, and such relation has to be recognized natural and
only as the normal. Each ethnic collective has specific traditions which for representatives of other nationality can be unclear and even to seem absurd. However how many
reasons arise for discussion of expediency of observance of this or that national tradition or custom, it is never necessary to impose to the person of negative estimates of
norms and installations of his ethnic collective;
entering discussion of national and ethnic problems, it is necessary to realize
accurately that volume of knowledge which you have on the matter. Most often people
get the main knowledge of the ethnic sphere of life from inadequate sources: casual
meetings, publications in the "yellow" press, stories of other people, and information
received thus extends on other ethnic group in general;
knowledge of ceremonies, rituals, customs of that ethnic group in the environment of which the person lives is necessary, he has to master the minimum requirements of etiquette peculiar to the ethnic environment. Thus the knowledge and observance of prohibitive norms are especially important;
one of the most important aspects of culture of international communication
language. The knowledge of language of the main ethnos in which environment there
lives a person, is a major element of culture of international communication. The person himself has to master language of the people in the territory of which lives, at least
at the colloquial and household level. It is very important to support the one who takes
the first steps in development of language unfamiliar, but not to laugh, bantering at a
pronunciation, creation of offers.
The concept "acceptances" is the cornerstone of the principles of culture of international communication given above, it isn't necessary to remember hundreds of
rules, it is necessary to remember one need of respect for another. The sense of
national education in the modern world consists in preservation of the existing original
ethnic collectives and consolidation of interrelation between them on a universal basis.
Maintenance of traditions in the maximum degree promotes formation of ethnic identity.
The most effective factor of formation of ethnic identity at younger generation is
their direct social environment, however influence of the last maybe positive, and ne-
567
gative. Considering, first, polyethnicity of the environment surrounding the Russian

child, and secondly, the greatest ability of perception of cultures of other people at
children's age when there were no stereotypic forms of the emotional and estimated
attitude towards representatives of other nationalities yet, it is natural to draw a conclusion on relevance and favorable prospects of polycultural training through an education system.
Polycultural training means development in the person of ability to perceive and
respect an ethnic variety and cultural identity of various groups of the population. Absence of due consideration to polycultural education of people results in welfare intolerance and hostility. At the same time only the person who is deeply respecting and
understanding ethnic identity of the people will be able to understand and accept specifics of cultural values of other ethnic collectives. In this regard it is necessary to
strengthen and deepen ethnological, ethnographic and ethnopsychological training of
the teachers capable to work with various contingent of pupils in all links of an education system.
References:
1. Lossky N.O. Harakter of the Russian people. M.: Crops, 1991. 98 pages.
2. Gasanov Z.T. About psychology of formation of national values // Pedagogics.
2009. No. 9. Page 112-132.
3. Levitan K.M. Lichnost of the teacher: formation and development. Saratov: SGU,
2000. 270 pages.
4. Leontyev A.N. Pedagogical communication. - M.: Knowledge, 2000. 195 pages.
5. Porshnev B.F. Opposition as component of ethnic consciousness. M.: Science,
2003. 184 pages.
6. Sorokin P. Ethnic question as problem of social equality. Psychology of national
intolerance. Minsk, 2008. Page 174.
7. Fedorov V.A. Dukhovnost and moral as values and concepts of the modern Russian higher school // Bulletin of the International academy of Sciences of the higher
school. 2007. No. 2. Page 61-67.
8. Filimonyuk l.A., Dzhaubayeva M.I. Ethnocultural education of students in the multiethnic region. International scientific institute EDUCATIO. Scientific prospects of
the XXI century. Achievements and prospects of new century. VIII International
scientific and practical Part 1 conference. Novosibirsk - 2015. - No. 1(8). - 168
pages.
568
Lyudmila Chikonova Valentinovna,

Gorno-Altaisk State University,
Associate Professor of Political Science,
Economics and the Faculty of Law
Constitutional right to land: the problem

of judicial protection
Abstract: This article is dedicated actual problem of constitutional protection of
private property. In this publication are considered questions of judicial protection,
questions of rights of private property, guarantees the implementation of this law, besides the legal decisions of Constitutional and Supreme Courts. Author proposed the
main aspects for improvement our legislation and judicial practice.
Keywords: the Constitutional low, private property, land ownership, guarantees
of rights, land disputes, land legislation, demarcation of the territory.
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578
Zhamila Temirgalievna Mamyrkhanova,

L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University,
Doctorant of Philology Science, the Faculty of Philology,
Coauthor Zhantas Altaevich Zhakupov,
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Professor,
Doctor of Philology, the Faculty of Philology
Dialect problem of the Kazakh people living abroad

Abstract: The language of the Kazakh people living abroad is studied in the
Dialectology of the Kazakh Linguistics in the late 60s of the last century. The peculiarities of the language of the Kazakhs living outside the Kazakh land is considered along
with the dialect of the Kazakh land according to their location and closeness of the
genus in the structure of a particular group (the western, southern, north-central, eastern) of dialects.
Keywords: language, history, dialect, culture, Kazakh diaspora, literary language, Cyrillic, Arabic, Latin script.
Dialect (Greek. dialektos dialect) is a variety of common language, used by a
relatively limited number of people, connected by territorial, social and professional
commonality. Territorial dialects reflect linguistic differences of the period of tribal structure, feudal epoch, and they are also connected with the movement of the population
in a particular territory. Dialects may form the basis of a national language.
German scientists linked the definition of a dialect with absolutely spatial criterion. Supplement socio-labeled form of the language (Dittmar, Dittmar, The bases
of sociolinguistic, the notebook with tasks. 1997. S. 185) appears in the definition of
dialect recently. The concept dialect is always defined relative to a particular language.
In modern linguistics there are such new concepts as ethnolect, sociolect, regiolect, urbanolect (Gorshkova N.E. Urban languages (urbanolekty) in the forms of existence of the modern German language in Germany (for example, the language of the
city of Berlin) Abstract. dis. Ph.D. Philol. Sciences: 10.02.04 N.E. Gorshkova. SPb.,
579
2008, 20 p.). Thus the term dialect is modified, refined and differentiated, but does
not disappear.
We know that the solution of some important problems of the Kazakh dialectology requires the description of the Kazakh language dialects separately, definition of
their characteristics, similarities and differences. In this regard, an objective of the
study, conducted by dialectologists, is to collect and investigate local characteristics in
the language of Kazakhs, settled outside Kazakhstan in the second half of the XX
century. The peculiarities of the language of Kazakhs in China are divided into three
areas: Ile, Altai and Tarbagatai. They divide the dialects among themselves, without
taking into account Kazakhstan. We think that the Kazakh language in Kazakhstan
should be the basis for the North-East and South-Western dialects, as the literary language is in Kazakhstan (Bazylkhan B. Language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia,
Ulaanbaatar, 1991, p. 67).
In the article the language of the Kazakhs in China is studied in the framework
of the Eastern dialects. Apart from these dialects, this group includes Oskemen and
Ayagoz dialects, located on both sides of the Irtysh River, the language of the Kazakhs
in Mongolia (Bayolgey dialect) and the language of the Kazakhs of Koshagash in
Gorno-Altai area in Russia. The main reasons for bringing together the eastern group
of dialects are the facts of close language relations, the territory and the ethnic connection with each other (Bazylkhan . Language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia,
Ulaanbaatar, 1991, p. 84).
The language of the Kazakhs in China appears only in the form of separate
articles. Sh. Sarybaev, Zh. Bolatov and B.A. Bafin noted about it in their articles. Chinese linguists also could not ignore this issue. The study of this issue began in dialectology of Kazakh Linguistics in the 50s of the XX century, after the formation of the new
PRC.
In these works phonetic features, lexical and grammatical problems of the dialects are covered only in the form of description, not as an object of special study.
Historical, cultural, ethnological reasons and lexical peculiarities of the language of the
Kazakhs in China, alienated from the main group of the Kazakh people and living in
the socio-linguistic environment, deserves to be the object of study from historicalcomparative, as well as linguistic-geographical directions. On the socio-linguistic side
it is important to consider the lexical system of the language of the people, in close
relations with the Chinese people for many years, taking into account the influence of
580
other languages. Our article is interested in studying the changes in the language of
the diaspora, moved from China to Kazakhstan, as a result of relationships with other
people and the influence of other languages (Zh. Mamyrkhanova. Problems of the language of the Kazakhs in China. Beijing, 2013. International Conference Problems of
Philology Article).
At first dialectologists began to study the language features of the people living
in different districts of Kazakhstan, and at the same time exploring the language of the
Kazakhs living in the neighboring republics. Peculiarities of the Kazakh language of
the Kazakhs remained on their own land that has been passed to the other neighboring
Soviet republics such as Russia, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Karakalpakstan and Tajikistan, as a result of historical and political changes, interest the scientists. The expeditions to the places, inhabited by the Kazakhs in former Soviet republics like Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Karakalpakstan, Tajikistan and Russian Federation (Orenburg region, in the area of Koshagash and Turaty in Gorno-Altaisk autonomy, Western
Siberia, Kalmyk autonomy) were organized with the aim of collecting data about
the peculiarities of the local language. After some time, the opportunity to explore the
Kazakh language in distant foreign countries as Mongolia and China appeared. The
Kazakh language in other countries is generally described as a transitional dialect
(Zhadi Shakenuly. The Kazakhs in China. Almaty: Kazakh community worldwide,
2007, 34). Evidence of this is the works of many scholars like A. Nurmagambetov
(Language of the Kazakhs in Turkmenistan), T. Aydarov (Language of the Kazakhs in
Uzbekistan), B. Beketov, N. Zhunisov (Language of the Kazakhs in Karakalpak),
A. Tasymov, K. Kurmanaliev (Language of the Kazakhs in Russia), B. Bazylkhan (Language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia) who considered the subject.
Having researched the separate dialects, scientists began to study the dialects
of large areas in recent years. That is, some dialects have been grouped and classified
according to their features, their similarity and differences and also in relation to the
literary language (B. Bamishuly Condition of the language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia.
A. 2004).
One of the dialect groups, which differs from the literary language and other
dialect groups, is the eastern dialect group of the Kazakh language (Zh. Bolatov Eastern dialect group of the Kazakh language and its relation to the literary language. Doctoral dissertation manuscript: 10.02.02. Frunze, 1970).
581
Zh. Bolatov who explored the language of this region for many years, divides
the eastern dialect group into five dialects: Bayan-Olgii (Language of the Kazakhs in
Mongolia), Xinjiang (Language of the Kazakhs in China), Koshagash (Language of the
Kazakhs of Koshagash and Turaty), Oskemen and Ayagoz. The language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia, China, Koshagash and Turaty in the Russian Federation, we are
talking about, is considered a part of the Eastern dialects. Also, in the rest of these
regions the Kazakh language belongs to different groups of dialects. For example the
language of the Kazakhs of Turkmenistan and Karakalpakstan is in the western group
of dialects, and the language of the Kazakhs of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan is in the
southern group of the Kazakh language dialects (Eskekbaev D. - Kazakh Diaspora:
today and in the future. - Turkestan, 2002, 75).
The study of dialectical features of the Kazakh language came out of the scope
of the Republic, and covered the language of Kazakh diaspora abroad. In the first years
of independence the opportunity to explore the language of the Kazakhs living in foreign countries was associated with many factors. Now, when Kazakhstan is a full member of the world community, the issue of relations and communications of Kazakhstan
and the countries, where our compatriots live, has been put at the international level.
Therefore in the last 15-20 years the opportunity to investigate the situations
and changes in the Kazakh language in another language environment appeared. The
peculiarities of language of the Kazakhs living in different countries differ from each
other. This is due to the influence of other people and other languages.
Diasporology as a field of social sciences studies historical, demographic,
ethno-psychological, socio-political, and cultural development of a particular nation located in other countries far from the homeland. In dialectological studies, together with
the study of traditional linguistic phenomenon, there are problems as a state of the
language, language situation, linguistic influence, and the emphasis was placed to the
social and public function of the language of the Kazakh diaspora and irredenta.
Though there are Kazakh people settled in Europe, Pakistan, Libya and other countries, the language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia, China, Afghanistan and recently in
Turkey has become the object of scientists research and there are some scientific
thesis, many articles and monographs on its characteristics (Mustafauly S. Local features in stable combinations: on the material of the language of the Kazakhs in China.
Almaty, 2003, 102).
582
Studying the language of the Kazakh diaspora, which is one-third of the Kazakh
people, living outside Kazakhstan, is one of the important points of Kazakh dialectology. Studying the language of the Kazakhs in China has been conducted recently.
When Kazakhstan was still a part of the Soviet Union in the 1960s.
Zh. Bolatov first conducted his study based on the language of the Kazakhs
moved from China to Semey region in Kazakhstan. Here B. Bafins research also
should be noted (D.Eskekbaev - Kazakh Diaspora: today and in the future. - Turkestan,
2002).
The features of the language of about half a million Kazakhs in China are distinguished with a variety of territorial characteristics and diversity. Firstly, the number
of the Kazakhs in Xinjiang is very big (two million according to some sources). Secondly, the Kazakhs in Xinjiang had the opportunity to develop their language freely.
Here Kazakh schools have been opened, newspapers, magazines, books and textbooks were published, and radio and television have been working in the Kazakh language. The Kazakh language in this area is systematically investigated. They had the
opportunity to develop the Kazakh language as compared to the language of other
Kazakh diaspora living in other countries. Third, the Kazakhs in Xinjiang have reserved
a rich fund of Kazakh folk literature, and these values have been published in about 80
volumes in Xinjiang. Fourth, the language of the Kazakhs in Xinjiang is distinguished
by its rich dialectic, regional phenomena and its diversity (Zhadi Shakenuly. The Kazakhs in China. Almaty: Kazakh community worldwide, 2007).
In the study of Kazakh dialectology the features of language of the Kazakhs in
Xinjiang occupies a special place. Studying the language of the Kazakhs in Xinjiang is
undeniably connected with thousands of separate words of literary language, phraseological units, proverbs and sayings, tales and scientific terms in various fields. We
noticed that two factors affect the language of the Kazakhs in Xinjiang. One of them is
an external factor, i.e. the impact of the Chinese, Uighur and Mongolian languages
with which they have close contact; second, the development of the language according to the internal development of the Kazakh language is based on national language. Until today the internal development of the Kazakh language has played an
important role in changing the language in Xinjiang (Masimkhanuly D. - My freedom is
my Kazakh. - Astana, 2014.- p. 400).
We used comparative-historical description in his article to show the data of the
Kazakh language dialects, Turkic speaking and other neighboring countries.
583
In comparing the language of Kazakhs in Xinjiang with the national Kazakh language we define phonetic, grammatical, lexical and phraseological differences. For
example, the Chinese have translated all the words that we consider the international
terms. The peculiarity of their writing (hieroglyph) also affects it.
The word context is translated from Chinese into Kazakh as soz orta (word
surrounding), as well as many household words and words, associated with the traditions, are different from literary language. For example, in the meanings these everyday words we do not see correspondence:
in literary language
in the language of the Kazakhs
correspondence
in China
to choose
Taldau
separate
Aiyrym
Coat
Shapan
sport shoes
Shaqai
Chopsticks
Sapqy
05.05.15 From the lessons of the Chinese language course for foreigners.
Examples:
nomirin tartu to reduce points
zhotketu to send
telefon beru to make a phone call
korim boldy pretty good, very well
engbek korsetu to deserve
sary qapshyq (liter. a yellow sack)- network folder (in computer), Professor
Zhang Zhingjing explains that the folder is translated from Chinese as sack.
boldy - used as the equivalent of the expressions no need, do not worry, its
enough, well (From the lessons of the Chinese language course for foreigners,
21.03.14).
06.11.2014 From Xinjiang television:
zhauapkershilikti quzastyru to check
bas zhora type of authoritys (bosses) work
nekelenu to get married
kurdelesu to become complicated
584
zhuyqtan beri for some time

qatelik otkizu to make a mistake
kisining betin syilamaidy not look in mans face
es-aqylym shygyp zhur I am startled/ thrown into a flutter
uqsamagan kezengde in different periods
olshemdendiru to regulate
uaqytty ornalastyru to appoint (time)
tuzim zhuyesi places of work
osy zamandangan modern
zhetistikter aigilendi was declared
zhurdek poiyzdyng qarqyny fast
uksamagan darezhede in varying degrees
08.11.14
sayakhat zharmengke traveling fair
kozden keshu to watch, reviw
gylym zharatu to implement (lexical difference)
Ayel barlyq saqshylardy attanysqa keltirip raising/calling upon (to campaign)
(lexical difference)
qatynas shyrgalangy road accident (lexical difference)
saikesti sharalar appropriate measures (lexical difference)
baseyedi to slow down (phonetic difference)
osy oraidan airylmaimyn I will not miss the opportunity
astasyp alyngdar discuss in advance
keshiruingdi umit etemin I beg your pardon
09.11.14.
qarzhy bosatty, qarzhy azhyratty provided with money, to finance
tyanaqtandyrylgan qarzhy used money
kasiptendiru provide jobs
ushqarylyq extremism
koz ayany kengeitu to leave the village and go to the city to work to bring
workforce outside
amanat qaryz credit
pauqylda, pauqylatta suddenly, unexpectedly
magash wages
585
saten beautiful (not fabric)

shaptau to stick, to make equal
nazarya theory
amanyat practice
tuzim rule
kepildik rol atqarady plays an important role (direct translation from Chinese)
mumkindik zharatty provided an opportunity (From Xinjiang television,
06.11.2014).
The vocabulary of the Kazakhs in China is considered and compared in the
sentences:
1. Ol keshe mekemede shataq shygargany ushin bugin zhumystan toqtatyldy
(was released).
2. Onyng uzyn-sonar anggimesi areng bitti (long).
3. Biz onyng pikirine qarsy turmaimyz, kerisinshe, quattaimyz (support).
4. Korim boldy biz endi zhayau zhurmeimiz (Its good).
5. Barlygymyz zhabal iske kirissek, bul zhumysty eki kunde bitiremiz (to-gether).
6. Aqan kaitys bolgan song zhumysty Aryn ustine alypty (took up).
7. Men sizdi zaqsy shakirtim dep tanimyn (recognize, consider).
(Bidollakyzy B. Lets learn the Kazakh language. Urumqi, 2007).
Newspapers and magazines in Kazakh are issued in that area. We have some
examples from them.
Newspaper Xinjiang, 01.01.2015.
1. Si Tsinping soiledi: Uaqyt ayamsyz (passes quickly), 2014 zhyl ayaqtap,
2015 zhyl keldi. Eskini uzartyp (sending, seeing off), zhangany qarsy ala satte ...
2. Biz ekonomika damuynyng ekonomikalyq-qogamdyq damudy belsene ilgerilettik, inzhenerya ushin qaltyqsyz (with all the force, tooth and nail)...
3. Formashyldyqqa, toreshildikke, raqat qumarlyqqa zhane asta-tok syrapshyldyqqa (thriftless) tuindi turde qarsy turdyq.
4. Bul qimyldar (actions) duniezhuzining tipti Zhungonyng zhaqsy tanuyna
mumkindik zhasady.
5. men bizding Uly khalqymyzga madaq zhaudyramyn (say thanks).
6. Barlyq ulttardyng terezesi teng boluyn quattaimyz (propose, approve).
586
7. Elimizdegi ar ult khalqyn yntymaqtastyra zhane bastai otyryp, donggelek

dauletti (prosperous) qogamdy zhappai quru, Zhunggousha sotsialism isterinde
zhanga zhagdai zharatu (to discover new things), Uly zholynda erlikpen alga bolu (to
be ahead).
8. Ishki-syrtqy tereng ozgeris (big changes) zhagdaiy partya musheleri
qosynymen (a number) partyanyng ozindik qurylysyna tereng yqpal zhetkizdi (had an
impact).
9. Bul retki (this time) algabasarlyq tarbie qimyly partyamyz boiynsha...
10. Reformaga, damuga, oryrnrqtylyqqa yqpal etetin basty maselelerdi kush
sala sheship, ekonomika men qogamnyng tez zhaqsy damuyn belsene zhebedi
(moved forward, progressed).
11. Saiyp kelgende (frankly speaking) tarikhty ilgeriletu barysyndagy naqtyly
roline qarauymyz kerek...
12. Negizgi saty partya uiymdarynyng zhasampazdyq, uiysqyshtyq (solidarity)
zhauyngerlik quaty odan ari zhogarylap, alsiz-bytyrandy (uncoordinated) kinaratti
bolgan negizgi saty partya uiymdary retteledi.
13. Partyanyng khalyq buqarasymen tagdyrlas boluyna kepildik etu (to perform)
kerek. Newspaper Xinjiang , 1.01.2015, #1.
In these sentences we can see the words that are translated directly from Chinese and how it affects the Kazakh language, and the sentences lose their meaning.
As for standard language, the common combinations in these places have figurative character and became stable combinations. For example phrase qalpaq kiu
(to put on a hat) means to be guilty, esik ashu (to open the door) to become
friends, shegara azhyratu (to divide the border) to be at enmity, etc.
Some words in the language of young people from China have the elements of
the Chinese and Uighur languages, which are not found in the standard language. For
example: dasmal/dazmal, idara office, yanattau to scold, odege cornice, uaqyt
toshty its time, zhozy a low table, shornabai a draft/ rough copy, kilet
warehouse, etc. It should be noted that the Kazakhs in China and Mongolia is well
preserved native language compared with the language of the Kazakhs from other
countries.
The words connected with
house items, dishes, utensils, tools etc. in the
language of the Kazakhs in China:

baqyr large ladle for water (bucket in the southern regions)
587
boqsha handbag, bag (made of cloth)

bumonsha bathhouse (steamroom)
maicham candle (made of wool, cotton and animal fat, used as a candle in
the dark)
tausha niche in the wall for dishes. In places places used as assadal
tonar mesh (or pesh) clay oven for baking bread, sticking the dough to its hot
wall (the word has sound change)
shylapshyn a basin for washing
qubyr wash-hand stand (washbasin)
shaitaqtai a round table for tea.
Words denoting actions:
alqyn-zhulkqn kelu to come in a hurry (quickly)
donggalau spinning of the cart-wheel
urdalyp-zhyrdalyp secretly, surreptitiously
kop ketse as a last resort
myzhgau chatterbox
kaduilgi usual, ordinary
san good, well
aumasir foolish, crazy
askere overly, too, very
kuisi ketu to worry, to become anxious
shagu to break
salem-sauqyt beru to give presents (to convey greetings and gifts)
dizgin/tizgin ushymen kelu to come in a hurry
zhumysqa tusu to get a job
qiys etse at every trifle, at the slightest provocation
ersi here the meaning is good, but in southern regions it is superfluous,
unnecessary
zhazyda in the steppe, in deserted steppe
zharyqshy chiropractor, healer
kezhir stubborn; capricious
kok synu meadows, hay
orazdy happy, prosperous: Orazdy elding uly osedi. - A prosperous country
grows the son.
588
zhiyrly successful.
tarik to wipe out, to destroy: malyn tarik etti - destroyed his fortune
nartyng the best, favourite, somebodys loved
asmar etu to give, to entrust: Ol balasyna mal-mulkin asmar etti. - He gave
his son all his fortune.
tebir mischievous, prankster,
shunangdau ataiy real, true: Ataiy zhigit A real man.
abadan experienced, skilled: Toptyng ishinde abadany sol zhigit. - That guy
is the strongest among the crowd.
ozden ahead of all, strongest
emseu to be keen, to thirst for, to miss: Alysta zhurip ata-anasyn emseu. Missing parents while being away.
qaraq gluttonous, insatiable
bultsaty mountain road covered with clouds
tengiz kuni the sun coming up from the sea
alaman mass of the people
zhady idler, chairwarmer
soi genealogical origin
gazap anger, rage, fury
agash kushiktedi tree buds, blossoms
soz lazy, stubborn person
The words connected with
housing, a shelter and other outbuildings for
household purposes in the language of the Kazakhs in China:

dalang corridor.
koshe - hallway: Kun zhyly bolgan song, kosheni ui etip otyrmau.
shual closet, a room for storing food in the winter and for cooking in summer:
Shualda et, azyq-tulik turady.
zher saty stairs in the house
shyqqysh staircase, ladder for going up the haystack
kilet pantry, store room
tam a house: Tort bolmeli tamda turady. - He lives in a four roomed house.
qazandyq hearth without chimney
qumyra In western Kazakhstan used as bottle, in Semei region snuffbox for
snuffing or chewing tobacco is called so.
589
baqyr metal pot with a handle for frying wheat (baqyr - In western Kazakhstan
bucket, ozhau - in the language of the Kazakhs in China).
shorke a log for chopping wood, (from Russian tchurka).
tese a tool like a hoe, less than a hoe
lapas indoor barnyard. In the south it is called as kurke.
aq kerish lime, chalk. In the south of the republic it is called as aq balshyq.
bagar woven sack for wheat
boqsha bag, briefcase
dodege a synonym of cornice
shot door hook
shapashot hoe
shapqy backsword
turpi large rasp (the phrase turpidei tiu means to act rudely)
mostemir tripod (for cooking)
bedre bucket
shattauyq metal clip, pliers
les quadrangular pan for baking bread
karlen kasse porcelain cup
akpish, kuyente yoke, shoulder-yoke to bring water
bukteme pocketbook, wallet
sebet, koridor an entrance hall
tiek hook on the door
dalba hut, shack; hut to rest in the seed field
meskei bowl, from Russian word miska
tegesh half liter enameled ware
katel bucket, perhaps from Russian word kotel
das a large bowl (for food). In many places of Kazakhstan used as metal
basin for hand washing
qama gates, large door for cars
shishaqpaq a match. In other places: keuirt, shyrpy, shaqpaq, shagar
myq (in Kyrgyz lang. nail) a small nail: Ozi myq shegedei He is like a small
nail (strong).
yin agash yoke, shoulder-yoke
tartpa scythe, sickle
590
aiyragash pitchfork
pershil doctor, from the word feldsher (medical assistant)
qulaqshyn a mug
quima water for washing
baki shaver
sharshaq - pitchfork
zhozy a low round table
qoyan qulaq sham light without lamp
Most of the dialects in the language of the Kazakhs in China have appeared in
connection with political events in China. These dialects tell us about the ancient history of the Kazakh people in China. For example the phrase shyganga shyqqan is
currently used as very clever, experienced, and the combination of shygannan
shyqqan means stand out from everyone. These combinations shows that although
the ancient Xinjiang was subordinate to Chinese rule, these expressions were formed
according to the ancient Kazakh, rules (Zh.Samituly. The Kazakhs in China. - Almaty:
Kazakh community worldwide, 2000. - p. 27).
According to the ancient Kazakh law the accused was fined by the degree of
severity of the crime. If a thief cannot pay the fine, his relatives or clan should pay for
him. If that person commits a crime again, his family announces that they will not pay
a fee for him, and if he dies, they will not charge a fee for his murder or injury. People
called such a person as shygannan shyqqan. And the expressions like perde artynda
tutru (to give concealed indication), esik ashu (to establish a connection with other
countries) give us information about important events in the history of the Chinese
people.
Research works in the Kazakh dialectology were associated with diasporology
and lexicography (dialect, regional dictionaries). We need to mention Regional Dictionary of the Kazakh language edited by Sh.Sh. Sarybaev, who collected all the materials of research, scientific papers and dictionaries of the Kazakh dialectology. The
basic material of the dictionary includes lexical, phonetic and grammatical peculiarities
of the language of the Kazakh diaspora in Uzbekistan, Karakalpakstan, Turkmenistan,
Tajikistan, the Russian Federation and far-abroad countries like Mongolia, China, Afghanistan and Iran (B. Otebekov. Language of the Kazakh Diaspora: (based on materials collected from the language of the Kazakhs in Afghanistan and Iran). Almaty,
2000).
591
These selected and analyzed language features can become the rich source for
the identification of some controversial issues, as well as some of the problems concerning the history of the Turkic and other languages. Many researches have been
conducted and scientific essays have been written on the Kazakh language of these
above mentioned regions. Studying vocabulary of Kazakhs abroad and creating the
regional dictionaries contributes greatly to the development of our state language and
stabilization of its norms. From this point, to create a large regional dictionary that covers one of the large sections of our vocabulary - regional words combining them into
one direction is one of the current urgent problems of the Kazakh Linguistics. Such
scholars like Sh.Sh. Sarybaev, A. Nurmaganbetov, S. Omarbekov, Zh. Bolatov, G. Kaliev and O. Nakysbekov participated in creating dictionary and conducting the study,
and they are the members of the dialectological expeditions.
However, we cannot say that the materials of the Kazakh language in foreign
countries, texts, poems, folklore, phraseological units, paremeologisms and regional
language units, appeared as a result of a relationship with the local languages, have
been completely collected. Now we need to carry out an investigation of the Kazakh
language and the language situation of the Kazakhs in China, Turkey, Mongolia, Afghanistan and Iran in the socio-dialectological aspect. Their Kazakh language (in
China and Mongolia) may be subjected to changes after some time due to various
political and social factors, language situations and influence of other language environment.
In order to show the condition, changes and use of the Kazakh language in
these countries, we must take into account the fact that the language of these Kazakhs
is not only used as a dialect, but also as a written and oral language with a literary
norm, with its established vocabulary and terminology. Language status of the Kazakh
language there must be determined, because the periodical publications, political literature, fictions and textbooks are available as well as radio and TV programs, transmitted in the Kazakh language in China, Turkey and Mongolia. There is some non-compliance of written literature in the Kazakh language in foreign countries with the literary
language in Kazakhstan, not saying already about spoken language (N. Mukametkanuly. The socio-cultural image of the Kazakhs in China at the beginning of the
XXI century // Eurasian integration and the Kazakh diaspora. Astana: Elorda 2007).
At the same time there is no systematic character of terms used in the areas of
management, technology, economy, science, politics, etc. Each region uses lexical
592
units borrowed from other languages and their own terms. Along with the borrowed
items there are original terms, which are used successfully in the language of the Kazakhs in China, Turkey and Mongolia. To identify the similarities in terminology, gathering these facts and use these terms for the benefit of the literary language in Kazakhstan is a priority issue, as these language units are a source of enrichment of
terminological fund of our language.
We conclude that the language of the Kazakhs in China remained as a literary
language. Studying the lexical features of returnees we noticed that their language has
a bilingual character as a result of a close relationship with the people of the country
where they have settled. The reason for such phenomenon is the internal and external
linguistic factors. Lexical differences appeared due to the impact of the translations in
Chinese (S. Mustafauly. Local features in stable combinations in the language of the
Kazakhs in China. The thesis of the candidate of philological sciences. Almaty. p. 2002
- 117).
Language is a dynamic phenomenon and constantly evolving process. Changing the vocabulary is changing the meaning of the word. Changing the meanings of
words enhances the quality level of the language (Mustafauly S. Local features in stable combinations: (on the material of the language of the Kazakhs in China). Almaty,
2003). According to scientists, the meaning is completely updated and its frame sometimes expanded and sometimes reduced. Along with the changes of epochs, the concept of mankind is also changing and evolving. Borrowing words from other languages,
word formation, and expansion of meanings and functions of these words will lead to
new concepts. When talking about the returnees language, we must take into account
the different historical, political and socio-economic circumstances that they have experienced. First, the limitation of relations with the Motherland as a result of politicalsocial opposition during the Soviet Union; second, the lack of schools and kindergartens, cultural centers, the press, TV programs in the Kazakh language; third, the difficulty of Russian Cyrillic, as they used Arabic and Latin script; fourth, the function of the
Kazakh language was only in the oral household level; fifth, the impact of the language
environment with whom they have close relationship and where they live, etc. But despite such difficulties and the opposition, our compatriots were able to strictly comply
with the order of use of the native language. Lexical characteristic of the Kazakh returnees language is a lot of loan words. Due to a variety of differences between the
language of the Kazakhs in China and in the literary language, the problem still needs
593
investigation (Kazakh language and returnee // from the reference of scientific conference participants. Almaty: Olke, 2006).
Not only the language, but also the writing of the Kazakhs in these countries is
different. In one country (Mongolia), they use the Cyrillic alphabet, in the second one
(Turkey) Latin and in the third one (China) Arabic writing. This problem should also be
the object of investigation. We believe that our transition to the Latin alphabet in future
will promote the study of the problem of writing of the Kazakhs in those countries.
References:
1. Dittmar. The bases of sociolinguistic, the notebook with tasks. 1997. S. 185.
2. Gorshkova N.E. Urban languages (urbanolekty) in the forms of existence of the
modern German language in Germany (for example, the language of the city of
Berlin) Abstract. dis .. PhD. Philol. Sciences: 10.02.04 N.E. Gorshkova. SPb.,
2008, 20 p.
3. Bazylkhan B. Language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 1991.
4. Mamyrkhanova Zh. Problems of the language of the Kazakhs in China. Beijing,
2013. International Conference Problems of Philology. Article.
5. Zhadi Shakenuly. The Kazakhs in China. Almaty: Kazakh community worldwide,
2007.
6. Bamishuly B. Condition of the language of the Kazakhs in Mongolia. A. 2004.
7. Bolatov Zh. Eastern dialect group of the Kazakh language and its relation to the
literary language. Doctoral dissertation manuscript: 10.02.02. Frunze, 1970.
8. Eskekbaev D. - Kazakh Diaspora: today and in the future. - Turkestan, 2002.
9. Mustafauly S. Local features in stable combinations: (on the material of the language of the Kazakhs in China). Almaty, 2003.
10. Mustafauly S. Local features in stable combinations: (on the material of the language of the Kazakhs in China). Almaty, 2003.
11. Prof. Zhang Zhingjing. The lessons of the Chinese language course for foreigners,
21.03.14.
12. Xinjiang TV, 06.11.2014.
13. Bidollakyzy B. Lets learn the Kazakh language. Urumqi, 2007.
14. Newspaper Xinjiang, 1.01.2015, #1.
15. Samituly Zh. The Kazakhs in China. - Almaty: Kazakh community worldwide, 2000.
- 27 p.
594
16. Otebekov B. Language of the Kazakh Diaspora: (based on materials collected from
the language of the Kazakhs in Afghanistan and Iran). Almaty, 2000.
17. Mukametkanuly N. The socio-cultural image of the Kazakhs in China at the
beginning of the XXI century // Eurasian integration and the Kazakh diaspora.
Astana: Elorda, 2007.
18. Mustafauly S. Local features in stable combinations in the language of the Kazakhs
in China. The thesis of the candidate of philological sciences. Almaty. 2002 117 p.
19. Kazakh language and returnee // from the reference of scientific conference participants. Almaty: Olke, 2006.
595
Shulenkova Marina Alexandrovna,

Kama State Automechanical Technical School, Lecturer, Ph.D.
An interdisciplinary study of the process of education

of young people as the subject-oriented forecasting
capacity of educational systems
Abstract: The article analyzes a number of important methodological and conceptual approaches to interdisciplinary research process of education of young people.
Possibilities of the phenomenon in comparison with traditional research and educational process, diluted the concept of cross-sectoral interaction and cross-sectoral
research.
Keywords: interdisciplinary research, the process of education, educational
system, young citizens.
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5. Shulenkova M. Theoretical background and the essence of the formation of civic
culture specialist citizen in the realities of // Proceedings of the IX International
Academic Congress Contemporary Science and Education in Americas, Africa
and Eurasia (Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, 18 20 August 2015). Volume III. UFRJ
Press, 2015. 542 548.
604
Mehriban Tagirova,
Ph.D. in History of Art
Paints, describing time

We store in ourselves miraculous knowledge. Sometimes, it is interlacement of
the cultures, which is not expressed by the history, however, express time and
memory. Modern easel painting this is chain of incredible amazing works, whichs
echo do not only transfer from all over the world, but from depth of far times Kurachay,
Kura-Araz, Turkish cultures and so on. It is impossible to examine Azerbaijani easel
painting without glancing to the past, basing on summary of modern tendencies, flows,
psychical-emotional spirits of concrete time or individual or genetic memory transfers
itself, transforming to something especial, to the work of concrete painter, providing
special tone, extravagance, ambiguity, uniqueness, being virgin up to the present time,
inexplicably maternal, definite, allowing not to perplex in novelty of contemplating object. Perhaps, this is the first reason of authors relation with audience not only in motherland, but outside of it, where painter realizes vast mission-unifies people, finding
general in the origin and appealing to endless future, demonstrating individuality of the
perception and mystery of internal world.
Examining creativity only some of the painters, you can find yourself at the
space without delay. To notice line, colour, subject, manner of creativity is not sufficient. In addition, it is not concretely assigned task. Composition-polemics, conversation with observer, transferring to some confession. Along the years, Azerbaijani painters learn to intercourse with audience, being outside of canvas, involving them to the
conversation, after it, perhaps, painter knows answers to arising questions and definitely feels how they will be expressed in the subjects of following exposition. By some
mystical form, painter copes achieves to discover the talents of his/her interlocutor, in
other words, he/she discovers in himself simple truth too-to see in the world that was
not seen before.
Today, we hear names of such painters like Rashad Alekberov, Chingiz Babayev, Orkhan Huseynov, Tamilla Ibrahimova, Elshan Ibrahimov, Ali Hasanov, Rauf Khalilov, Rena Efendi, artistic group Labyrinth and others, who participated at Venice
Exhibition, 53rd Byenam. Each of the enumerated ones, however not expressed, but
605
acting painters, is the connection, intertwining on the time canvas as Azerbaijani carpets, describes epoch, history, several characters of his/her nation-thought, character,
love, diligence, artistic unpredictability. This is pleiad-new colour of painters` wave,
sinking to the depth of the epoch, as if to the waters of Caspian sea, it is not definite
with which force, strength express secrets of its vast bottom to the world and universe.
Let`s approach to the facts in order not to be baseless. Presently, it is not possible to
astonish modern viewer with trends of conceptual art, however, only few decades
early, when post soviet world opens truths of century for itself, grinding, rejecting
transferring canons, applied by obtrusive ideology, pursuing to its immanency, Azerbaijani easel painting represents new artistic world already. Creativity of best painters
is
the
evidence
of
it
K.
Ahmadova,
F.
Khalilova,
A.
Ibrahimova,
D. Mirjavadov, F. Aghayeva, A. Babayeva, M. Abbasova, N. Rahmanova, G. Yunusova, M. Zeynalova, Sh. Alakbarova, F. Hashimova, A. Mehdiyeva, E. Gurbanov,
M.T. Khalilova, A. Mehdiyeva and other respectful painters made their names eternal
in the history of visual arts of independent, flourishing country, approving conceptions
like innovation, individuality, priority, with which tone is provided to world outlook, world
perception and embodiment of modern easel painting of Azerbaijan. For example, lets
appeal to the creativity of F. Aghayev-painter-pictorial specialist, who after completion
of education at Azerbaijan State Art School named after Azim Azimzade, Moscow
Academy of Art named after V.I. Surikov, Faculty of Art, he was awarded with the title
of honoured painter of Azerbaijan for the picture Fishermans family. It seems that it
is actual topic, close topic, not calling painter to seek the answers to the questions in
1980s, which have not ground and occupying thought of intelligent people of the end
of XX century. By this way painter begins to open for himself reality and apparent truth
of near future, going far from realistic trend, approving new term World of theater in
the world of Azerbaijani Art Science with his own creativity, where traditional realistic
images are absent, they are substituted with elements of surrounding world (dishes,
domestic things and so on), which bear summarizing image, subject, as if coined,
multiple word world, talking in whisper about great power, will of the universe (figure 1,
2, 3, 4). F. Aghayev`s creativity is free from letters, not only expanding understanding
of gestures, as well as, imagination of reality, approving concept-birth of gesture from
the reality every time. Namely, this meaning will be developed in the creativity of
M. Zeynalov: In some works, I came to sign system of gesture. I do not know where
art will take me, but I know that I would work with big scale poems and algorithms.
606
Post Soviet fine art will talk about conceptual art and outgoing directions at the
beginning of new millennium, where installation will be means for self-expression of
internal world and reflection of outer world. However, Azerbaijani easel painting already reflected object of image with its hieroglyphs, selecting own method: things or
means for expression of gesture world, reflecting every direction-canon, semiotics, tradition, colour, line, relativity of thought and descriptive thing and so on.
Critic E.M. Langi, preferring abstract expressionism in comparison to the other
formal flows, wrote: No modern artistic flow does not go further in exotism, so, it rises
up to the childhood of human race. With what does regard vast world of eternally
modern D. Mirjavadov, N. Rahmanova, E. Gurbanov and others? They achieved to
create conceptual art through fine art which does not only open way for painters of new
era: Labyrinth Group, Sabina Shikhlinskaya, HeybatBabayev, TairIsrafilov, MuseyibAmirov and other painters, as well as, they joined two concepts Paintings and
Artistic creativity. Odour of gum, used by D.Mirjavadov in his creativity, existing up to
date, not only rises figures from subject of the image, as well as, it is understanding of
talent`s possibility which made eternal memory, colors and contours of the modern age
through means of past ancestors, applying individualism in the frame of conceptual art
(figure 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
It seems that, really, according to Didro`s statement in poems we are admired
from images which were not impossible in fine art. Our imagination is less punctiliousness in comparison with eyes, our own internal vision of infinity. What if the painter
achieves to admire viewer through any unknown force of talent and tractates of Omar
Khayyam will alive in your mind, glancing to the images.
..with kind woman face and land grass
I will relax until I am alive
If there are painters who can take viewers to time periods with some magic
brush, in this case, Rashad Mehdiyev is one of them. Creativity of painter-window to
the past and future, being at wave of modernity.
To say that he/she is painter-symbolist, who virtuously combines in his/her creativity theme of middle century miniature and European understanding of symbolism,
expressing spirit and psychologic condition through colour, line and form, using mythological, mystic fantastic subjects it means not to say something. It is difficult to apply
607
syncretic elements of writing to the painter`s symbolism; however, unconsciously or

consciously, it is described syncretism in blending in history and in present time, nonsegmented character, determining initial condition of that which is called world, contemplating from point of view of each epoch, opening access to the depth of unconsciousness, providing surrealistic spirit of the subject of the picture. Undoubtedly exceptionality of Rashad`s surrealism strengthens with oriental depth-oriental understanding of the ideas where subject, colour, line and so on, is blended with secrecy,
bearing deep understanding of the things where symbolism is so called miraculous
attribute, approving language, being means of communication between different
worlds and times.
Let`s say that figures with closed eyes in the picture of Silence (figure 9), arranged in lines in turbans with closed eyes, opened hand as if from screen and completing with apple, closing chain of the picture. It is possible that namely apples symbolize since and lead us to religious imaginations where there is dance possesses
silence and clean which makes us not reaching to sin, however, sin is always near us,
where there is origin, start-fruit, but not under our conscious, where there is targeted
beginning. What do say woman images, going on the world? Yes, and with what worldpainter or universe? Why do they express themselves on canvas or in the conscious
of the viewer? Why does apple in the hands of future mother in the picture Eva express new life? Is it proper to taste apple for the sake of it? (figure 10). Thinking author
appeals with question to the mankind. However, his concession with situation, loyalty
to the woman, expressing mankind, calls to the mankind, to its essence, humanism.
Two colours-fire and water fill canvas. Concession always recess pain and misunderstanding, as water extinguish fire. Calming in the closed eyes in disannounce with
hands which change to the subject of disobedience. Resource of these hands is evil,
resource of life is in uterus. Eternal confrontation in the earth-combat of the good will
with evil. However, in difference from Christianity and Judaism, Islam does not accuse
woman in sin of Adam. Moreover, all sin and responsibility are put to Adam by Almighty:
Before We (Allah) made agreement with Adam, but he forgot and we did not
see his strong will
Not only understanding of great truths, acknowledgment of these truths as nondenied reality are expressed in the subjects of Rashad Mehtiyev`s pictures, who cites
texts to the mankind with deep understanding, as if, he perceived there, in some place
608
very far, and today discover secrets of these ways with his invisible eyes. And this way
only passes heart, source of love, without it people can not feel happiness and flourishing, so, only in love he acquires simple truths life, forgive, create and to rise to the
following stairs of his growth. However, are these fruits in the bucket of Eva, flying in
the sky and does she bring them for the mankind in her bucket? It is very terrible, but
not tasting them-seeds of faults, loss, temptation, it is hard to understand truth with that
feeling that man with wisdom and love approaches to Almighty. Going through world,
being in euphoria, she sings the very life (figure 11), where there is no en With what
subjects of Rashad`s works are interesting? With very life. Darvish sings about it, embracing tambourine in the picture Circle (figure 12). He removing dozen of sandals in
the way, is in love with absolute Almighty, to His idea about world life, which is expressed with this circle, where no evil can not hide, there is eternal motion, allowing to
seek himself. There is no attempt to the end, it means that it is endless in search of
their man, in other words perfectness out of this circle. Images of birds dont leave
thought and canvas of painter. It is obvious. R.Efendiyev wrote: There are frequent
use of bird images in national art-cock, peacock, crow and so on. N. Ganjavi wrote
about sacral spirit of peacock in Isgandarnama. This bird does not lose its sanctity,
but, passing a time, it is expressed in the form of buta. Peacock symbolizes Sun and
Month God. Birds never lose their symbolism, however, we observe that how birds
transform to the miraculous symbols in modern fine art. Sometimes, they are not symbols of anything, they should be searched in the subjects, however, it is not expressed
through title and letter meaning.
This phenomena, allegoric character in the subjects apparently observes in
Rashad`s composition. For example: Euphoria (figure 13) and so on. This is not signs
of oriental miniature, closely, it is Mugham about endless beauty of two indices soul
and world, which is lovely expressed by Sufis (figure 14). This is very world bird-Tamashaburan, singing song about love, beauty and woman without which world destructs.
Leyla Picture (figure 15) approves truthfulness of these words-look of beautiful
woman with velvety, deep eyes in front of which world became congeal. Internal vast
power, durability, combining with thin, decorative nature of woman, directed to mankind
with clear, interesting, deep look where there is some power which is durable, wise
and honourable. That is Rashad`s vision about Universe Leyla. She-her bird Tamashaburan. This silent image in the very sense expresses whisper: If I will open wings-
609
World will get calm and power. They are in everyone. Understand yourself. Next generation will express to Rashad Mehtiyev their gratitude. Once I.Kheizing said about art
of middle century: Thinking became very dependable from expression in images, vision side, which is important for the last times of middle century, made almighty. All
understandable changed to plastic imagination. This is genetic memory. Combining
realities of civilization, Azerbaijani painters arise extraordinary beauty, providing respect to the epoch, self-expressing with language with means of this time-new century.
This is close, familiar, readable, relative to modern art of Azerbaijani painters.
I take great attention to the title of the work and want that titles live with their
life, but not combining with picture- said M. Zeynalov. This is elusiveness, paradoxicality, naturalness, essence of talent of Azerbaijani painters. Vorringer`s theory on
availability of two main tendencies in art to the abstraction and feeling, as well as, about
advantages and dominancy of tendencies to the abstraction, do not randomly take to
the set with modern apologets. Even, style conception, closely regards with this tendency, confronting with this understanding of naturalism, flowing from effort to expression. However, abstraction it is not conception of separate, unique subject, phenomena. Human begins to separate their differences starting with familiarity with similar
subjects in the frame of abstraction, this is peculiar to all, reaching to the essence.
Feeling and abstraction relates with eachother in human conscious as to two opposite
side, mutually completing and transferring to eachother to the moments. Human can
not create conception, abstraction from null. In this direction, Gegel states that painter
shall call help for himself/herself, on one hand, attentive discretion, on the other hand,
deep mental feelings, deep annoyance. Even, instantaneous look to Sanan`s composition (figure 16) is the approval of the expressed opinion. Same we can say about
Yalchin Efendiyev`s compositions (1971-2000). Submitting complete freedom to the
art, Yalchin calls viewer to the understanding of the hidden phenomena, things, in detail, life. Complex facture, tension colour strongly discovers emotional subtext of his
visions, stating emotionality as if strengthening miraculous game of
subconscious-
ness - writes H. Yusif in his article He burns life for enflaming artabout art of Y.
Efendiyev. Yalchin`s world-confession, warning, notification, prose and poetry, expressing in colours, lines. Painters ideas passed through epochs, collecting wisdom
of times and pouring to the canvas, Yalchin`s island, where he invites his interlocutorviewer with dervishs wisdom. Here, intellectual men become more subtle, lost ones
acquire power, arrogant ones acquire secrets of humility. This young man finds means
610
for communication with which people live long, interesting and meaningful life. Presentiment is strong side of Yalchin. In his every composition he states that calm condition
prevails on multicolority, passing from one condition to other, he knows about it earlier
from his birth. This dedication makes alert, teaches and calms, Yalchin states that this
is not scaring, if we will chose right colours in life (figure 17,18).
We can talk about Azerbaijani art endless. Absheron scenery takes special
place which passes border of pure genre and shows formation of national type of philosophy of scenery. Soul of Azerbaijani painters is rich with sounds which come from
nature. This is separate language which is peculiar to the lovers of nature. This reality
is contemplated by viewer in the works of the painters: S. Bahlulzade, A. Babayeva,
D. Mirjavadova, A. Ibrahimova, F. Khalilova, T. Salahova. K. Ahmadova, T. Narimanbekov, A. Aliyeva, M. Abdullayeva, M. Zeynalova, F. Hashimova, G. Yunus and
others who are ready to listen to the whisper of Absheron wind, angry of Caspian
sea, clearness of sky, zones of streets, protecting traditions of nation in the walls and
maturity of Absheron sand, opening way to the persons who love their motherland.
Possessing these characteristics these spectacular painters expresses warm,
frames, love and so on, open the gates for next generation. Azerbaijan Republic can
be proud of their talents. What is searched by our modern painters of Azerbaijan in
this unsteady world I and wide universe? May be everyone seeks his/her
Shambala - place where they acquire their perfectness, perception and universe life
for sharing it with us who stand in the foot of this miraculous world, who will hear
enchanting answers to the infinite answers of existence.
611
612
613
614
615
Valentina Vladymyrova, Nadeschda Kyrylenko,

Sumy State Pedagogical University named after A.S. Makarenko,
Associate Professor, Institut fr Philologie
The motive of loneliness in the Olena Pechornas novel

The sinner
Abstract: The article deals with analysis of the main character of the Olena
Pechornas novel The sinner. The problem of heroines existential loneliness, her
searching for existential communication is also under the authors investigation.
Keywords: loneliness, existence, fear, despair, traumatic experiences, society.
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621
Namir Al-Ani,
Saint Petersburg State University of Information Technologies,
Mechanics and Optics,
Doctor of Philosophy, Faculty
of Management of Technology and Innovation
Ontology as the doctrine of the divine essence

(substance) in Neo-Platonism and philosophy
of the European Middle Ages and Renaissance
Abstract: The article attempts to identify common that is contained in the ontological conceptions of European philosophy from Neo-Platonism up to the philosophy
of Early Modern Period. It gives a brief description of the ontological component of the
Neo-Platonism, medieval Christian philosophy and the philosophy of the Renaissance
as the doctrine of the divine substance.
Keywords: Ontology, Neo-Platonism, Essence, Substance, Pantheism.
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631
Bilous Natalya,
Postgraduate Student, Faculty of Ukrainian and Foreign Philology
and Study of Arts
Emotional-philosophical dominants in Annette von

Droste-Hulshof's life and creative work
Abstract: The article analyses six researches in Droste studies concerning resignation and protest category in Annette von Droste-Hulshoff's life and works.
Keywords: protest, resignation, loneliness, poetry, Droste studies.
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Himmel mir raten; / Nun mu ich sitzen so fein und klar, / Gleich einem artigen Kinde,
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:
1. Maurer D. Keine Pfauenfeder im Krhenpelz [ ]. : http://www.zeit.de/1997/03/Keine_Pfauenfeder_im_Kraehenpelz.
2. Lavater-Sloman M. Annette von Droste-Hlshoff: Einsamkeit und Leidenschaft. Mnchen, 1991. 525 S.
3. Maurer D. Annette von Droste-Hlshoff. Ein Leben zwischen Auflehnung und Gehorsam / Biographie. - Bonn, 1982. 274 S.
4. http://www.lwl.org/LWL/Kultur/Droste/Werk/Lyrik/GeistlicheGedichte#jahr.
5. Pfeiffer G. Ph. Die Lyrik der Annette von Droste-Hlshoff. Berlin, 1914.
130 S.
6. Maurer D. Annette von Droste-Hlshoff- Ein Leben zwischen Auflehnung und Gehorsam [ ]. : http://www.fernuni-hagen.de/imperia/md/content/gleichstellung/heft23maurer.pdf.
7. Kortlnder B. Annette von Droste-Hlshoff und die deutsche Literatur. Bd.3.
Mnster in Westfalen, 1979. S. 334.
638
N.V. Shklyar, O.V. Karynbaeva, E.S. Dunaeva, Y.V. Hodos, E.V. Popova,
Federal State Budget Educational Institution of Higher Professional
Education Sholom-Aleichem Priamursky State University,
Birobidjan, Jewish Autonomous Region, Russia
Teachers' professional readiness to the learning skills

formation of schoolchildren with disabilities in the process
of inclusive education
Abstract: The article is devoted to the teachers' professional readiness to learning skills formation of schoolchildren with disabilities. The article presents the components of readiness to the learning skills formation, their specific features, functions and
content. The professional readiness of teachers is examined in the terms of inclusive
activity in the educational process.
Keywords: learning skills, inclusive education, professional readiness.
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643
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4.
(19.12.2014 1598).
5. Peters S. Inclusive Education: Achieving Education for All by Including those with
Disabilities and Special Education Needs. 2003.
6.
French S. and Swain J. Controlling inclusion in education: young disabled peoples perspectives, Disabling Barriers Enabling Environments. London: Sage,
2004.
7. Shklyar N.V. Training and retraining of psycho-pedagogical personnel in a competence-based approach [Electronic resource] / N.V. Shklyar, I.A. Emelyanova,
E.A. Borisova, O.V. Karynbaeva, E.S. Dunaeva // Life Science Journal 2014;
11(12s). P. 501-505. Mode of access: http://www.lifesciencesite.com/lsj /
life1112s/108_26543life1112s14_501_505.pdf . Data of access: 30.10.2014.
644
Bukatov Oksana M.,

Izmail State Humanitarian University, Ph.D., Assistant Professor
f Technology, Vocational Education nd Technical Disciplines
Competence aspect of training future teachers

of vocational education
Abstract: In the article the competency aspect of training future teachers of
vocational education. The analysis of scientific and methodological literature devoted
to the problem of preparation of future teachers of vocational education. Grounded
concept of quality vocational education in relation to the concept of "professional competence". Based on the essence of the concept of "professional competence", defined
the necessary conditions for training of teachers of vocational education.
Keywords: competence, professional competence, competence approach,
professional education, quality of education.
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651
Shapovalova Olga,
Professor, Doctor of Psychological Sciences,
Vityugova Inna,
Sholom-Aleichem Priamursky State University, Master Student
Attitude of mentally retarded pupils to study

and to teachers
Abstract: This article examines the characteristics of emotional development of
schoolchildren with intellectual disabilities. We consider the experiences of students
related to educational activities and peculiarities of their attitude to the teachers.
Keywords: mentally retarded pupils, study, teachers, emotional attitude.
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3. Shklyar N., Shapovalova O., Emelyanova I. Psycho-pedagogical study of the emotional development of mentally retarded pupils // Cambridge Journal of Education
and Science, Cambridge University Press, 2015. 2 (14). P. 261- 267.
4. .., .., .., .. -
// . 2014. 9. . 205-207.
5. Shapovalova O. The peculiarities of attitude of mentally retarded pupils to themselves // Proceedings of the IX International Academic Congress Contemporary
Science and Education in Americas, Africa and Eurasia (Brazil, Rio de Janeiro,
18 20 August 2015). UFRJ Press, 2015. P. 580584.
6. .., ..

// . 2015. 5. . 194196.
658
Polina Verbytska,
Lviv Polytechnic National University,
Professor, Doctor of Pedagogical Science,
the hair of History of Ukraine and Ethnocommunication
Actualization of ultural heritage potential in modern

social and cultural conditions
Abstract: The article is devoted to the problem of actualization of cultural heritage in the context of search of effective instrument for ensuring peace, prevention of
conflicts, mutual understanding and dialogue in Ukrainian society.
Keywords: cultural heritage, cultural identity, intercultural dialogue, museum,
multicultural heritage, Ukraine.
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XVIXVII . .: , 2002. . 334.
8. Hinze Hans Martin Challenges and Possibilities. Museums in Globalized World.
Available from: http://www.museums.org.ua/lection.
665
Rafiq Noruzov, Baku Slavic University,

Professor, Doctor of Philological Sciences, the Facult of Translation
For interpretation the piece from the Bible

The famous book of Daniel (6th century BC. e.) has long attracted both theologians and historians alike. In the unanimous opinion of experts, the book was written
"in Mesopotamia two and a half thousand years ago" and included "later in the Bible"
[1]. Renowned Bible scholar theologian D.V. Schedrovitsky in his seminal work, "The
prophecies of Daniel", devoted to the study of and commenting of the Bible, says: "The
Book of Daniel - a brilliant work of literature of the Ancient Orient, which can be called
a collection of short stories with a consistently thrilling story; it is an important historical
source - record of ancient matters, revived in the eyes of the reader, and it is one of
the most important images of apocalyptic-eschatological writings (religious literature,
vividly telling about the dramatic battles of Light and Darkness, the completion of the
history and the Last Judgment), which, finally, consistent, accurate and detailed creation of prophetic literature. The main event of the coming of three millennia was seen
by Hebrew seer with stunning clarity - and sealed in an unforgettable image" [1]. She
variously represented in the texts: in the Tanakh (Masoretic Bible) the book of Daniel
is placed in the Writings (Ketuvim), in the Septuagint - in the book of this prophecy.
Schedrovitsky considers the cause of this fact as a result of mixed text, in which alternate historical episodes and prophecy. In addition, in his opinion, in the Jewish and
Christian traditions, "multilingual" text was the cause of disputes scientists in establishing the authorship and time of appearance of the book. The fact that 1, 8-12 chapters
of the book are written in Hebrew, and the head of 2-7 in the official language of late
Babylon and Medo-Persia army. All the noted problems, that was affected by the theologian-biblical scholar, certainly deserse close attention to which, as necessary we
will treat more.
But in this study we will focus on translation and interpretation Schedravitsky
piece of text from the fifth part of the book. We will try to justify his understanding of
the translation and interpretation of the fragment.
666
In the legend "Feast of Belshazzar. Mysterious inscription" tells the story of king
Belshazzar feast, where is famous idols and drank the wine of gold and silver vessel,
which his father Nebuchadhezzar had passed out of the temple of Jerusaleem.
In the same hour came "fingers hands human" and started writing over against
the candlestick upon the plaster the walls the royal palaces.
Frightened king invited all the Babylonian astrologers, chaldeans and soothsayers, that they have read the written.
But none of them was able to do this on a proposal from the king was invited by
a protege of the magicians, astrologers and soothsayers Daniel.
Daniel rebuked the king of idolatry and to glorify the God in whose hand is
the breathe of the king and all his ways.
And then follows the scripture read his wrist and interpret "And this is what is
inscribed: Mene, Mene, Tekel, Uparsin.
That is the meaning of the words: Mene - God hath numbered the kingdom and
finished it, Tekel - Thou art weighed in balances and found wanting, Peres-your kingdom is divided between Medes and Persians [3].
Bible scholar theologian comments the text writing on the wall consisted of only
four words, but in each of them containing at least a double meaning Daniel was able
to comprehend that thanks to the inspiration of the Holy Spirit
Of course, it was pagan soges not available. That is the meaning of words: Mene
- God hath numbered the kingdom and finished it.
How can one word contain as many as meaning? The fact that army word
"mene" is related to the Hebrew word "mana" means not only the "count" and "doom"
define". In the following two meanings this verb was used in Isaiahs book: I will
destine you for the sword (Is. 65:12). Consequently, it is a matter of Gods definition
about Belshazzars kingdom, and of that the days of kingdom are numbered and it is
doomed to destruction, at the same time. But how did Daniel know that the end of the
kingdom will come so soon (hashlmh [God] completed it)? Thats where.
The word mn , being read from the end, forms amen, amen, solid,
authentically, verily So, first mene indicates the sentence to numbered days of
kingdom, and second mene (amen) indicates that the time of kingdom is completed.
You have been weighed on the scales and found wanting (Dan. 5:27). This short
word contains wide information. Aramaic verb tekel means to weigh. Both numbered and to weigh are the terms, that were used in the ancient East in relation to the
667
destiny of man above-ground and after death. On the ancient Egyptian illustrations for
the Book of Dead depicted the judgment of Osiris who was weighing the hearts on the
scales. The wanting of the heart was seen as a sign of its lack of wisdom and good
deeds and that doomed her to suffering. But how did the conclusion appeared: found
wanting? According to Hebrew tekel means you will be wanting. A combination of these two meanings aramaic to weigh and hebraic to be wanting gives
interpretation driven by Daniel. Finally, the last part of inscription: ...Peres: Your kingdom is devided and given to the Medes and Persians... (Dan. 5:28). And there one
word also contains two meanings. A verb peres in Aramaic language means to
devide, but the related verb paras in Hebraic language means to refract, dualize. Hence the Prophet concluded that kingdom would be divided into two parts
would be given to two nations, that actually constituted the unified Medo-Persian Empire. One of these nations was directly called upharsin. Pharsin means persians in Aramaic language and their ethnonym is accordant to the verb peres.
As this word is preceded by conjunction u that meant one more nation, and, in a
current political situation, it could be only allied to Persians Medes [1]. Let us turn to
some provisions of Shchedrovitsky: "The notes of ancient events", "written in Mesopotamia two and a half thousand years ago, and subsequently included in the Bible".
"Vividly narrating about the dramatic battles of Light and Darkness, on the completion
of the history and the Last Judgment"; author of the book, the prophet Daniel (6-5
century BC. e.), as evidenced repeatedly used authors speech in the first person: "I,
am Daniel" (Chapters 7-10)".
From the first provision ensue, that the book, reflecting ancient events was written in Mesopotamia and was later included into the Bible. The second provision for the
fighting of Light and Darkness, the completion of the history and the Last Judgment in
this thesis, form reveals the spiritual essence of the religion of Zoroastrianism, the
Medes and his book Avesta.
The third provision indicates that in the first 6 chapters written by the author
apparently earlier the speech is in the first person observed in the 7-10 chapters are
missing. The same provision is developed further with assertion and proof of "fidelity
of the prophecies Daniel, whose prophetic gaze penetrated much further than biblical
criticism expected" [1], launched with an intention to defend belief that "the book could
not be written by Daniel" [1].
668
But let us return to the second provision of the scientist. Probably experience of
the meticulous analysis of sacred texts did not fail the scientist who is in the sixth lecture, "The pious lions, Judaism and Zoroastrianism", come to the conclusion about
cohesion between Judaism and Zoroastrianism, pointing out "that these ideas Zoroastrianism, largely coincide with the teachings of the Torah and the Prophets, and that
was one of the the main reasons for the favor of the Persian kings to the Jewish faith
and their contribution to the restoration of the Temple in Jerusalem (and Par.36, 2223; Ezra. 1: 1-4; Isa. 44, 28; 45: 1-6)" [1]. Furthermore, the scholar referring to fragments of Avesta mentions about the relations between inspiration of Holy Spirit
(Spanta Manu) and pious mans thinking, speech and activities, who is integral in his
good intentions and is devoted to Ahura Mazda the supreme luminous deity; and he
thinks that tsar Dariuss desire to put Daniel over whole kingdom (i.e. to make him the
first minister) is quite grounded. The mentioned qualities of prophet corresponded to
Zoroastrian ideal of piety [1]. Earlier talking about Nebuchadnezzars intention to prepare an exemplary administration from the number of talented and physically hardy
teenagers from conquered nations, to bring them in Babylon way and to make them
speak Chaldaic, Shchedrovitsky writes that the lads, among whom was Daniel, were
chosen only from royal family. Belonging to this estate was expressed by word partemym leading from Old Persian. By scholars assumption this word could enter the
international use after the conquest of Babylon by Medo-Persians in 539 BC (ESF. 1,
3 this word with regard to Persian commanders was translated as main commanders)
[1]. Then is more interesting: The use of given word while describing the conquest of
Jerusalem by Babylonians (it is half century earlier than conquest of Babylon by Persians), perhaps, was due to the fact that Daniel composed his book in old age when
Persian administrative terminology was strengthened firmly in newly formed empire
[1]. The scholars arguments to our opinion are unconvincing. His first assumption does
not match to the second one: old age could not be an obstacle for prophet in using
this word that is convincingly proved by the scholar. In support of our opinions, there
are the arguments of the famous historian-orientalist R.Z.Rogozina, who worked for a
well-known historical material, traces the evolutionary path, past by Chaldeans: Purebred Sumerian-Akkads is almost gone, and the Semites were not kept separately, and
composition with a touch of Kassites and, perhaps, and few Elamites remaining in the
669
region for his release, nationality, which can be called exactly multibreeding, extremely unique and gifted, like all mixed nationalities, consisting, as quite rightly says
Berosus, from a lot of people of different tribes.
This nationality later became known under the name Chaldean, - unoriginal, as
explained earlier, from the small tribe of Kaldi, that lived in the marshy lowlands near
the river mouth - and Western nations concerned to their religion with honor for its
exorbitant antiquity, whereas in fact it relatively was, as we have seen, a posterior
benefit of adunation of two endlessly ancient religions.
However, the classical writers call the land of the old Sumerian-akkads Babylonia more often than the Chaldeans, and the religion the Babylonian, or the Chaldean,
or as Chaldeans Babylonian [2].
The position of Rogozina convinces us that the Chaldeans, initially originating
from the name of an ancient tribe, mingling with others, local or alien people, formed a
new community and organized a new religion.
The most interesting is the indication of the scientist that there were also the
Medes among nationalities, mixed with the Chaldeans.
That is, even before the Persian conquest of Mesopotamia, the Medes ruled
and lived not only in the capital, but also in other major cities, and it is possible that
they brought their religion Zoroastrianism into the local beliefs, which, of course, being
more systematic, influenced on all others.
Another important circumstance, that promoted rapprochement and intimate fellowship with the Sumerians, in our view, was the language unity: the Sumerians and
the Medes spoke using Rogozina lexicon, in the Turan, that is Turkish language. As
Turan, Turkish language was common to the Sumerians and Medes then it would be
truer precisely through the Turkish language, not the Aramaic find the key to the interpretation to deciphering the mysterious inscription. In that case, as we shall verify below, it will seem superfluous to make searches in the content of the words of double
meaning or a set of values in one word.
So, repetitive words "mene" in Turkish means "me", Tekel - the name of God,
which literally means "Right Hand of God". The last part of the "Upharsin inscription"
is transferred as I will punish. By the way, words "written by the hand" of the God were
interpreted by Schedrovitskyin the following way". The verb " resham" denotes "to
write", but also "to impose a sentence" [1]. Thus, without mediated, figurative meanings
each word has its own direct meaning. This direct meaning is fully consistent with the
670
biblical translation, in which there is given God's definition that the days of Belshazzar's
kingdom "are numbered" and "doomed to destruction" [1].
References:
1. .. . .: , 2010. C. 4; 9899; 6; 105; 105-106; 13; 14; 97, 98.
2. .. , / .. . : .. , 1903.
C. 537 .
3. . . ., 1990. C. 859.
671
Sevil Aydin Ismailova,

Baku State University,
Ph.D. of Philosophical Sciences, the Faculty of Sociology Science
Women in charitable organizations of Azerbaijan

Abstract: In this article are reflected issues related to the goals and strategies
of women's groups, the problem of the role and place of women in charitable activities.
Highlights the importance of the women's movement as a whole, and in Azerbaijan in
particular.
Keywords: charity, women philanthropists, the women's movement, women's
activity.
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675
Koniukhov Sergii,
Lviv Polytechnic National University, Teaching Assistant,
Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, History of Ukraine
and Ethnic Communication Department
The Peculiarities of Activity of Ukrainian Nationalists

Printing House "Prague" in 1942-1945 years
Abstract: The article analyzes the organizational peculiarities of Ukrainian Nationalists printing house "Prague". It was found the ways of making and distributing the
underground literature and other printed materials. It is shown the scope of activity of
Ukrainian Nationalists` printing house "Prague".
Keywords: OUN, UPA underground printing house.
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6. Makar V., Holyash S., Haiwas Ya., Homza Ya. Propagandist activity of UPA and
its addition to the OUN propaganda // Vyzvolny shlyah. London, 1982. - 5. 1246 p.
7. Shtendera Ye., Potichny P. The Collection about Ukrainian Supreme Liberation
Council // The Annals of Ukrainian Insurgent Army / Ed. Ye. Shtendera. - Toronto,
1980. - Volume 8. - P. 7 -15.
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684
Tatyana Vlasova,
Dnipropetrovsk National University
of Railway Transport named after Academician V. Lazaryan,
Professor, Doctor of Philosophic Sciences,
Philology and Translation Department,
Natalya Bilan,
of Railway Transport named after Academician V. Lazaryan, Docent,
Associate Professor, Candidate of Philology,
Philology and Translation Department
Determining the sentence hyperstructure as the first stage

of the translation of simple active sentences from Russian
and Ukrainian into English
Abstract: The semantic syntactic analysis of the ways of translating into English
simple Russian and Ukrainian active voice syntactic structures has been carriedout.
Keywords: translation, semantic syntactic structure, agent, voice.
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689
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690
atyana Vorova, Dnepropetrovsk Nationale University,

Docent, Candidate of Philological Sciences,
the Faculty of Ukrainian and Foreign Philology and Art Criticism
Ciphered Content of the Literary Fairy Tales

by V. F. Odoyevsky
Abstract: The four short fairy tales by V. F. Odoevsky from his cycle Tales
and Stories for Children Told by Grandfather Iriney are analysed. The possibility of
existence of several strata in the meanings of the fairy tales from the edifying /
didactic level to the philosophical / esoteric level is discussed; important conceptual
keys to revealling the concealed concept of spirituality in the fairy tales are hidden
under superficial simplistic layers of ordinary.
Keywords: didacticism, philosophical predominance, spiritual evolution, hidden
strata of meanings.
V.F. Odoevsky, a romantic genius, was regarded by his contemporaries as a
person with extensive and diverse knowledge, who contributed a great deal to Russian
culture, education and pedagogy. It is quite logical that after the publication of his Tales and Stories for Children Told by Grandfather Iriney (1841) the writers cycle was
considered as a collection of talented literary works with purely didactic characteristics,
orientated exclusively to a readership of children.
The assessment of the cycle from this point of view is still generally accepted in
literary criticism (Saharov V. [2, p. 5-22], Turyan M. [4], Nemzer A. [1, p. 3-11] et al.).
Nevertheless, V.F. Odoevsky as a person of keen intellect and connoisseur of mysticism possessed the irreproachable taste of a writer and a philosophical outlook on life;
therefore, he was incapable of creating some simplistic didactic literary works of an
edifying character and at the same time consigning to oblivion his own original authors manner based on the philosophical depth of poetical allegories and images. Our
investigation is intended to help to reveal the ciphered levels of meanings and conceptions in four fairy tales of the aforesaid cycle.
The purpose of our article is the analysis of four short fairy tales from the cycle
of V.F. Odoevsky with the object of displaying their peculiar conceptual philosophical
691
background, which represents much more a process of harmonizing human spiritual

activity than the nave and unsophisticated moralities of childrens education.
It is important to remember that till the end of his life the writer considered
himself a connoisseur of philosophy, which is why his literary works contain mathematically precise and scrupulously adjusted thoughts from the fields of philosophy, alchemy and mysticism. One must bear in mind that, if one falls into the error of making
simplistic use of the alchemical symbols in their strict sense, one would thereby lose
sight of the more important and carefully concealed deep context of their interpretation; likewise, it is essential to remember that in addition to the superficial level of
understanding there exist deeper and more significant hidden levels of perception
in the fairy tales, intended, assuredly, not only for children. Therefore, we shall concentrate our attention on revealling the hidden levels of meaning in the writers fairy
tales and follow the authors logic in their reading, only occasionally indicating briefly
the educational and didactic ideas which lie on the surface.
The plot of the first literary work The Little Town in Snuff-Box is as follows:
the father of the family brings home an amusing snuff-box with an automatic musical
mechanism, his son would like to solve the riddle of how the musical device functions.
The initial level of understanding the fairy tale is the stimulation of the development
and awakening of the childrens inquisitiveness towards their surroundings; in the fairy
tale the father does not directly answer his sons questions about the principle of
operation of the snuff-box and suggests looking at it more closely but do not touch the
special spring in order not to break everything. However, the very existence of a prohibition induces in children the desire to violate it. The father definitely knows about
this universal quality in the character of children, and he is sure to count on the predictable reaction of the child to investigate the key component in the snuff-box mechanism. The ending of the fairy tale highlights the evident righteousness of the father:
the son has managed to explore and analyze to a nicety all the nuances of the musical
little town of Din-Din, including the concealed influence / impact of the secret spring
on all the inhabitants of this town.
The figurative sense of the literary work lies in the authors opinion that the
whole of mankind is still in its green years (this is reflected in the image-symbol of the
little son), whose cognition of the world is gradually stimulated by some tutor or master
(in the image of wise Heavenly Father). Perfectly aware of the predilection of man to
defy any kind of prohibition (it is just worth recalling the biblical myth about the
692
eating of the forbidden fruit), in the narration He purposefully provokes the human
son (the boy Misha) to the cognition of the surrounding world in the form of the
imposition of a ban on something interesting. It is indicative that Misha was not punished by his father for touching the spring; moreover, his father stated with approval
that Misha really is about to realize why the music in the snuff-box plays [3, p. 402].
The fathers closing advice to study mechanics transmits the readers attention to an
even higher level of fabulous allegorical symbolism; then the snuff-box is represented
as a complicated universe, where everything is regulated and built in the form of a
hierarchical pyramid; however, without the spring that is invisibly present behind all
the complex relationships (i. e. without God), everything is dead and lifeless. That is
why the father recommends the study of the divine music of the cosmos with the help
of mechanics celestial mechanics is sure to be capable of conveying a conception
of the universe to human beings and at the same time, interpreting the global plan of
its builder Heavenly Mechanic / Creator / God.
The content of the second fairy tale Moroz Ivanovich is as follows: two sisters
(Needlewoman and Sluggard) live with their nanny; one day Needlewoman drops the
pail into a well, goes down into it, meets with the wells host Moroz Ivanovich, and
comes back home bearing rich gifts from the host; then her sister tries to do the same,
but she does not get any presents at all. At first glance, this fairy tale teaches an
object-lesson about good and bad things in life. However, the same work has a
hidden context which is concealed underneath the didactic description of the external
actions of two heroines. Needlewoman (her name is entirely accordant with her behavior) can do a lot of useful and helpful kinds of work, and Sluggard (her name is not in
need of supplementary interpretation) does not have any practical experience in
housekeeping. Suddenly, in the life of Needlewoman something unexpected occurs,
when her pail falls into the well. Nothing in the world happens by pure accident, therefore this episode in the life of the heroine must be defined as a natural situation
arising in accordance with the laws of destiny. By the way, for some reasons the
nanny conducts herself with unreasonable cruelty she does not feel sorry for the
girl, but sends her to retrieve the sunken pail on her own, without assistance (it is quite
evident that from the commonsense point of view this must surely result in the death
of the heroine).
It should be remarked that the symbolism of the pail along with the deep waters
from the well are unambiguously connected with cosmic waters, the female accepting
693
/ delivering / adopting principle and associative line of images of the Tree of Life, which
is turned upside-down; altogether it entitles one to indicate the beginning of the
initiation in the fairy tale. Consequently, the nanny is the strict supervisor watching the
rigorous execution of the fixed ritual, and the episode of descent into the well must
be considered as a key event because it is this scene that the unfolding of the magical
and fabulous actions begins. Then, Needlewoman descends into the well (direct
movement vertically downwards), comes into contact with Moroz Ivanovich, works for
three days at the old mans place, receives her reward, returns home along the same
route (direct movement vertically upwards). Thus, the main components of the procedure of the initiation are presented, and this confirms our initial theory about the mystery included into the fairy tale (descent into the other world and ascent back, fulfillment of certain tasks fixed beforehand, receipt of the promised reward). Most likely,
Moroz Ivanovich represents the ancient god Veles because in the myths he was portrayed as the old man-host of the beyond and, correspondingly, he was distinguished
as the patron of magicians and wizards; therefore, the procedures of initiation were
conducted under his direct guidance. It is not accidental that in his depiction the features of a man of advanced age are drawn and, hence, the traces of archaism.
The additional testimony of the development of the procedure of initiation in the
fairy tale is ritually grounded in the appearance of the episodical but very important
symbolical feathered personage the cockerel. The functions of the cockerel as the
conductor of the souls from the human world into the other world and vice versa are
well-known, as well as his being the zoomorphic personification of the god Hermes,
who also represents the god-conductor in the ceremonials of initiation. Therefore, the
appearance of the cockerel in the analyzed fairy tale is natural and not accidental. Not
without reason, the writer finds it necessary and important to introduce the obligatory
sound code of the cockerels appeal (cock-a-doodle-doo!) as an essential component
of the mystery (the same element is duplicated in Fairy Tale of the Cock by
A.S. Pushkin, Black Hen by A. Pogorelsky, Viy by N.V. Gogol), because it is the
compulsory ingredient of the initiation. Just as it is not accidental that clever Needlewoman personally feeds the cockerel (this important detail is mentioned at the very
beginning of the fairy tale as one of the main tasks which must be performed by the
heroine each morning).
The second half of the fairy tale is connected with the same mystery procedure
for Sluggard, and this becomes predictably unsuccessful for the heroine as everything
694
that she does is the reflection (as in a distorting mirror) of the successful actions of
Needlewoman. There is a considerable difference, though the writer especially underlines the motivation of the actions of Sluggard: she is incapable of working but at
the same time she is completely sure in advance that the old man is very kind,
which is why he will reward her in any case, just because she comes to his place.
On one hand, it highlights the negative aspect of her parasitic attitude and parasitic
smugness as social phenomena; on the other hand, it shows that the ritual of initiation
in itself does not play the decisive role in the spiritual development and evolution of
the human soul, if only this soul could prepare itself for the initiation in a corresponding
way. So, even though Sluggard returns home safely, her rich gifts brought from
Moroz Ivanovich a glittering diamond and silver bar turn out to be simple pieces
of ice melting away at home. The author, orientating the reader exactly towards the
esoteric underlying theme, finishes the fairy tale with the call to think well what is
truth here and what is untruth; <> what is a joke and what is a lesson [3,
p. 413] the significant dots indicate the hidden meaning of the fairy tale, concealed
behind the image-symbols of a little diamond, given as a keepsake by the aged
man Moroz Ivanovich to Needlewoman, and the false brilliance of a huge silver bar
and a large diamond, which were presented by the wise old man to Sluggard with
the following words: your work is worth your reward [3, p. 413].
Next, we will outline briefly the content of the third tale Fairy Tale of Four Deaf
Men (which is Indian in origin): four men address each other in turn, discuss their
everyday problems and, being absolutely deaf, are offended at the lack of attention
on the part of the other participants of the events. Undoubtedly, the first level of the
fairy tales meaning is the ability to listen to somebody else and come to an agreement
about common affairs. However, these various people from the fairy tale are the representatives of the four castes of Indian society: shepherd (Shudra), thief (Vaishya),
watchman (Kshatriya), churchman (Brahmin). Therefore, the next level of the fairy
tales meaning is the skill to communicate and agree with the representatives from
diverse classes, offer an object of common interest and in this way gain advantages in
satisfying their personal requirements. In this case, the fairy tale represents a bright
illustration of the barest necessity of development of the skills of social orientation:
presumably, it means knowledge of the social hierarchy and some stimulating incentives for the representatives of various social classes.
695
The fourth (Jamaican) fairy tale Broken Jug is about a girl-orphan Masha
brought up by a wicked aunt who treats the girl badly but treats her own daughter
well. The girl breaks a jug by chance and, being afraid of the severe aunts punishment, leaves home, twice meets an old woman without a head and once the same
woman with a head; the girl successfully performs all the tasks set by the old lady and
is rewarded with a new jug, a cane field and a carriage in order to go around her
estate. Her sister follows the same route, but she does not manage to please the old
lady and receives nothing.
The superficial didactic message of this fairy tale contains the idea of respect
/ esteem for ones elder and stimulation of diligence. Yet, the same content might also
be ascribed to the fairy tale Moroz Ivanovich: both literary works coincide in their
main points and represent almost an exact copy of one another; the difference lies
only in the national colouring and some other specific details. It would seem to be
strange that the writer duplicated the same plot. However, thorough analysis of all the
fairy tales details and nuances allows one to highlight the different context, hidden
underneath the simple external plot, in particular an ability to discern the voice of
intuition and follow its directions, easily obtaining the desired rewards. Let us consider the first plotline in the fairy tale: Masha breaks the jug (a necessary object in a
household but not very valuable and quite exchangeable for another one). In desperation the heroine wanders around aimlessly; while meeting the old woman without a
head, she tries not to touch her even with her glance (because the old lady without a
head represents the image-symbol of intuition, which can be put into operation when
mind and intellect are switched off). That is why the girl follows the old womans
directions precisely and continues the route in accordance with the recommendations
she receives. Finally, Masha meets the same heroine with a head it is the direct
indication that this time she must act sensibly and without self-will in order to perform
successfully the tasks set by the old woman. Masha is praised by the old lady (i. e.
the image-symbol of intuition) for being efficient, exact and accurate, is rewarded with
a new jug (the image-symbol of the recovered physical health of the body), as well as
valuable material property (field, house, carriage) which make the young heroine very
rich (the image-symbol of sovereignty and independence of her body, soul and spirit
from the burdens and severities of the material, transitory world, which, at the same
time, is directly associated with the successfully accomplished procedure of enlightenment). That is why Masha abandons the wicked aunt (the image-symbol of the same
696
material world that severely oppresses the girl and is a heavy burden for her) and
happily lives in prosperity.
The second fabulous plotline displays the same itinerary performed by the
aunts daughter (in this image there is the associative symbolism of the non-enlightened soul that is physically tied to the material world). One should point out that the
intuition of the second girl is blocked and does not reveal itself in any form; consequently, this girl does not listen to the old womans advice and does everything
wrongly / incorrectly, following the voice of her own mind; consequently she is scolded
by the old woman and receives a broken egg-shell instead of a reward (the imagesymbol of the failed procedure of initiation). Therefore, the fairy tales moral is too
obvious to miss: one should not ignore the advice and prompting of intuition as it
sometimes contains more value (for those who are able to hear its voice) than the
arguments of the rational human ego.
Thus, the artistic originality of the literary master V.F. Odoyevsky is embodied
in the creation of four fairy tales in which the writer displays a sophisticated beauty in
offering solutions to philosophical problems, emphasizing the process of the spiritual
search. The authors interest is focused on certain mysteries of the human psyche,
the foundations of which are laid in childhood. It may well be that the analysed fairy
tales are addressed to a childrens readership with the purpose of awakening the mind
of an inquiring child and making possible his/her spiritual evolution. The considered
fairy tales by V.F. Odoyevsky represent literary works with a certain philosophical conception hidden under the mask of didacticism and they are orientated towards the
creation in the readers of a particular world outlook which will direct them towards an
esoteric system of knowledge.
References:
1. . .. / .. .
, 1988. . 382.
2. . .. / .. . , 1982. C. 223.
3. XVIII-XIX . , 2010. . 1120.
4. . . , 1991. . 398.
697
Gera Tatiana,
Ivan Frankos Drogobych State Pedagogical University,
Senior Lecturer, Department of Psychology
Working with professional case as a means

of psychological support future teachers: the mastery
of the situation, the problem, the task of teaching
Abstract: The article describes the use of case studies as both a teaching
method and as a means of psychological support of students. Created an algorithm for
solving a psychological case study, covering five types of analysis: situational, problem, praxeological, axiological, prognostic. Proposed form peer review decisions of the
case.
Keywords: educational situation, pedagogical problem, professional task, a
psychological problem.
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2. Harvard Business Publishers for educators / . . 12.12.2015: https://cb.hbsp.harvard.
edu/cbmp/pages/home.
703
3. .., .. -
/ , // 2014. 5. . 113 114.
4. -. . 10.12.2015:
http://www.slideboom.com/presentations /661274/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0% B9%
D1%81-%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%
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5. .. - /
// . 2011. 6. 60. . 711.
6. .. // Pedagogy and Psychology, III (26), Issue: 50,
2015. Scientific and Professional a New Dimension. Budapest: Society for
Cultural and Scientific Progress in Central and Eastern Europe, 2015 118 .
. 87-93.
7. Gera Tatiana. Psychological support of problem solving by future teachers // Massachusetts Review of Science and Technologies, MIT Press, 2015, 2(12),
(July-December). Volume VI. MIT Press, 2015. 607 . P. 488-497.
8. .. - // .
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10. .. //
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704
V'iacheslav Zhdan,
HSEE of Ukraine Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy,
Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor,
Viktor Bobyriov,
Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor,
Serhii Bilash,
Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor,
Tetiana Klymach,
Practicing Psychologist
Motivational factors of students readiness to professional

activity in the process of training at HSEEU
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy
Abstract: The article highlights the results of psychological study of motivation
to training in students at Higher State Educational Establishment of Ukraine Ukrainian
Medical Stomatological Academy. It has been determined that the leading motives of
educational activity are: gaining profound knowledge, the ability to become a highlyskilled professional, to obtain a diploma, to ensure success in professional activities.
Keywords: professional motivation, leading motives, gaining knowledge, mastering the profession.
The success or performance of the individual in any field depends not only on
his/her abilities, but on a certain level of motivation to it. If a person is interested in a
particular activity, there is interest in the subject, the desire to improve the potential
opportunities, awareness of career choices [9].
At present, the problem of professional motivation is of particular importance.
Proper detection of professional motives, interests and inclinations is an important
prognostic factor in the future profession satisfaction that aims at the success in professional education. It is known that the effectiveness of educational activity depends
705
on students motivation to study. In psychology, motivation means the collection of internal and external reasons that induce a subject to activity [6].
The problem of motivation and motives of activities has been examined in a
large number of papers and monographs by V.G. Asieiev, V.K. Viliunas, I.A. Dzhydar'ian, V.A. Ivannikov, E.P. Ilyin, E.A. Klymov, O.M. Leontiev, P.M. Jacobson,
S.O. Mykytniuk, and by foreign authors as well: H. Heckhausen, R. Frenkin, R. Emmons, A.H. Maslow [1-12].
The aim of the study was to identify the attitude of today's youth to study, determination of the main motives for training, formation of students' positive learning
motivation, increase of self-esteem in perception of themselves and others.
Subject of the study: motivational complex of personality. By this we mean
the value of internal, external positive motivation in the structure of educational and
pro-fessional activities. Research objectives: an experimental study of the
characteristics in academic motivation sphere of medical students.
Methods of research: at the end of 2014-2015 academic year, we conducted
psychodiagnostical stage of collecting empirical data on features of motivational
sphere among the first-year students at Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy:
Medical Faculty No1, Dental Faculty and Faculty for Foreign Students Training. 468
students have been polled. Age of students was 17-22. Medical Faculty No1 was represented by 171 students; Dental Faculty by 180 students, Faculty for Foreign Students Training by 117 students.
Diagnostics of motivational sphere was conducted by methodology of T.I. Ilyina
Motivation of training at universities, which consists of 50 questions. Differentiation
of responses was carried out in three scales: acquisition of knowledge (the desire
to gain knowledge, intellectual curiosity); mastering the profession (the desire to
master professional knowledge and form important professional features); obtaining
a diploma (the desire to receive a diploma at a formal learning, to find workarounds
for exams) [5]. The practical significance of research consists in the fact that it reveals
the content of psychological characteristics in educational motivation of medical students, and displays its significant components.
Results and discussion. The following results on features of motivational
sphere of students in different areas of training have been obtained. The overall indicators of leading motives among the surveyed domestic students 351 persons at
Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy are as follows:
706
acquisition of knowledge 168 students (48%);

mastering the profession 143 students (41%);
obtaining a diploma 40 students (11%);
acquisition of knowledge and mastering the profession 32 students (9%);
acquisition of knowledge and obtaining a diploma 55 students (16%);
mastering the profession and acquisition of knowledge 33 students (9%).
The Faculty for Foreign Students Training at Ukrainian Medical Stomatological
Academy enrolls young people from different countries. Higher medical education is
attractive to foreign citizens, thus forming a positive image of Ukraine. The survey involved the representatives of post-Soviet countries Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan (33 people), representatives of the Middle East Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan,
Kuwait, Saudi Arabia (39 people), representatives of North Africa Morocco
(45 people).
The overall indicators of leading motives in the respondents among foreign students 117 persons at Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy are as follows:
obtaining a diploma 24 students (21%).
Let us separately discuss the results of our research at faculties.
Medical Faculty No1.
According to this research, the leading motives for students to study are:
A significant number of respondents graduated from medical college, which suggests the students awareness of future profession. From the questionnaire about the
qualities of character that are most valued in themselves, the students emphasized the
following traits: persistence, willingness to always help everyone, truthfulness, sincerity, good nature, stubbornness, communicability. They have a desire to get rid of laziness and irritability. In students opinion, the training process is facilitated by such traits
as responsibility, activity, determination, dedication, diligence, confidence, dream of
becoming a doctor. Meanwhile, the training process of future doctors is impeded, in
their opinion, by lack of concentration, shyness, aggression, laziness [13].
707
Dental Faculty.
The leading motives for students to study are:
Young people are enrolled at the Academy after a school or lyceum; there are
students who have graduated from a medical college. Almost all respondents pointed
out that further study of certain subjects is secondary for them. The students value
such traits as perseverance, hard work, straightforwardness, sociability, cheerfulness,
honesty, commitment, restraint. They would like to get rid of laziness, inattention,
drowsiness, uncertainty. Students noted that the training process is impeded by such
traits as inconstancy, rapid mood swings, and irritability. The training process of future
dentists is promoted by ingenuity, endurance, perseverance, stubbornness, the desire
to help people in the future [13].
Faculty for Foreign Students Training.
Foreign students from countries of the former Soviet Union are easily adapted
to study in Ukraine; they have almost no problems in learning of the Russian language.
Most of students are enrolled at the Academy after school 18 students (55%), some
graduated from lyceum 6 students (18%), medical college 6 students (18%), gymnasium 3 students (9%). Students value such traits of character as diligence, honesty, patience, kindness. They believe that education is impeded by laziness and
wrong time planning.
The leading motives to study at Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy
for students from the post-Soviet countries are:
Students from countries of the Middle East have the following prior education:
school 18 students (46%), medical college 18 students (46%), lyceum 3 students
(8%). These students have problems with learning of the Russian language which
complicates their stay in Ukraine. They value such traits as compassion, kindness,
attention to people. Students would like to get rid of irritation and resentfulness.
for students from the Middle East are:
708

obtaining a diploma and mastering the profession 3 students (8%);
acquisition of knowledge and obtaining a diploma 3 students (8%).
Previous education of students from North Africa: school 9 students (20%),
lyceum 16 students (36%), college one student (2%), university 2 students (4%).
Moroccans appreciate patience, humility, kindness. They respect friendship and would
like to get rid of laziness and irritation.
for students from North Africa are:
mastering the profession and obtaining a diploma 3 students (7%);
acquisition of knowledge and obtaining a diploma 3 students (7%) [14].
Conclusion. As a result of this research we have performed experimental study
on features in motivational sphere of training medical students. The leading motives of
educational activity have been identified: getting profound knowledge, the ability to become a highly-skilled professional, to obtain a diploma, to ensure success in professional activities.
Thus, the intrinsic motivation dominates in medical students; this indicates a
high level of self-awareness, the ability to set specific goals and find internal resources
to achieve them, which is supported by the entire educative system of higher educational institution. Monitoring registers the dynamics of motivation in students.
In order to increase the motivation of students, the consulting support of practicing psychologist was offered at the Academy, as well as visiting the psychological
trainings according to the adapted program Personality development of a future doctor, which keeps up the mental health of students and increases interest in studies.
References:
1. .. // . ., 1974. . 122.
2. .. . .: , 2006. 458 .
709
3. .. //
. . ., 1988.
. 2630.
4. .. // . 1985. 3. . 113123.
5. .. . . .: ., 2006. 512 .
6. ..
. . 1985. 4. . 46.
7. .. , . .: , 2002. . 5279.
8. . / . . - .: , 2006. 352 .
9. ..
/ :
: . . . . (14-15 2015 .
. ). : , 2015. 192 .
10. . . , . .: , 2003. 651 .
11. X. : 2 . . 1 / . .. . ., 1986. 408 .
12. . . . .: , 2004. 416 .
13. .., .., .., .., .. //
. 2015. 3 (52). . 169 171.
14. .., .., .., .., ..

/ The International
Scientific Associaton SCiENCE & GENESIS: The International Multidisciplinary
Congress Knowledge is power, power is knowledge (27 July, 2015 Vienna
(Austria). 255 .
710
Olga Vlasova,
Associate Professor, Candidate of Philosophic Sciences,
Philosophy and Sociology Department,
Tatyana Kuptsova,
Associate Professor, Candidate of Philosophic Sciences,
Foreign Languages Department
Gender and literature in the interaction of discources,

ideology and narratives
Abstract: Discourses and narratives of the second half of the 19th century,
represented in the female literature, are analysed in connection with the postmodern
theories of the 20th century.
Keywords: text, interpretation, narrative, ideology, discourse, gender, emancipation, symbolism.
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1. Hutcheon L. A Poetics of Postmodernism. History. - Theory, Fiction. - New York
and London: Routledge, 2002. 268 p.
2. . S/Z. - . , 209. 373 .
3. . . : - /
. : , 2000. 185 .
4. .. // . North Charleston,
2015. . 156-159.
5. . . .: , 2007. 495 .
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7. . . // . .
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716
Tatiana Mineeva,
Volga State University of Water Transport,
Professor, Doctor of Law Sciences, the Faculty of Law,
Tatiana Migunova,
Professor, Doctor of Law Sciences, the Faculty of Law
Analogies between the courts of justice in medieval

England and the conscientious court of Catherine II
Abstract: Chancery Court of Justice in England in the XV-XVI and conscientious court of Catherine II of Russia XVIII century. Two related phenomena or legal
institutions, not related to each other by any similarities?
Aim: identification of continuity between the special forms of legal proceedings
arising in the England and Russia in the period of reform and development of new
monarchys ideas.
Methodology: The authors used the traditional method of comparative analysis, supplementing it with formal legal investigation by legal sources. In addition, special importance has been given to the concept of Professor G.L. Hart about the relationship between law and morality.
Keywords: court, justice, conscience, common law, Chancery, Star Chamber,
Court of the Poor Mens Causes, process.
Introduction. The phrase The Court of Justice has firmly entered into circulation, not only in the discussions of experts, but also in international legal practice. However, the history of this concept started a long time ago, in England XV c., Where,
despite the existence of a developed system of common law courts, secured elaborated legal techniques and numerous court incident, the process of formation of a new
branch of the judiciary with a special form of justice, which was called the courts of
justice. The first court of justice, not related rules and procedures of courts of common
law, was the Court of Chancery.
Surviving documents show that this unusual court didnt take the court fees.
Court decisions in the civil disputes, and only such cases was not guided by legal
717
precedent and the decisions made by other courts, only the principle of justice. Therefore, its official name - Court of Equity. In the Russian Empire in the second half of the
XVIII century, while the judicial reform was start off, also appeared unusual judiciary conscientious courts.
Discussion: In one of his lectures V.O. Klyuchevskii urged his listeners that
before the reforms of Catherine II in the old Russian legal proceedings, as well as in
other countries of the proceedings, it was not the court of conscience" [1]. That same
opinion was supported A.D. Gradovsky: "As regards conscientious trial, his position is
very original, at least in the form in which it wanted to create" The Code of the provinces" [2]. He unsuccessfully objected to G.M. Baratz [3]. A.N. Savin showed a rich field
of social conflicts began to develop Chancery Court of Justice [4]. In England, the rise
of the court of justice has caused debate. A striking example from the Chancery Court
imprinted William Roper, the husband of the daughter of Thomas More. More took the
petitioners every afternoon at his home in London (Chelsea area) and took all without
any restrictions. Often here, after hearing the petitioner (without the written statements), immediately decided (for example, he acted with the request of a poor widow,
according to his close relatives) [5]. Thus, More demonstrated the public the benefits
of natural-legal justice to procedural formalism of medieval English courts. It should be
noted that the jurisprudence of the Chancellor More has a direct relationship with its
theoretical and legal reflections and innovative solutions in the field of legal policy.
At that time when More was Chancellor, a discussion between Christopher Saint
Germain, a doctor of law, and anonymous Serjeant at the Laws of England was
opened. The first of the disputants stood for expanding the scope of activities of the
courts of justice and the prerogatives of the Court of Chancery. The second opponent,
repeating the ideas of the petitioners House of Commons of the XIV - XV centuries,
accused the Court of Chancery in the destruction of the entire legal system, based on
common law (common law), and threat to social stability [6].
It seems that the debate was a certain attempt to probe public opinion on the
subject to mitigate the harsh laws of England. Based on the study of texts of Saint
Germain and "Serjeant" suggest that they are both written by the same hand. It is perfectly acceptable suggestion that the dispute was inspired by the Chancellor Mohr, who
has repeatedly raised the issue before the king the right to control the actions of the
chancellor of judges and especially the sentences of other courts of England to alleviate the fate of the accused (or already charged). Humane ideals of St. Paul and other
718
supporters of the natural right of the ideological leaders of the early Christians Moor
sought to attach to the contemporary reality. Activities of the great English humanist in
his native country allows to speak about him as a defender of natural rights.
In the modern historical-legal science nobody have doubt in the use of the
courts of justice but discuss a variety of aspects of their work, as did Margaret Avery
[7], Joseph Byankalana [8], P. Tucker [9]. And we believe that in the XV-XVI centuries
the courts of justice softened the harsh laws of the common law.
This opinion is well with the concept of G.L. Hart that unfair or cruel laws cant
always serve the people [10].
Argumentation: Speaking about the nature of Chancery, usually recall in the
famous case of the petition in 1422 Walter v. Reginald, in which the parties were asked
to solve their case to the "Royal Chancellery, which is the court of conscience" to get
an answer here on the case in accordance with reason and conscience. The comments
we find the following statement - the voice of conscience is true, then we are talking
about based on the conscience of justice.
Tradition of Chancery Court without procedural rules and regulatory standards
of the old judiciary continued Star Chamber and the Court of the Poor Mens Causes,
which were founded by Henry VII Tudor. Star Chamber, composed of bishops, secular
lords, the court "King's Bench" and "common law" and looked into the case, the parties
to which were the representatives of different social classes [11]. If we consider only
39 cases published by J.S. Leadem [12], it is only a small fraction of cases that dealt
in the reality, we can see that the jurisdiction of the Star Chamber was boundless. Here
obeyed litigations between the different groups of the urban population (three lawsuits
between the members of the tailors and Exeter City Council), between the cities (City
council of Exeter against City Council of London), complaints of merchants at fairs or
illegal duties. Cases of unlawful conduct of the elections, the abduction of women and
forced marriage, an insulting word and action, of the disregard for the subpoena, the
abuse of power or of a wrong balance were the subject of the jurisdiction of the Star
Chamber.
Citizens of Worcester and Gloucester were busy in front of Star Chamber about
commutation statute of the Parliament in 1504, forbidding them to collect fees from the
River Severn transported goods [12, p. 129], the holder of the Malmesburys monastery Robert Porter tried to get confirmation of their free status [12, . 211]. One of the
cases concerned the transaction usurious. Acute social conflict arose between the ci-
719
tizens of Exeter (three similar cases between versed in the Star Chamber) [12, p. 578].
Most of these cases were the jurisdiction of the courts of common law, the Statute of
1485 did not give the right to the Star Chamber for their consideration. Many defendants pointed out to this fact, seeking to postpone the hearing in the common law
courts with their routine, delays and corruption.
The breadth and ambiguity of jurisdiction were distinguishing features of the Star
Chamber, and this uncertainty is its strength. The Chamber strongly intrude into the
sphere of other judicial authorities. Cases of Common Courts were removed for analysis at the meetings of the Star Chamber. The Star Chamber received complaints
from different regions of the country: Gloucester, Shropshire, Malmesbury, Cumberland, Yorkshire, Kent, Winchester, Oxfordshire, etc.
One of the statutes of Parliament 1495 allowed to persons who were poor, to
institute lawsuits for forma pauperis. Lawmakers declared that the king wants to equal
justice for all people, so poor were allowed not to pay the usual legal fees. So, the
Court of the Poor Men's Causes or the Court of Request was appeared [13], there
were some special clerks and attorneys for working with papers. According to the jurisdiction of the Court of Request had differed from the Star Chamber, it obeyed only
civil litigations. By its nature, the Court of Request, like the Star Chamber was a court
of justice or conscience, even though procedural matters largely followed traditional
forms of common law. Among the typical case, for example, concerns Laisy against
Saville in 1569, the petty feudal war [13, p. 1-3]. Squire Thomas Laisy with a detachment of fifty men attacked the knight manor John Saville, broke the fence and stole
bulls, cows and horses. In the case of Hyde v. Gatsby servant made a complaint to
landlord for nonpayment of wages [13, p. 13].
Many cases were similar to those heard in the Star Chamber. Leadem directly
pointed to the transfer of certain cases of petitions in the Court of Request of the Star
Chamber [13, p. 140]. He emphasized the democratic nature of the petitions of the
Court, seeing it as a blessing of Henry VII to the poor people of England. A.N. Savin
denied this democracy, seeing in the Court only branch of the Star Chamber [4,
p. 130]. Star Chamber and the Court of Request entered numerous conflicts between
landowners and holders of land in the legal framework, have split the ranks of the
discontented.
The randomness of the old, traditional courts, the desire to strengthen the central power, ensuring justice for the various social groups - of these goals, and we see
720
in the ideas of Catherine II in Russia in the XVIII century. Courts ashamed by her order,
had to serve not only justice, but to natural law [. 89].
Consider the composition of the conscientious trial. The judge of conscientious
court could become a person capable, conscientious, thoughtful, just and blameless
[14, 89 .]. The judge had the sixth class of the Table of Ranks. It should be noted that
in the sixth rank were the advisers of government of province, counselors civil and
criminal chambers, counsellor of the Exchequer, prosecutor of province , the first and
second chairmen of the High Provincial Court [14, . 89]. This is indicative of the importance that was being sold at the provincial level to conscientious judges of the court
and the court itself.
The composition of conscientious court as defined in Article 396, except for
judges, were six judges: two members from each social class, so its composition we
can see merchants and burghers, free rural inhabitants. Conscientious court relied in
its activities to the natural principles of the protection of "personal" or "private" "human
security". The principles of his work: "humanity in general"; "respect for the person",
"turning away from oppression and the oppression of humanity".
Results: Were revealed similarities in the circumstances of occurrence of the
courts of justice in medieval England and Russia, the era of Catherine II, much of the
functions, jurisdiction of Russian courts conscientious reminiscent of their English predecessors.
Competing interests: Authors have declared that no competing interests
exist.
References:
1. .., 1989. . . V. .: . . 124.
2. .., 2001. . . 9. .: . . 9. . 115.
3. .., 1983.
/ .
4. .. 1903. . . . 27, 121, 127.
5. Roper W., 1626. Mirrour of Vertue in Worldly Greatness or the Life of syr Thomas
More, L.
721
6. Plucknett T.F.T., Barton J.L., 1974. Cristopher St Germans Doctor and student /
T.F.T. Plucknett, J.L. Barton. London; Guy J.A. (ed.), 1985. Cristopher St German on Chancery and Statute / J.A. Guy (ed). London.
7. Avery M., 1969. The History of the Equitable Jurisdiction of Chancery before 1460
// Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research (Vol. XLII. P. 129144).
8. Biancalana Joseph. 2001. The Free Fail and the Common Recovery in Medieval
England, 1176 1502 / Biancalana J. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001. 498 p.
9. Tucker P., 2000. The Early History of the Court of Chancery A Comparative Study
/ P. Tucker // EHR. IX P. 791.
10. Hart H.L.A., 1963. Liberty, Law and Morality. Stanford University Press. 96 pp.
11. Statutes of the Realm. V. II. P. 509-510.
12. The Select Cases before the Kings Council of the Star Chamber,1487-1509. Ed.
J.S. Leadem. 1903, Selden Society. L. V. 16.
13. The Select Cases of the Court of Request, 1497-1509. Ed. J.S. Leadem, 1898,
Selden Society, L.
14.
1775 1817 , 1818. , . . 278.
722
Tatyana Ustinova, Dnipropetrovsk National

University of Railway Transport,
Associate Professor, Candidate of Philological Sciences,
the Faculty of Economics and Humanities
E.M. Forsters Novel The Longest Journey:

the Problem of Translation
Abstract: The article deals with the attempts to translate the title of the famous
novel by E.M. Forster as a work, in which the new modernistic maintenance, though
traditionally impossible for the Victorian novel is hidden under the customary placing
of heroes and subject reasons (male and female relationship, love, marriage). The
purpose of the article is to reveal the essence of the novel which helps to give a correct
translation of its name into Ukrainian language.
Keywords: translation, poetics of name, autobiographic influences, homoeroticism, structure of the novel, interpretation of heroes, Modernism.
E.M. Forsters position on the literary map of the twentieth century has always
been a problem. Some aspects of his work were researched by the scholars
(P.K. Bakshi, A.S. Hennings, John Colmer, B.B. Finkelstein). But critics did not reach
the same conclusion about Forsters belonging to a literary direction. Hence the relevance of this review, as Forster is such transitional figure between Victorian novel and
Modernism that makes his work both interesting for analysis and complex for translation. The goal of this study is to identify the main points of discussion that has caused
the problem of events coverage; one of the problems is to analyze the modernist trends
of the novel "The longest journey" (1907) and suggest the correct translation of its
name into Ukrainian language.
This work is considered to have a strong autobiographical element in particular
similarity between the hero and the writer.
The name of the novel comes from the line of the poem by Percy Bisshy Shelley
"Epipsychidion (1821), a mysterious name, the subject of many interpretations, one
of which "what in the soul"). The poem not only gives the name for the novel, there
are several references to it in the text.
723
Carola M. Kaplan notes that the title of E.M. Forsters novel, as well as Shelleys
poem proclaims the central problem of the text: love to one person and the exclusion
of others. The researcher agrees, that name can be interpreted as Forsters criticizing
of marriage, including marriage of his autobiographical hero Rickie because this marriage denies and betrays a deep, hidden Rickies homosexuality [1, p. 52]. The problem that confronts Rickie the knowledge of his own nature, "reality". One of the realities of his nature W. Stone calls the latent homosexuality [2, p. 192-193]. Rickys marriage breaks up because he renounces his own nature.
A.S. Hennings thinks the poem is a keynote, leading to some fundamental issues in the novel, such as whether to seek unity in marriage at any cost? Forster described the marriage of Agnes and Rickie unhappy. So, the answer is obvious: marriage is not always the right decision and does not always meet the emotional expectations [3, p. 40].
In W. Stones opinion, the motive of Agnes and Rickies marriage is designed
specifically to give a lesson to people of both sexes [4, p. 202]. According to B.B. Finkelstein, Forster describes a marriage as a prison for a woman in his first novel "Where
Angels Fear to Tread"; and in "The Longest Journey" it is a prison for both sexes,
especially for men, because it separates marriage from fraternity and friendship, particularly from friendship with homosexual overtones that occurs in the first novel between Philip and Gino [2, p. 35].
Taking into consideration the fact that the phrase "the longest journey" is synonymous with "marriage" in P.B. Shelleys poem, N. Royle suggests a reader to note
that Forsters novel could be named "Marriage". Then some moments considered as
poignant misogyny in the text are clear. But both the poem "Epipsychidion" by Shelley,
and "The Longest Journey" by Forster bring to the condemnation not only marriage,
but love only to one person, more precisely, to one woman. The dedication of the novel
"Fratribus" ("To Brothers") makes clear that the book is addressed to men. This appeal
is part of the reference to a group of young people in Cambridge to which Forster joined
in his final student year in 1901. But more generally, this indicates the deeper level in
the novel is philosophical and polemical about relations between men and importance
of male friendship [5, p. 22-23]. According to P.K. Bakshi, Forster emphasizes the intensity of friendship and brotherhood, testing them against heterosexual love and marriage [6, p. 103]. The structure of the novel develops the contrast between true unity,
724
represented by Rickie and Ansells friendship and between fake union represented by
the marriage of Agnes and Rickie.
The expression the longest journey means marriage in Shelleys poem:
it is in the code
Of modern morals, and the beaten road
Which those poor slaves with weary footsteps tread,
Who travel to their home among the dead
By the broad highway of the world, and so
With one chained friend, perhaps a jealous foe,
The dreariest and the longest journey go [7, 246].
The translation of E.M. Forsters novel should take this fact into account. Thus,
Konstantin Balmont translates the poem into Russian as:
... ,
-
,

- ,

,

,
[8, 148].
The longest journey is translated as and . So
one should translate the name of Forsters novel into Russian and Ukrainian keeping
at least a hint of poetry. The Russian version is not
appropriate, it does not keep in touch with Shelley. It would be possible to translate it
into Russian as and into Ukrainian as . But one should keep in mind first translating Shelley.
Dedication to brothers is a reference to Forsters close connection with the philosophical brotherhood in Cambridge. A.S. Hennings believes such dedication to be a
subtle hint of homosexuality or male relationships and friendships that can be an alternative for some people. Recognizing the fact that repressed homosexuality is significant in the semantics of the novel, the researcher at the same time warns of interpreting it as the basic idea (message) of the novel [9, p. 40-42].
725
The beginning of the novel responds to Forsters manner to initiate a story: the
author represents almost all the main characters in the first chapter during a dispute
between the Cambridge students. The most important of them is Stewart Ansell, a
friend of Rickie Elliot, the main character. His speech begins novel.
Stewart Ansell is immersed in philosophy, he has a habit to draw a circle inside
a square: Ansell was sitting alone with a piece of paper in front of him. On it was a
diagram a circle inside a square, inside which was again a square) [9, p. 135]. This
symbol is repeated throughout the book, and, as C. Summers notes, indicates Ansells
interest of disclosuring reality [10, p. 61].
The most critics agree that Ansell is a Rickies potential lover. When Rickie represents Agnes, with whom he married later, Ansell refuses to acknowledge her existence. The fact that Agnes does not exist for Ansell, according to N. Page, is a way to
point out the lack of her "individual moral nature" [11, p. 56-57].
By this rejection of Agnes Ansell declares war to women, demonstrating a kind
of "homosexual jealousy" [2, p. 41]. In a letter to Rickie he calls him "a person who has
not to marry", because he is not suitable for this, he was created in order to love many
people ("You are not a person who ought to marry at all. You are unfitted in body: that
we once discussed. You are also unfitted in soul: you want and you need to like many
people, and a man of that sort ought not to marry") [9, p. 191]. Rickie gives the answer:
"You've written to me, "I hate the woman who will be your wife", and I write back, "Hate
her. Can not I love you both?") [9, pp. 192]. Rickies question "Can not I love you both?"
reveals to the reader his high spirit: no one can divide real friends, and his future wife
did not even want to separate them.
W. Stone sees in Ansells war announcement a kind of sexual jealousy, partly
hate to female, and in his denial of the marriage relationship the critic finds a connection with the play "Man and Superman" (1905) by Bernard Shaw [4, pp. 199].
The protagonist of the novel, Frederick Elliot, a student at Cambridge, a lame
young man, called Rickie. His father gave him this nickname because of his inherited
lameness, Rickies name means "rickety", "unsustainable".
A certain autobiographical element is present in Rickies stories about "intimacy
with nature", which are almost identical to Forsters early stories, Rickies story reminds
Forsters famous work "Other Kingdom". This type of character is quite traditional. He
has something of Stephen Dedalus by James Joyce, and lameness and poor taste for
women closers him to Philip Carey ("Of Human Bondage" by William Somerset
726
Maugham). He hates memories about his father and loves memories of his mother,
has a certain literary talent, a great love to beauty and fear of practical life. He is an
average sensitive young man from novels.
B.B. Finkelstein believes Rickies situation is similar to the situation of many
modern heroes: he is out of a sense of reality and gripped by forces he does not understand. Because of this, the researcher calls Rickie a main character, but not a hero
[2, p. 37].
Unexpected twist of the plot happens in the first part, it is the death of Gerald,
Agness fiance, which occurred just before the marriage. Many critics have expressed
dissatisfaction in a way which Forster disbands this character, reporting at the beginning of the chapter: "Gerald died that afternoon" [9, p. 163]. The announcement of the
death in the sentence of four words at the beginning of the fifth chapter was considered
by the researchers as unnatural treatment of the characters. We think it again connects
the novel with Shelleys poem, hinting that marriage is a failure, nevertheless it happened or not, its always a tragedy.
Since Geralds death Agnes and Rickie entering into new relationships. It was
Gerald's death that has made them interdependent.
Rickies love to Agnes was interpreted by the critics as "disguised love to the
deceased mother" (C. Kaplan), or as his passion for Gerald (J. Bristow, P.K. Bakshi,
C. Summers), or as passion to Geralds love to Agnes (R. Stall).
P.K. Bakshi gives the example that in any sexual association between Rickie
and Agnes Rickie recalls her together with Gerald [6, p. 117].
In the tenth chapter one more leading protagonist appears, Stephen, a mixture
of a pagan god and a modern hooligan.
This "famous pagan" is called the most interesting character in the book after
Rickie. He is Rickies the brother, though his addition. Stephen is Forsters attempt to
describe "a child of nature", as Gino in Where Angels Fear to Tread. Both, Stephen
and Gino are full of life and violent brutality.
P.K. Bakshi calls such manifestations of rudeness a sign of homoerotic desire,
as in Gino; it hints at the mans sexual energy. Stephen is a mixture of Greek, pagan
and rough qualities and embodies a homoerotic ideal for Rickie [6, p. 107].
Thus, the novel can be regarded as the embodiment of modernist content completely new and "forbidden" in Victorian literature; but it is the embodiment happens in
traditional, classical novelistic form. So we can talk about a new modernist poetics.
727
However, ultimately, more generally consider about modernism one can only after further study of Forsters creative work.
We emphasize on E.M. Forsters connection with classical literature and as it is
seen in our research the translation of his novels should be done taking it into account.
References:
1. Kaplan Carola M. Absent father, Passive Son: The Dilemma of Rickie Elliot in The
Longest Journey // Tambling, Jeremy. E.M. Forster. London: Macmillan Press Ltd,
1995. 236 p.
2. Finkelstein Bonnie Blumenthal. Forsters Women: Eternal Differences. New York
and London: Columbia University Press, 1975. 183 p.
3. Hennings Anne Sofie. The Essence of E.M. Forster on the basis of the novels &
selected short stories. Copenhagen: Copenhagen University, 2001. 118 p.
4. Stone Wilfred. The Cave and the Mountain. A Study of E.M. Forster. Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1966. 436 .
5. Royle Nicholas. E.M. Forster. Plymouth: Northcote, 1999. 99 p.
6. Bakshi Parminder Kaur. Distant Desire: Homoerotic Codes and the Subversion of
the English Novel in E.M. Forster's Fiction. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.,
1996. 250 .
7. The Complete Poetical Work of Percy Bisshe Shelley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. 356 p.
8. , . . . .
. . .: " ", 1998. 384 c.
9. Forster E.M. The Longest Journey // Great Novels of E. M. Forster: Where Angels
Fear to Tread, The Longest Journey, A Room with a View, Howards End. New
York, 1992. . 125-374.
10. Summers Claude J. E.M. Forster. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1983. 406 .
11. Page Norman. E.M. Forster. London: Macmillan, 1987. 133 .
728
Hursand Mahmudov,
Senior Lecturer, Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration (Uzbekistan),
Umida Parpieva,
Teacher of English, Tashkent Institute of Irrigation
and Melioration (Uzbekistan),
Feruza Jumanazarova,
Head of the Department of Foreign Languages,
Tashkent State Technical University (Uzbekistan)
Forms and methods of formation of culture

of free thinking at pupils at the lessons on social
and humanitarian disciplines in extracurricular
activities in professional colleges
Abstract: The article highlights the forms and methods as the main factors of
formation at studying youth of professional colleges of Uzbekistan of culture of free
thinking on the basis of teaching social and humanity subjects, courses, national values.
Keywords: culture of free thinking citizen, formation of personality, individual
freedom, free thinking, the national pedagogy, right of a child, modern pedagogical
technologies, the national values.
In the educational institutions of secondary special and professional education
for the efficient organization of lessons and educational work in addition to a systematic
approach to the training program and the plans advanced training and retraining of
teachers, we have included a special course "Free thinking - Spiritual Decoration
harmonious development of man".
The purpose of this course is not only in the formation of modern youth,
educated in the spirit of national values, as well as to clarify the nature and contents,
objectives and goals of development of the culture of free thinking for themselves
teachers and principals. Meanwhile, today's global development, a constant increase
in the intensity of information flow and its globalization, the understanding of its effects,
729
awareness of human world events through the prism of personal thinking, the ability to
draw the right conclusions should be the criterion for modern personality, capable of
healthy and free thinking.
Developed by us on the basis of this and offered for teachers of the college and
employees involved in training and methodological issues of, this course is designed
for 20 hours, the content of which is displayed in the following matters:
- Processes of global intellectual development and freedom of the human mind
in the process of globalization;
- The concept of freedom mindset, its essence and role in the outlook of the
person, the relationship with other concepts, and unlike them. Free thinking - quality of
harmoniously developed personality;
- ccurring in the world struggle of opinions and issues of healthy thinking;
- Why do we need freedom mindset? The responsibility and Ethics freedom
of of expression thinking;
- Issues of education at pupils of culture of free thinking in the teaching of
social and human sciences;
- The impact of an intensive an information stream in the human consciousness;
- Free thinking - the imperative of our time. Freedom is not the territory without
borders.
This program not only acquaints the heads of educational institutions and
teachers with the essence and the content of free thinking, however, is undoubtedly
useful to them in practical activity, serves as a pledge success in the implementation
of the task with a deep understanding of its essence. Apart from the fact, this program
can and should be used on refresher courses, constantly operating in the educational
institution workshops.
In the solving the problems in the teaching of general subjects teaching staff of
educational institutions need to solve the following problem, which plays an important
role in the development of at pupils of of properties and qualities of a harmoniously
developed personality:
- onsistent study employees of educational institutions works of our Head of
State Islam Karimov about the ability to think freely of our citizens during execution
their duty;
- Based on the study of the problem and related topics of scientific and
educational literature, published in the periodical press materials, the development
of their knowledge and skills;
730
- Based on the explanation of the students carried out int he community update
the formation of their citizenship and the expansion outlook;
- Promotion of high pedagogical requirements for conducting subject
teachers of lessons;
- Creation of conditions for effective and efficient use of funds and factors of
formation of at pupils of culture of free thinking;
- Providing a high professional training of subject teachers, attracting specialists
with higher education, with experience;
- Identify areas of general education courses, their content, methods aimed at
developing culture of free thinking in each teacher and students;
- Systematically introduce students to the international by the Convention on
Child Rights, the Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan and other laws relating to
the protection the rights of the child [1, p. 24];
- ontinuing support and stimulate of gifted youth participation in competitions;
- The introduction of specific examples in the minds of the youth the value
exhibited by our country cares about youth and future generations;
- Familiarizing pupils to popular wisdom, the advice and instructions of our great
ancestors of the education of man, the formation of their inherent in our people such
qualities as patience, prudence, the desire for knowledge, respect for national values;
- Ensuring that the educational institution on its territory to become resident in
the territory of the population not only in the center of education, but also at the center
of free thought. In the process of teaching in professional colleges items "The idea of
national independence: the basic concepts and principles", "Study of the Constitution
of the Republic of Uzbekistan" History of Uzbekistan, "Fundamentals of spirituality",
"Native language and literature" are embodied didactic possibilities of formation of of
free thinking at pupils.
It is known that the formation and development of students' culture of free
thinking can not be provided a period of one or more classes. It can be achieved on a
scheduled basis, using a set of activities and lessons, or by using the possibilities of
each subject.
In the process of familiarization of pupils with Article 29 of the Constitution it is
explained that the article is one of the major success after reaching our republic
independence and legislative strengthening displayed in her freedom of thinking - on
the basis of recognition of it as a fundamental individual human rights is embedded in
their minds the idea that it is devoid of any ideological pressure [2, p. 40].
731
Students explained that everyone has the right to choose any system of values.
Freedom of thinking covers all areas of intellectual and spiritual life. Freedom of
thought is an absolute human right, and in accordance with Article 29 of the
Constitution, everyone has the right to freedom of thought, speech and opinion.
Everyone has the right to seek, receive and impart any information, except against the
existing constitutional system and other restrictions stipulated by the law as explained
to students during lessons [3, p. 160].
In the socio-economic College Urtachirchik district of Tashkent region,
technological and economic college town Yangiyul, engineering college Mirzo-Ulugbek
district of Tashkent city and Uchtepa college of national craftsmanship, Tashkent
technological professional college has been carried out a series lessons, and
extracurricular activities devoted to training and development of free thinking at pupils,
in during which accumulated and generalized an interesting experience.
All three colleges on the basis of a plan developed by under the motto "think
freely, freely read, freely live" to carry out educational and educational work. In
particular, organized in socio-economic College Urtachirchik district nonacademic
activities has been created "Club of free-thinkers", which students of the college
participate in the direction "Economic activity", "International Business", "Exchange
activity" and others.
In the foyer of the college installed a box of "Free thought", and any pupil can
leave him a letter with his exciting ideas, where appropriate - criticism and proposals
to correct deficiencies. These letters of free thinking pupils analyzed once a quarter at
a general meeting of the college students via teachers and then published, addresses
the identified deficiencies and corrective measures. As a result, based on developing
free thinking college students have increased self-confidence, their ability. The college
is developing an atmosphere of mutual trust, healthy friendly Wednesday.
On the lessons of "Study of the Constitution of Uzbekistan" in Urta Chirchik
socio-economic College of Tashkent region with the elements developed by the author
of the game "Member of Parliament" students are given the opportunity to evaluate
themselves, and in an open and collective discussion assess their knowledge which
turns reality and justice this evaluation.
In these lessons, aimed at creating a of free thinking, the teacher perform its
function as a function of experts. During a visit to lessons and learning form and
develop skills of free creativity and psychological freedom. It is noted that "the rejection
of pedagogy based on subordination, obedience and a transition to a system of
732
education and training, saturated on creativity and collaboration - is a major focus"

[4, 2].
In the development of abilities and skills of free-thinking plays an important role
writing essays on any subject on the lessons of the native language and literature. We
can say that essay on any subject - an indicator of the level of spiritual and
psychological preparation of the student. This form of written work teaches creative
thinking and creative reasoning, in other words, the expression of thoughts on the
logical and analytical manner. Free essay along with the development of the culture of
free thinking expands outlook discretion. Also, an essay on any subject, it is also a
criterion of student thinking.
It is known that the subject compositions to determine its content. If a student
does not have a presentation on the subject, it is natural, it can not reveal its contents.
Therefore, in preparation for writing essays on any subject of creative character pupil
should carefully study the topic, to talk about this topic, to be able logically tenable and
consistently express artistic material.
A student brought up in the basis of free thinking, he or she creatively
approachs to every detail, the logical sequence of events described in the book,
avoiding stereotypes, does not use the previously expressed views contrary, passing
them through a synthesis of his own artistic thinking, based on their own opinion. Do
not repeat the thoughts of others and work permeates their creative vision.
If the new organization, meeting the requirements of today's lesson from the
teacher requires the use of new types of lessons, differing form and content. The result
is the formation of free-thinking at young people with good training. It also is one of
the main tasks of the state policy in the field of education and training in Uzbekistan.
On this basis, and raised harmoniously developed young generation with high
spirituality, a strong will, formed a free civic culture, having independent thinking, and
relying on the unique heritage of our ancestors and modern thinking.
In the Tashkent Uchtepa professional college for National Handicraft, MirzoUlugbek district professional College of Technology in Tashkent city during teaching
lessons, "Fundamentals of spirituality", focuses on improving the efficiency of the
lessons and skills development of free thinking at pupils, using new methods and
means of teaching carried out a series experimental testing lessons.
Experimental test lessons were organized in groups of college education in the
"Accounting", "Finance", "Management". Study groups in each of the areas were
divided into parallel groups on the basis of the curriculum classes were held in the
same group on the basis of lessons learned from the development of non-traditional
733
elements of lessons, the second based on the development of lessons using classic
methods. Non-traditional elements of lessons, including the author of the game
developed by "Member Parliaments were mutually evaluated" and "Field of Miracles"
are used only in the first group. Topics include the same in the two groups, and in the
first and second hour of lessons in the first group is very high level of achievement of
this goal.
It is known that during the teaching lessons in the native language and literature
attention is paid to full absorption of the material students learned, learn new words
and phrases, pronunciations correction, a full understanding of the content of the text,
the assimilation of grammatical categories, and at the same time, the development of
spelling skills.
In studying the writing of new words and spelling rules of the teacher requires a
systematic approach.
With this purpose in the first group in the teaching of subjects "Native language
and literature" and "Foreign Language", we used non-traditional development for the
lessons of "Field of Miracles" that to achieve its objectives.
Analysis of the results obtained from teachers, watching classes and students,
as well as written survey shows that: firstly, an active presence in the classroom of
students has increased by one hundred percent; Second, the motivation has risen
sharply in the classroom of students; Third, the students increased self-confidence,
and that can get in-depth knowledge; fourthly, the lessons students are not showing
signs of boredom and fatigue; Fifth, Anectus students wrote that they would like to
always lessons were organized in such a way; in the sixth, the students pointed out
that they have risen confidence, they can look, think independently and express their
thoughts; in the seventh, before slow learners we do not notice how deeply involved in
the training process, and noted that regulyarngo participate in the performance of
tasks, and they have improved academic performance; in the eighth, in the
assessment of students' knowledge achieved justice and masshabny coverage of all
students.
This type of lesson is interactive, and aims to develop at pupils activity,
independent research, independent thinking, and constantly creates opportunities to
consolidate the students' skills of correct letters. At the lesson "Field of Miracles",
based on the subjects employment, the study of writing compound words or phrases
on the blackboard draw a large square, which, in turn, divided into smaller squares.
The teacher calls a synonym of the studied words. Before pupils it should be
put the task: to guess the word in sound and spelling. Pupils randomly talk and fill the
734
cells. Despite the game form, students serious approach about this process. Those of
them, who is very active in finding letters encouraged the teacher, they are awarded
extra points.
The teacher during class moves to the role of the expert: analyzes the results
and announce them. Thus developing search skills and of free thinking. However, the
present time requires students to have the ability to consider the situation with
comparative, critical, logical point of view, to give them an objective assessment, to
analyze, in other words, to be able to think independently.
From many years of pedagogical observations follows such conclusions that
compared the current is still the traditional methods of teaching are more productive
non-traditional teaching methods. Thus, they provide tasks for special education of
pupils of high professional colleges young citizens with high qualifications, separate
and independent thinking, resistant to life's challenges, has its own analytical view.
Summing up, we can say, education of young people, based on free thinking,
resistant to the difficulties of life, have immunity against various undesirable trends the imperative of our time.
References:
1. . .:
. 2005. 24 .
2. . .: , 2008. 40 .
3. ., ., . ( ),
.: , 2001. 160 .
4. ., ., .
- // - . . 2002,
2-.
5. .. -
/ .. // . - 2006. - 4 (52). - . 10-12.
735
Guro-Frolova Yulya,
Volga State University of Water Transport,

Associate Professor, Candidate of Psychological Science,
Department of Foreign Languages and Conventional Training,
Undergraduate Student of the Department of State and Legal Disciplines,
Migunova Tatyana,
Volga State University of Water Transport, Professor, Doctor of Law,
Department of State and Legal Disciplines
Theoretical analysis of the approaches to offender profiling

development
Abstract: The article deals with various approaches to offender profiling developed in USA, UK, and Canada. The authors underline the importance of existing techniques analyses for the purpose of further innovative development of the method. The
historical background of offender profiling is summarized. Factors restricting validity
and implementation of the approaches developed by the foreign researchers are mentioned.
Keywords: ffender profiling, profile, profiler, approach, diagnostic evaluation
approach, criminal investigative analysis, environmental approach, geographic profiling, approach validity.
Offender profiling is of particular importance in relation to crimes with hidden
motivation implying total or partial lack of information about the offender. It successfully
allows narrowing the circle of people involved in the crime committing, putting forward
the versions concerning the motivating factors and the objectives of the unlawful act.
Theoretical and practical researches in the field of offender profiling, analysis of
existing techniques and development of innovative methods of psychological and forensic profiling of an unidentified offender based on researches in the areas of
knowledge, such as psychology, psychiatry, psychopathology, forensic science, sociology, criminology, are acquired importance nowadays.
Offender profiling is considered to be "the process of using all the available information about the crime of the crime scene and the victim in order to create a profile
736
(yet) unknown perpetrator" (B. Ainsworth) [1]; educated attempt to provide investigative agencies with specific information as to the type of the individual who may have
committed a certain crime (J. Geberth) [2]; information gathered at a crime scene,
including reports of an offenders behaviour, used both to infer motivation of an
offence and to produce a description of the type of the person likely to be
responsible (D. Grubin) [3]; collection of leads (D. Rossi) [4]; biological sketch
of behavioural patterns, trends, and tendencies (R.E. Vorpagel) [5].
Summarizing existing points of view, offender profiling can be determined as a
special technique, a method of crime investigation by interpreting the information from
the crime scene in order to construct a profile of a person who might have committed
the crime. The information might come from the witness/victim testimony, forensic autopsy, etc.
Foreign researchers believe that this technique is not able to identify the perpetrator accurately, as it is based on the principle of probability of committing a crime.
Offender profiling serves as a subsidiary element of investigation. The method is usually applied in case of the absence of physical traces left at the crime scene.
The first official attempt of profiling dates back to 1876, when Italian criminologist and psychiatrist Cesaro Lombroso (06.11.1835 - 19.10.1909) published the work
"Criminal Man" (LUomo Delinquente) based on the ideas of Charles Darwin's theory
of evolution [6]. The researcher came up with the theory of physical characteristics
typical of born criminals.
Hans Gross, an Austrian judge and criminologist, contributed to the scientific
attempts of explaining the nature of the crime and its forecasting. H. Gross put forward
the idea that criminals are better interpreted during the study of their crimes. The scientist believed that almost in every case the offender left the traces of his presence at
the crime scene [7].
In 1888, a British forensic expert Thomas Bond participated in the investigation
of the series of brutal murders of prostitutes in London (the case of "Jack the Ripper").
His professional activity influenced the process of foreign offender profiling genesis.
The researcher is recognized as one of the founders of the offender profiling theoretical
and practical bases development.
A scientifically based attempt of offender profiling was also taken by Walter
Langer, an American psychologist and psychoanalyst. In 1943 he came up with the
profile of Adolf Hitler.
737
An American psychiatrist James Brussel [8] is recognized as the founder of the

modern offender profiling in forensic science. In 1956 he was asked by New York police to assist in the "Mad Bomber" case. J. Brussel came up with a profile of a potential
bomber, which led to the identification and arrest of the criminal.
In the 1970s, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (USA) began to develop offender profiling, establishing the Behavioral Science Unit in Quantico, Virginia. They
introduced criminal investigative analysis. In 1983 Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (VICAP) was designed.
Nowadays there are several approaches to offender profiling, including Diagnostic Evaluation (Clinical Approach); Criminal Investigative Analysis (FBI approach);
Investigative Psychology or Environmental Approach, Geographic Profiling, etc.
The authors consider Diagnostic Evaluation (Clinical Approach) based on professional psychiatrist and clinical psychologist evaluation of the offenders potential
mental disorder to be a fundamental approach in the development of offender profiling.
The role of psychiatrists and clinical psychologists are of great importance, as there is
a general agreement that some forms of mental illness may predispose certain individuals to commit certain crimes.
Profiles based on the provisions of Diagnostic Evaluation approach played a
significant role during the investigation of such crimes as "New York Mad Bomber"
case (New York, 1956), "Jack the Ripper" case (London,1888), "Boston Strangler"
case (Boston,1966 ), etc.
Offender profiling due to FBI's approach involves consistent implementation of
the following stages: profiling input; decision process models stage; crime scene assessment; criminal profile; investigation; apprehension [9].
This approach has proved its undeniable value during investigation process. FBI
has given immense popularity to this crime investigation technique. Its developers
(R. Hazlewood, J. Douglas et al.) made a significant contribution to the offender profiling genesis. They offered classification of the offenders differentiating them into organized and disorganized ones, as well as organized and disorganized crime scenes
(later mixed and atypical) [10]. This classification helps to determine whether a series
of attacks is likely to be the result of the criminal activity of one person or several individuals.
The developer of the Environmental Approach Professor D. Canter believes that
criminal always leaves psychological traces at a crime scene, and not only the physical
738
ones. The researcher came up with a five-factor model of offender behaviour. He

differentiates five aspects of the interaction between the victim and the offender: interpersonal coherence, significance of time and place, criminal characteristics, criminal
career, forensic awareness [11].
Drawing ideas from environmental psychology, D. Canter developed the Circle
Theory of Environmental Range, according to which there is some sort of relationship
between the criminal activity range and the serial offender home base. D. Canter is of
the opinion that serial offenders tend to commit crimes in locations where they feel
comfortable and can control the situation. Professor also believes that criminal behaviour pattern of the person is correlated with his 'non-criminal' daily behavioural pat
tern [12].
Geographic profiling approach was developed by D. Kim Rossmo (Canada) in
1995. He drew his ideas from the results of the scientific research of Brantingham P.L.
and Brantingham P.J., professors at the School of Criminology, Institute for Canadian
Urban Research Studies.
Brantingham & Brantingham came up with the idea that each individual has an
"activity space" related to his home base, place of work and leisure. This space produces a visible pattern of individual movement [13].
Taking the above-mentioned ideas into account, D. Kim Rossmo came up with
Theoretical Crime Model and Crime Pattern Theory. He concludes that systematic
activities (including criminal) in the circle generated by social contacts produce a
space-time pattern of the individual movements. The author believes that the crime
scene is correlated with an individual pattern of the criminal, and the victim of a crime
is the one from the circle of his social contacts [14].
Despite all the significance of the above-mentioned offender profiling approaches, they tend to demonstrate the following trends that restrict their validity and
implementation, generating criticism and divergence of the scientific community views:
1) There is a limited number or a complete lack of published studies confirming
the validity of the approach.
2) Difficulty of data interpretation done by psychiatrist and clinical psychologists.
3) Subjective assessment of the profiler.
4) A limited number of convicts involved in the studies used for classifications.
5) Limiting conditions as mandatory elements in the process of profiling.
739
6) Difficulty of approach implementation if the crimes in the series are committed

by different perpetrators.
7) Typologies with a large set of crime evidences not differentiated by significance or priority.
8) Lack of data concerning approach implementation in other countries except
USA, Canada, and UK.
9) Retrospective of some theories and their effectiveness only in relation to the
already solved crimes.
10) Impossibility of assessing the unique behavioural responses (influenced by
social environment, internal/external motives, criminal experience, psychopathology,
etc.), using a single template.
References:
1. Ainsworth B.P. Offender profiling and crime analysis. Devon, Willan Publishing.
2001.
2. Geberth J.V. Practical homicide investigation: tactics, procedures and forensic
techniques. Boca Raton, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, 4th ed. 2006.
3. Don Grubin. Offender profiling. Journal of Forensic Psychology, 259. 1995.
4. Rossi D. Crime scene behavioral analysis: another tool for the law enforcement
investigator. Police Chief, 1982, p.152-155.
5. Vorpagel R.E. Painting psychological profiles: charlatanism, coincidence, charisma or new science. Police Chief, January, 1982, 3(8), p.156-159.
6. Darwin Charles & Wallace, Alfred Russel (1858), en: On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural
Means of Selection, Zoology 3, Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society
of London, p. 4650.
7. Hans Gross. Criminal investigation. Sweet and Maxwell, 1934. 586 p.
8. Brussel J.A. Casebook of a crime Psychiatrist; New York, Simon and Schuster,
1968.
9. Douglas J.E., Ressler R.K., Burgess A.W., Burgess A.G., Hartman. Criminal Profiling from Crime Scene Analysis. Behavioral Science and the Law, Vol. 4, No. 4,
401-421. 1986.
10. Ainsworth B.P. Offender profiling and crime analysis. Devon, Willan Publishing.
2001.
740
11. Canter D. Offender Profiling. 2 Psychologist, 12-16, 1989.

12. Muller A.D. Criminal Profiling. Real Science or Just Wishful Thinking? Homicide
Studies, Volume 4, Number 3, 9 August, 2000, p. 234-264.
13. Brantingham P.L., Brantingham P.J. Crime Pattern Theory. http://www.ceamos.
cl/ceamos/images/stories/actividadesyeventos/pattern_theory1.pdf.
14. Rossmo D.K. Geographic Profiling J.L. Jackson, and D.A. Bekerian, (Eds.), Offender Profiling: Theory, Research and Practice, Chichester, John Wiley, 1997.
741
Makyeshyna Yuliya,
Dnepropetrovsk State Institute
of Physical Culture and Sports,
Doctor of Philosophy,
Social-Humanities Department
Images of mothers in the mass-media discourse

Abstract: The article deals with a problem of deconstruction of the mythology
of modern motherhood. modern images of mothers in the pop culture are supported
by the influence of patriarchal discourses and the impact on ethical and aesthetic aspects of motherhood is examined.
Keywords: maternity, subjectivity, representation, pop culture, discursive practice, performativity.
,

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742
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:
1. Alexander J. C. Social Science as Reading and Performance: A Cultural Sociological Understanding of Epistemology // European Journal of Social Theory. 2009.
12(1). P. 2141.
2. Freedman E. No Turning Back. New York: Ballantaine Books, 2003. 446 p.
3. Greer G. The Whole Woman / Germaine Greer. London: Black Swan, 2007.
452 p.
4. Kaplan T. Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements. New York and
London: Routledge, 1997. 243 p.
5. Lintott S. Philosophical Inquiries into Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Pregnancy: maternal subjects. London, NewYork: Routledge, 2012. 268 p.
748
Yakov Lensu,
Belarusian State Academy of Arts,
Ph.D. in History of Arts, Associate Professor,
Head of the Department of Theory and History of Design
Peculiarities of dwellings f prehistoric people

Abstract: The author performed analysis of the peculiarities of dwellings of prehistoric people. Different types of dwellings of the Paleolithic age were considered. The
author shows that the structure of a prehistoric dwelling was influenced by the predominant activities of its dwellers, the climate, the location of the dwelling.
Keywords: Paleolithic, dwelling of prehistoric people, types of dwellings of the
Paleolithic, structure of a prehistoric dwelling, predominant activities of prehistoric
people.
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Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Lene, 1977. 557 st.
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754

1, Krystina
2,4, Lee
3,
Lane
Perry,
Krystina
R. Stoner,
LeeStoner
Stoner,
Lane
Perry
R. Stoner
4, Rachel
4 and
2,
Wadsworth
Daniel
Wadsworth,
RachelPage
Page
andMichael
MichaelA.
A.Tarrant
Tarrant,
Daniel
1Center
Center for
for Service
Service Learning,
Learning, Western
Western Carolina University, Cullowhee,
2Warnell
Warnell School
School of Forestry and
NC, USA,
Natural Resources, University of Georgia,

Athens, United States of America,
3School
School of
of Sport
Sport and
and Exercise, Massey
Massey University,
University, Wellington, New
4Institute
Institute of Food
Zealand,
Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University,

Wellington, New Zealand
The Importance of Global Citizenship to Higher Education:

the Role of Short-Term Study Abroad
ABSTRACT
An increasing number of institutions actively promote internationalisation as a
key strategy, implying that the development of a "global citizenry" is an integral part
To To
fulfil fulfil
this strategy,
four constructs
must be addressed:
of their
theireducational
educationalmission.
mission.
this strategy,
four constructs
must be
(1) what is global
citizenship?
(2) why is global
citizenship
how do
addressed:
(1) what
is global citizenship?,
(2) why
is global important?
citizenship(3)
important?
we
citizenship?,
and
(4) how doand
we (4)
foster
citizenship?
(1)
(3) measure
how do global
we measure
global
citizenship?,
howglobal
do we
foster global
Although
global
citizenshipglobal
is a citizenship
highly contested
and multifaceted
term,
three key
citizenship?
(1) Although
is a highly
contested and
multifaceted
dimensions
social accepted:
responsibility,
global
awareness,global
and
term, three are
key commonly
dimensionsaccepted:
are commonly
social
responsibility,
civic
awareness,
engagement.
and civic(2)
engagement.
Today's graduates
(2) Today's
aregraduates
critically are
dependent
critically dependent
on an interon
connected
world, and
universities
have ahave
responsibility
to promote
globalglobal
minan interconnected
world,
and universities
a responsibility
to promote
mindedness,
to provide
greater
employment
opportunitiesfor
fortheir
theirgraduates,
graduates, and
and to
dedness,
to provide
greater
employment
opportunities
respond to political calls for enhanced national security. (3) There is a consensus that
the natural and built environment is the context in which global citizenship can be
best understood. Utilizing the three previously consented upon tenets of global
citizenship, Tarrant (2010) developed a Value-Belief-Norm model to assess global
citizenship. (4) A number of nations are utilizing international education as an en
masse mechanism for nurturing global citizenship. However, the "just do it" model
may be ineffective. Conversely, short-term courses, coupled with action-oriented
experiences that encourage reflection, critical analysis, and synthesis may be
effective catalysts. Since short-term programs are likely to remain the only realistic
755
option for many undergraduate students, there is a growing need to document whether
courses can
canpromote
promotehigher-order
higher-orderoutcomes
outcomes
and,
so under
short-term courses
and,
if soif under
what what
conditions.
conditions.
Keywords: critical reflection; transformative learning; experiential education;
internationalization; globalization.
1. INTRODUCTION
Institutions of higher education arguably have a responsibility to develop
curricula that foster "global citizens", either as a consequence of their educational
mission, in response to political calls for enhanced national security and global
awareness, or in strengthening the employability of their graduates within an everglobalizing context. To fulfil this strategy, four constructs must be addressed: (1) what
is global citizenship? (2) why is global citizenship important? (3) how do we measure
global citizenship?,
citizenship? and
and (4)
(4) how
how is
is global citizenship fostered?
fostered? In
In addition to
discussing these questions, commentary will focus on the pivotal role short-term
study abroad programs can play in fostering global citizenship.
2. WHAT IS GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP?
Although global citizenship is a highly contested and multifaceted term [1,2],
three key dimensions, at least within the study abroad literature, are now commonly
accepted [3,4]: (1) social responsibility (concern for others, for society at large, and
for the environment), (2) global awareness (understanding and appreciation of one's
self in the world and of world issues), and (3) civic engagement (active engagement
with local, regional, national and global community issues). In one of the most
thorough reviews of the global citizenship concept in the study abroad scholarly field,
Schattle [4] proposes that it "entails being aware of responsibilities beyond one's
immediate communities and making decisions to change habits and behavior patterns
accordingly" (p.12).
Outside the study abroad literature, there is consensus that the natural and built
environment is the context in which global citizenship can be best understood [5-8],
since environmental concern not only benefits others beyond the individual, but also
invokes a sense of obligation toward others. According to Dobson [7], the environment
constitutes a community of obligation in which social responsibilities and behaviors
756
extend,
extend, in
in the
the form
form of
of an
an ecological
ecological footprint.
footprint. In
In distinguishing
distinguishing between
between a
a Good
Good
Samaritan (i.e., based on charity) and a Good (Earth) Citizen (i.e., based on
Samaritan (i.e., based on charity) and a Good (Earth) Citizen (i.e., based on obobligations),
Dobson
argues
"the ofidea
the ecological
relaligations),
Dobson
argues
"the idea
the ofecological
footprintfootprint
convertsconverts
rela-tionships
tionships we had thought to be Samaritan into relationships of citizenship" (p.105).

we had thought to be Samaritan into relationships of citizenship" (p.105). Citizens,
Citizens,
are notglobal
merely
of their international
as of
a
then,
are then,
not merely
by global
reasonbyofreason
their international
travel, buttravel,
as a but
result
result of their pro-environmental behaviors that make a sustainable impact. Similarly,

their pro-environmental behaviors that make a sustainable impact. Similarly, Attfield
Attfield
[5] suggests,
"environmental
responsibilities
most focus
obvious
of
[5]
suggests,
"environmental
responsibilities
form theform
mostthe
obvious
of focus
concern
concern for global citizens, as well as the territory where global obligations most
for global citizens, as well as the territory where global obligations most clearly
clearly(p.191).
arise" (p.191).
In avein,
similar
Winn [8]the
considers
concept
of global
arise"
In a similar
Winnvein,
[8] considers
concept the
of global
citizenship
to
citizenship to include "behaviors associated with the global issues of

include "behaviors associated with the global issues of environmentalism, social
environmentalism,
social justice,(p.124).
and civic
participation"
(p.124). With
thehigher
ever
justice,
and civic participation"
With
the ever increasing
role of
increasing role of higher education institutions in the development of global citizens,

education institutions in the development of global citizens, a specific emphasis on
a specific emphasis
on internationally
located educative
coupled
with
internationally
located
educative experiences,
coupledexperiences,
with critical
reflection
critical reflection methods, and ultimately framed by relevant disciplines, the

methods, and ultimately framed by relevant disciplines, the behaviors and actions of
behaviors
and actions
of can
globally
canMoreover,
and should
developed.
globally
educated
citizens
and educated
should be citizens
developed.
it isbethe
students'
Moreover, it is the students' exploration and application of pro-environmental

exploration and application of pro-environmental behaviors within the natural
behaviors within
environment,
thecommunities
built environment,
and the communities
environment,
the the
builtnatural
environment,
and the
they engage.
they engage.
3. WHY IS GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP IMPORTANT?

3. WHY IS GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP IMPORTANT?
Universities and colleges arguably have a responsibility to develop interUniversities and colleges arguably have a responsibility to develop
national curricula that foster a student citizenry with stronger global awareness,
international curricula that foster a student citizenry with stronger global awareness,
either as a consequence of their educational mission [1,4,9-11], in response to political
either as a consequence of their educational mission [1,4,9-11], in response to political
calls for enhanced national security [12-14], in providing greater employment
calls for enhanced national security [12-14], in providing greater employment
opportunities for their graduates [15], or simply in heeding the public's growing interest
opportunities for their graduates [15], or simply in heeding the public's growing interest
in the importance of promoting global mindedness among future generations [16].
in the importance of promoting global mindedness among future generations [16].
Responding to these realities requires a massive increase in the global literacy of
Responding to these realities requires a massive increase in the global literacy of
the typical college graduate.
the typical college graduate.
The intensification of and access to technology has forged links between
The intensification of and access to technology has forged links between
institutions, societies, cultures and individuals, and today's university graduates live
institutions, societies, cultures and individuals, and today's university graduates live
and work in a world that is more accessible than ever before [17]. While the availability
and work in a world that is more accessible than ever before [17]. While the availability
of modern travel and technology is not accessible to all of earth's 7 billion 'citizens',
of modern travel and technology is not accessible to all of earth's 7 billion 'citizens',
those who have access and acceptance into higher education institutions also have
those who have access and acceptance into higher education institutions also have
757
greater opportunities for globalized experiences. The opportunity for a student to

frame their existence within a global context can promote deeper understanding of
cultural differences and provide a counterpoint for juxtaposing their personal beliefs
with those of others. Internationalization and globalization are fundamental components of the learning process; to live and reflect upon the experiences a student
has with these phenomena can increase action and bring about transformation of
perspective.
4. HOW IS GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP FOSTERED?
There is growing political interest in international education and increasing
reference to globalization (and the need to prepare students as global citizens)
in the missions of academic institutions [10]. Lutterman-Aguilar and Gingerich [18]
argue that education abroad can effectively prepare students as responsible global
citizens if programs incorporate the principles of experiential education, notably
action-oriented experiences that encourage reflection, critical analysis, and synthesis.
Similar conclusions are drawn by McLaughlin and Johnson [19], who propose a fieldbased experiential learning model for short-term study abroad programs. This model
enables students to move beyond knowledge learning to application and integration,
toward a real, "unbuffered" world. Indeed, there is strong evidence throughout the
study abroad literature supporting the integration of experiential learning as a key
medium for promoting higher-order learning [20-28].
The outcomes of study abroad experiences, students' previous experiences
with the course material, the destination, and travel in general can have an influence
on the potential shift in a student's worldview. McKeown [29] recognized the profound
change in students' values when experiencing a new social environment that called
into question their internal beliefs [30] and referred to this as the first-time effect. This
phenomenon has also been recognized in other learning environments where
experientially based pedagogy (service-learning, problem-based learning) has been
and experienced
experienced for
for the
first-time[31,32].
[31,32].
Valuable
student
the first-time
utilized and
Valuable
to to
the the
student
experience,
their
andandthethelikelihood
experience,
theirengagement,
engagement,
likelihoodof ofa a shift
shift in
in worldview
worldview are the
following: faculty-student engagement, experiential learning opportunities, dialogue
and group discussions focused on students' experiences, and reflection assignments
connected to experiences and readings [33]. Within study abroad experiences,
758
exposure to new places, cultures, and learning environments
where a student's
preconceived
andplaces,
established
notions
beliefsenvironments
are tested, may
act as
the
catalyst
cultures,
andand
learning
where
a astudent's
exposure
to new
where
student's
or impetus to and
bring
forth a transformative
Of particular
importance
is the
preconceived
established
notions and experience.
beliefs are tested,
may act
as the catalyst
creation
critical reflection
and discussion.
these types
of
or
impetusofto moments
bring forth of
a transformative
experience.
Of particularInimportance
is the
environments,
exposedofto critical
realties reflection
that are outside
their previous
or
creation
of moments
and discussion.
In understanding
these types of
comfort zones,exposed
the learner
may discover
a need
to acquire
new perspectives
in order
environments,
to realties
that are
outside
their previous
understanding
or
to gainzones,
a more
anddiscover
complex
understanding.
A deeper,
more insincere
comfort
thecomplete
learner may
a need
to acquire new
perspectives
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5. HOW
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5. HOW
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Personal
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Fig. 1. Adapted value-beliefs-norms theory of global citizenship [30]
Fig. 1. Adapted value-beliefs-norms theory of global citizenship [30]
The recognition of critical reflection as an integral component of the conceptual framework

offered by Tarrant [30] is evident in Westheimer and Kahne's [36] "citizen-type" and
Adapted
value-beliefs-norms
theory
global
citizenship
Dobson'sFig.
[7] 1.
"Earth
Citizen".
For example, Westheimer
andofKahne
[36]
argue that [30]
a justiceoriented citizen is one who is concerned with asking questions about issues she or he sees
in their community (local and global) and then acting upon the answers they find. This is in
sharp contrast to a personally responsible citizen who is typically concerned with acting
responsibly or volunteering in times of crisis. Interestingly, it seems that a clear difference
between these two citizen types is found in the citizen's concern with or interest in critical
reflection upon their observations and experiences. Justice-oriented citizens seem to be
759
The recognition of critical reflection as an integral component of the conceptual

framework offered by Tarrant [30] is evident in Westheimer and Kahne's [36]
"citizen-type" and Dobson's [7] "Earth Citizen". For example, Westheimer and Kahne
[36] argue that a justice-oriented citizen is one who is concerned with asking questions
about issues she or he sees in their community (local and global) and then acting
upon the answers they find. This is in sharp contrast to a personally responsible
citizen who is typically concerned with acting responsibly or volunteering in times of
crisis. Interestingly, it seems that a clear difference between these two citizen types
is found in the citizen's concern with or interest in critical reflection upon their
observations and experiences. Justice-oriented citizens seem to be more concerned
with asking the more complex questions versus accepting the simpler answers. By
asking more complex questions, it is assumed that justice-oriented citizens are
analyzing, considering, and reconsidering their perspectives and beliefs in light of
new information and experiences. This is primarily a function of critical thinking and
reflection. That is, being prepared to ask and answer the complex questions that
emerge from our continually evolving and complex society [28]. Doing this may
promote and nurture "change in environmentally oriented values, norms, and
behaviors" [30]. This observation is demonstrated further by Dobson's view of an
Earth Citizen. With an Earth Citizen there tends to be less emphasis on volunteerism
as ends unto itself, and a greater emphasis placed on questioning what is observed
or has come to be known and then this is acted upon in order to ameliorate the
causes of observed injustices. Overall, the conceptual framework "proposes that
values and worldviews act as filters for new information in the development and
formation of congruent beliefs and attitudes which in turn predispose behavioral
intentions and ultimately pro-environmental behaviors" [30].
The two components Tarrant identified (the connection between environmental
conditions and the threats on a learner's values and the belief that the learner can
reduce the threats), which underpin Fig. 1, have a common denominator. That
denominator is a learner's values and what they are willing to do about those values.
The measurement of value identification or awareness is a complex, but important
endeavor. One particular theory that has been operationalized and empirically tested
to measure a person's values is the Shwartz norm-activation theory. Norm-activation
theory states that "pro-environmental actions occur in response to personal moral
760
norms about such actions and that these are activated in individuals who believe
that environmental conditions pose threats to other people, other species, or the
biosphere and that actions they initiate could avert those consequences" [37]. One
salient, empirical study measured the values associated with social movements
particularly in context of pro-environmental actions. In the Stern et al. [37] study, which
was designed to measure two variables from Shwartz's norm-activation theory
(personal norms and awareness of consequences), resulted in findings that were
strongly consistent with the VBN theory. Essentially, it was determined that personal
norms were strongly associated with the behaviors of all three types of nonactivist
environmentalism, provided the strongest predictor of consumer behavior and
willingness to sacrifice, and was the only variable in their study to have a direct effect
on all three types of movement support.
A limitation of Tarrant's model is that it directly focuses on environmental
awareness and does not directly address the concepts of social justice or civic
engagement, i.e., the key dimensions of global citizenship [3,4]. Although, it should
be noted that in Tarrant's conceptual framework, there is indirect or ancillary inclusion
of personal values and awareness of responsibility (civic engagement) and the
citizen type (social justice orientation) an individual could align. Even though Tarrant
clearly is addressing the conceptualization of "pro-environmental behavior" from an
environmental perspective, it is inextricably connected to other important elements to
be considered when attempting to understanding global citizenship. In addition, the
use of Shwartz's norm-activation theory to operationalize and measure global
citizenship is an important avenue to consider.
6. WHAT ROLE CAN SHORT-TERM STUDY ABROAD PROGRAMS PLAY?
The past 25 years have witnessed growing numbers of students, particularly in
the United States (U.S.), participating in study abroad programs of varying durations,
locations, and academic foci. These growing numbers, contextualized and sourced
from the U.S. higher education student body, have led to the literature being skewed
in context of the U.S. This particular growth and respective body of literature ultimately
reflects a U.S. centric perspective on research into the influence of short-term study
abroad. This is due to the limited number of empirical studies investigating nonU.S. students studying abroad Curthoys [38]. With this, Europe and Australasia
761
could be considered emerging markets for future generations of students beginning

to study abroad. Further investigation into these emerging markets and the influence
of study abroad on participants is necessary.
In the U.S., most recent estimates indicate that of the approximately 270,000
U.S. students who studied abroad for academic credit in 2009/10 (compared to 75,000
students in 1990), the majority (57%) were short-term (summer or 8 weeks or less)
[39]. While short-term programs have been criticized for being academically light
[29], they appeal to large numbers of undergraduates without prior international
travel experience and/or who lack the funds or time for extensive education abroad
opportunities [40-43]. Short-term programs thereby may provide a springboard for
future, more in-depth travel [44], a pathway for those studying abroad for the first-time
[29], and perhaps "the only realistic alternative in terms of the demands of your degree
studies and economic resources" [39]. As such, short-term programs may be viewed
as crucial for achieving broad and more egalitarian access to study abroad for U.S.
undergraduates.
Skepticism has been voiced about whether the short-term study abroad format
can offer students a sufficiently profound experience to transform the fundamental
values and beliefs that underlie global citizenship. Recent evidence suggests that the
duration of the international experience may be only weakly related to student learning
outcomes. The large scale Georgia Learning Outcomes of Students Studying Abroad
Initiative (GLOSSARI) [45] found a general advantage for study abroad at any duration
over no study abroad in terms of graduation rates, although moderate duration (4-8
weeks) exceeded both shorter and longer programs on this variable. In their study of
over 6,000 alumni from 20 institutions, Paige et al. [3] suggests no difference in global
engagement between students who had studied abroad for shorter versus longer
durations. Their findings from the University of Minnesota's Study Abroad for Global
Engagement project revealed that students in short-term programs (of 4 weeks or
less) were just as likely to be globally engaged as those who studied abroad for
several months or longer. Similarly, McKeown [29] posited that, "students who had
been abroad for as little as two weeks showed patterns of intellectual development
more similar to peers who had been abroad for months or years than to those who
had not been abroad at all" (p.6). The conclusion is that spending at least some time
abroad is probably better than no time at all, though the extent to which the "just do
762
it" analogy [46] holds true for study abroad (i.e., relative to home campus) remains
relatively unsubstantiated [29,47]. Meaning, whether studying abroad for a short,
moderate, or long-term period, there needs to be some level of consideration for
appropriate measures to be implemented that will help students make connections
from and sense of their new experiences.
Short-term study abroad, when coupled with an adequate pedagogical
framework, could serve as an educative opportunity for fostering transformative
learning environments where new experiences and perspective may be developed.
It is that critical moment where learners have engaged with something novel, whether
it is physical or psychological, that is when reflection and critical reflection become
imperative to the learning process. The shift from physical experience to meaning
making can be different, but it is imperative for perspective transformation and
ultimately behavior adaptation to occur. Though it should be noted that prior to the
exposure to something novel, abstract conceptualization can have occurred.
Meaning, preparation and study for future experiences related to a student's
involvement in a course is also valuable to their learning. These connections
between experience and reflection, content and experience, and reflection and
content are ones that have long been theoretically [14,34,48] and practically [31]
established.
7. DISCUSSION AND DIRECTION
Over the past decade there have been increasing calls to develop the capacity
of higher education students, particularly in the U.S., to think and act globally [11].
One method of encouraging the civic of global citizenship is through study abroad
[30]. To date, the academic response to calls for greater global learning has focused
primarily on increasing quantity (i.e., "just do it"). The number of students participating
in education abroad is often the primary indicator of an institution's success in
achieving globalization aims [44, 49]. Clearly, a major driver of such efforts should
also address quality - the added value and outcomes of studying abroad as indexed
by measures more informative than traditional course evaluation responses. As
resources become available for study abroad development, funds should be targeted
toward programs that promote demonstrable and specific learning outcomes.
763
Short-term, faculty-led, field-based programs can have an important role in

fostering some of the outcomes considered critical to national security, globalization
and global competitiveness, and social norms [11,50]. Though not all education
programs should be similarly structured, we concur with Lutterman-Aguilar and
Gingerich [18] that, "study abroad and experiential education are natural partners
because they share the common goal of empowering students and preparing them to
become responsible global citizens" (p.46). Accordingly, we encourage faculty to
incorporate field-based learning experiences into study abroad curricula and to
consider their role as facilitators of citizen activism [1], promoting opportunities for civic
engagement, responsibility, and global awareness. The challenge, clearly, is to
develop programs in a measured and effective way. Such programs must be attractive
to students (especially for those traveling abroad for the first-time), yet must not turn
the travel experience into a token service program of consumerism with little value
beyond the tourism dollars it generates [2,51]. Since short-term programs are
likely to remain the only realistic option for many undergraduate students and
potentially the least expensive medium for democratizing study abroad, achieving
such strategies will be critical. In moving toward more robust evidence of the value of
education abroad, particularly with respect to globalization, we need to design
research that can clearly demonstrate whether studying abroad (relative to home
campus) can promote higher-order outcomes (such as global citizenship) and, if so,
under what conditions.
Essentially, the literature to date is primarily focused on U.S. students studying
abroad [38]. Comparative groups of students are needed to determine the influence
study abroad experiences might have on non-U.S. counterparts who are from different
geographical and cultural backgrounds. Moreover, this lack of research can be
attributed to the emerging market and associated pedagogy of study abroad and
international education in countries like New Zealand, Australia, and the United
Kingdom.
8. CONCLUSIONS
There is a consensus that the natural and built environment is the context in
which global citizenship can be best understood. Utilizing this context, Tarrant [30]
developed a Value-Belief-Norm model to assess global citizenship and the "added
764
value" of study abroad. A number of nations, including the U.S., have witnessed
growing political pressure to utilize international education as an en masse
mechanism for nurturing global citizenship. However, the extent to which the "just
do it" analogy holds true for study abroad remains relatively unsubstantiated.
Education abroad can effectively prepare students as responsible global citizens, but
only if coupled with action-oriented experiences that encourage reflection, critical
analysis, and synthesis. Since short-term programs are likely to remain the only
realistic option for many undergraduate students, there is a growing requisite
to document whether short duration programs can promote higher-order outcomes
(such as global citizenship) and, if so, under what conditions. In particular, there is a
lack of demonstrable evidence of the transformational change attributable to
participation in field-based/experiential study abroad programs, relative to (a) other
study abroad programs lacking a structured experiential component and/or (b) home
campus (i.e., traditional classroom) courses and/or (c) comparisons of the experiences and learning outcomes of students from different countries and cultures.
Although global citizenship is a highly contested and multifaceted term,
three key dimensions are commonly accepted: social responsibility, global awareness,
and civic engagement. This particular observation lends itself well to the perspective that global citizenship, at its core, is focused on connections - a person's
connections with the products they choose to use, the environment they believe they
influence, and the groups of people who they directly and indirectly associate with.
Whether or not those connections (with products, environments, and people) are
recognized and reflected upon is what fundamentally separates those who
consciously assume their role as a global citizen from those who do not.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
No sources of funded are reported.
COMPETING INTERESTS
765
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Education & Sport

770
Winnie Mucherah and Andrea D. Frazier,

Department of Educational Psychology, Ball State University,
USA,
Muncie,
Winnie Mucherah and Andrea
D. Frazier,
Department
of Counseling,
Columbus
State University,
Foundations,
Department
of Educational
Psychology,
Ball State
University,
and Leadership,
City,USA,
USA
Muncie,Phenix
IN 47306,
Department of Counseling, Columbus State University, Foundations,
Leadership,
Phenix
City, AL 36867, USA
How Teachers and
Perceive
their
Classroom
Environments and Student Goal Orientation:

How Teachers Perceive Their Classroom
a Look into High School Biology Classrooms
Environments and Student Goal Orientation:
in Kenya
A Look into High School Biology Classrooms
ABSTRACT
in Kenya
Aims: To examine teachers and observers perceptions of classroom climate

and goal
orientation in high school biology classrooms in Kenya.
ABSTRACT
Study To
Design:
A mixed
design
utilizing
quantitative
and qualitative
approach.
Aims:
examine
teachers
and
observers
perceptions
of classroom
climate
Place
and Duration
of Study:
A classrooms
boys and girls
boarding high schools in
and goal
orientation
in high school
biology
in Kenya.
Kenya,Study
observed
between
Maydesign
and July
of 2010.
Design:
A mixed
utilizing
quantitative and qualitative approach.
Methodology:
Participants
included
12 biology
teachers
fromhigh
two schools
same sex
Place
and Duration
of Study:
A boys
and girls
boarding
in
boarding
high schools
(5 females,
males).
Kenya,
observed
between
May and7 July
of 2010.
Results: TestsParticipants
of means and
t-tests
male from
teachers
perceived
Methodology:
included
12showed
biology that
teachers
two same
sex
themselves
to schools
be supportive,
t(10)7 =males).
3.76, p = .01, d = 2.201 and innovative, t(10)
boarding
high
(5 females,
= 2. 93,
p = .05, d
=1.882.
Male teachers
also showed
reportedthat
greater
school
and classroom
Results:
Tests
of means
and t-tests
male
teachers
perceived
performancetogoals.
Observerst(10)
reported
significant
in the
classroomt(10)
clithemselves
be supportive,
= 3.76,
p = .01, differences
d = 2.201 and
innovative,
andp goal
orientation,
they sawalso
the girls
classrooms
to be more
greater school
and innovative,
classroom
=mate
2. 93,
= .05,
d =1.882. where
Male teachers
reported
t(10) = 5.10, pgoals.
=.01, Observers
d = 2.125, reported
high in order
and organization,
t(10)
3.10, p =.01,
performance
significant
differences in
the=classroom
clifound
in the boys
school
be more
mate
and goal
orientation,
theteachers
girls classrooms
to be
more to
innovative,
d = 2.200
and
affiliation.where
They they
alsosaw
t(10)
= 5.10,t(10)
p =.01,
d = p2.125,
supportive,
= 2.41,
= .02,high
d = 1.809.
in order and organization, t(10) = 3.10, p =.01,
Conclusion:
Male teachers
perceive
themselves
to be
more
supportive
and
found teachers
in the
boys
school
to be more
d = 2.200
and affiliation.
They also
innovative. t(10)
Observers
see
supportive,
= 2.41,
p =girls
.02,classrooms
d = 1.809. to be more innovative and well organized.
Keywords: biology
classrooms;
classroom
climate;to
goal
Conclusion:
Male teachers
perceive
themselves
be orientation.
more supportive and
innovative. Observers see girls classrooms to be more innovative and well organized.
Keywords: Biology classrooms; classroom climate; goal orientation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cambridge
Journal
of Education
and Sciencethey do have control over
771
Teachers do not choose
their
classrooms.
However,
the kind
of classroom climate they construct with their students and the kinds of in1. INTRODUCTION
structional
practices
they
utilize.their
Theclassrooms.
classroom However,
environment
shapes
teachers
relaTeachers
do not
choose
they
do have
control over
tionships
their students,
and students
with each
other
andofwith
the
kind ofwith
classroom
climate they
construct relationships
with their students
and the
kinds
inclassroom practices
concepts. they
Teachers
of a classrooms
tone, ethos
structional
utilize.often
Thespeak
classroom
environmentatmosphere,
shapes teachers
relaor ambience
importance
student learning
[1, 2,with
3, 4].
Typically,
teachers
tionships
withand
theiritsstudents,
andforstudents
relationships
each
other and
with
concentrateconcepts.
almost exclusively
on thespeak
assessment
of academic
achievement,
and
declassroom
Teachers often
of a classrooms
atmosphere,
tone,
ethos
vote
little attention
factors which
might be
related[1,to2,their
patterns
of
or
ambience
and itstoimportance
for student
learning
3, 4].students
Typically,
teachers
adaptive learning
performance.
is research
evidenceachievement,
indicating classroom
of academic
and deconcentrate
almostand
exclusively
on theThere
assessment
climate
to attention
be a factortoinfactors
the types
of goals
establish
[5, students
3, 6].
vote
little
which
mightstudents
be related
to their
patterns of
adaptive learning and performance. There is research evidence indicating classroom
Classroom
climate1.1
to be
a factor inClimate
the types of goals students establish [5, 3, 6].
Although classroom environment is a somewhat subtle concept, remarkable
progress
been made
over the last three decades in conceptualizing, assessing
1.1has
Classroom
Climate
and researching
it [7, 8, 9]. This
researchishas
attempted to
answer
many questions
of
Although classroom
environment
a somewhat
subtle
concept,
remarkable
interest tohas
suchover
as does
a classrooms
environment
affect goal
orientaeducators,
progress
been made
the last
three decades
in conceptualizing,
assessing
tion?researching
Can teachers
assess the
of their
own classrooms?
Quesand
it [7,conveniently
8, 9]. This research
hasclimates
attempted
to answer
many questions
of
tions such
as these represent
the thrust
of the workenvironment
on classroomaffect
environments
over
interest
to educators,
such as does
a classrooms
goal orientathe past
decades.
tion?
Canthree
teachers
conveniently assess the climates of their own classrooms? QuesTeachers
playrepresent
a vital role
the of
conceptualization
of the classroom
climate.
tions such
as these
the in
thrust
the work on classroom
environments
over
They
create
the social and physical environments for learning. The very nature
the
past
threeboth
decades.
of classes,
teaching,
students
makes
a positive classroom
climate
a critical
ingreTeachers
play and
a vital
role in
the conceptualization
of the
classroom
climate.
dient create
of student
[10].
are successful
in establishing
They
bothsuccess
the social
andTeachers
physical who
environments
for learning.
The veryeffective
nature
classroom
climates create
more time
foralearning,
involve more
students,
andingrehelp
of
classes, teaching,
and students
makes
positive classroom
climate
a critical
students
to become
self-managing
[11, 12].
positive
learning
environment effective
must be
dient
of student
success
[10]. Teachers
whoAare
successful
in establishing
establishedclimates
and maintained
throughout
thelearning,
year. One
of themore
beststudents,
ways teachers
acclassroom
create more
time for
involve
and help
complish to
this
goal is self-managing
by having a good
management
plan which must
includes
students
become
[11, classroom
12]. A positive
learning environment
be
ways to prevent
problems throughout
from occurring,
having
and procedures,
established
and maintained
the year.
One clear
of therules
best ways
teachers ac-a
physical environment
that
is wella organized,
ways in
which to communicate
complish
this goal is by
having
good classroom
management
plan whicheffectively
includes
with students,
and problems
how students
otherrules
[10]. According
to Doyle
interact with
eachclear
ways
to prevent
fromcan
occurring,
having
and procedures,
a
[10] classrooms
are particular
of environments.
They
distinctive
features
physical
environment
that is wellkinds
organized,
ways in which
to have
communicate
effectively
that students,
influence and
theirhow
inhabitants
how
students
or the
desks are
orgawith
studentsno
canmatter
interact
withthe
each
other [10].
According
to Doyle
nizedclassrooms
or what the
believes
about
education.They
Furthermore,
classrooms
are
[10]
areteacher
particular
kinds of
environments.
have distinctive
features
that influence their inhabitants no matter how the students or the desks are organized or what the teacher believes about education. Furthermore, classrooms are
772
multidimensional, they are crowded with people, tasks, and time pressures, have people with differing goals, preferences and abilities, inhabitants must share resources,
and actions can have multiple effects and influence student participation [10].
The social and physical environment of a classroom can support or interfere
with student learning and well-being. Therefore, teachers carefully plan and create
appropriate and effective classroom climates. There is empirical evidence that shows
teachers perceptions of classroom climate differ based on subject matter [1,7,13].
Teachers perceptions of science classrooms have produced mixed results in terms
of classroom climate, with some studies finding teachers perceptions of science
classrooms to be high in competition and low in affiliation [14,8], whereas other studies show teachers perceptions of science classrooms to be low in cooperation and
cohesion [15,2]. However, recent research has revealed a wide variety of science
thethe
teachers
teaching
style
[16,
4,
classroom climates,
climates, with
with this
thisdiversity
diversitybased
basedonon
teachers
teaching
style
[16,
17].
4,
17].
1.2 Goal Orientation
Does a subject-specific climate influence the learning goals that teachers structure in their classrooms? Recent research on classroom climate has focused on the
classroom instructional goals that teachers establish. Teachers perceptions of the
fit between their classroom environment and their goal orientation are important for
the learning outcomes. A goal is an outcome or attainment an individual is striving to
accomplish [18]. Goal orientation refers to a pattern of beliefs about goals related to
achievement in school. Goal orientations include the reasons teachers pursue goals
and the standards they use to evaluate progress toward those goals. There are four
main goal orientations: mastery (learning), performance, work-avoidance, and social
[19]. For the purposes of this research, only three goal orientations will be utilized.
Mastery-approach goal orientation refers to the need to improve and focuses on learning, understanding, and developing competence in academic situations [20, 21, 22,
19]. Students with a mastery goal are concerned about the task itself instead of their
self-presentation compared to others. Their evaluation for goal progress is intrapersonal in that their success is based on the improvement of competence and the
mastery of the material. For these students setbacks or even failures are not threatening [22].
773
Performance-approach
Performanceapproachgoal
goal orientation
orientation refers
refers to
to both
both the need for improvement and a fear of failure, and a focus on demonstrating and validating ones competence [23, 24]. Performance approach goal orientated individuals, are mainly concerned about their
their selfself-presentation
presentation compared
compared to
to others.
others. They use interpersonal
standard to evaluate their performance in that their success is determined with other
people as referents. Demonstrating competence, outperforming others and garnering
favorable judgments are signs of success and meeting goals. For these students, their
ability is constantly on the line. Setbacks and especially failures are threatening and
suggest a lack of ability [25]. Performance approach goals may sound quite negative.
Earlier research indicated performance goals generally were detrimental to learning,
but current research suggests that a performance goal orientation may not be all negative. In fact some research indicates that both mastery and performance goals are
using active
active learning
learning strategies
strategies and
and high
high self-efficacy
self-efficacy [20,
[20, 26, 25].
associated with using
Performance- avoidancegoal
goal orientation
orientation refers
refers to
to aa fear
fear of
of failure
failure and
and a focus on
Performance-avoidance
masking incompetence; in other words, performance-avoidance oriented students
try to avoid being seen as incompetent [24, 27]. Students with performance avoidance
goals are typically characterized as having a high fear of failure and low competence
expectancies [24]. Thus, they are likely to orient themselves towards the possibility of failure and are highly sensitive to information suggesting anticipated failure
[24,19].
1.3 Classroom Climate and Goal Orientation
Goal theory researchers have found a relationship between teachers goal orientation and their classroom climate [28,29,17]. Furthermore, goal theory leads us to
expect that instructional practices and the nature of educational tasks and assignments that teachers design can pull for either mastery or helpless motivational
patterns that have profound influence on student achievement. In other words, the
goal orientation of classrooms influences whether students will pursue learning goals
(mastery orientation) or performance goals (ego orientation). Mastery goals, in the
United States, are associated with achievement, better academic coping, and positive affect towards school while performance goals are associated with deterioration
of performance, impaired academic coping, negative affect and disaffection from
school [30, 31, 14, 5, 32, 33, 34, 35]. However, recent research indicates that performance goals may not be bad all the time. This research indicates that both performance and mastery goals are associated with high achievement and efficacy [20,25].
774
Dweck and Leggett [36] defined two major kinds of goal orientations: performance goals and learning goals. Individuals with a performance goal orientation seek
to maximize favorable evaluations of their ability and minimize negative evaluations of
ability. Questions like, Will I look smart? and Can I beat others? reflect performance
goals. In contrast, with a learning goal orientation, individuals focus on mastering tasks
and increasing competence at different tasks. Questions such as How can I do this
task? and What will I learn? reflect learning goals. Nicholls and his colleagues [37]
described two similar achievement goal orientations; they used the terms ego-involved goals and task-involved goals, e.g. [37]. Classroom environments that were
high on task involvement and innovation had students with mastery goal orientations,
whereas classroom environments that were high on competition had students with
performance goal orientations [38]. Teachers who embrace mastery goals are more
likely to maintain positive learning environments [39, 40, 17].
Researchers studying goal orientation have focused primarily on academic outcomes. Recently, however, scholars have become interested in ethno racial differences. In their study of eighth grade African American and White students, Freedman,
Gutman and Midgley [41] found that African American students espoused personal
mastery goals and extrinsic goals significantly more than did White students, suggesting cultural differences in student goal orientation. Similar studies have established
an interaction between performance- approach goals and race in predicting the use
of self-handicapping [42,43,21], and the role of academic self-efficacy in mediating
the relations between performance-approach outcomes [17, 44]. These studies indicate the importance of conducting studies in other cultures before reaching concrete
conclusions.
Whereas a vast research literature exists on the influence of classroom climate
on goal orientation and learning outcomes, these studies have been largely conducted
in the United States and Europe. Indeed few studies have investigated the nature
and influence of classroom climate and goal orientation in African cultures [45,46].
Research in the United States and Europe has established that teachers perceptions
of classroom climates and students patterns of adaptive learning vary between urban
and rural schools [47, 48, 49, 35, 50, 51]. Gender and ethnic differences have also
been established, suggesting a possibility of cultural differences in classroom environments and goal orientation [32,40]. However, these findings cannot be generalized
to other cultures.
775
Teacher practices most likely reflect the values and beliefs of the larger culture
they live in. Glover and Law [52] found a strong link between school culture, teacher
practices, and the learning experiences of students. As revealed in the macrosystem,
the uttermost level of Bronfenbrenners model, societys cultural values, laws, customs
and resources significantly affect the activities and interactions of its members [53].
For example, studies on child rearing practices reveal that even though authoritative
child rearing has advantages across cultures, ethnic groups often have distinct childrearing beliefs and practices. Some involve variations in warmth and making demands
that are adaptive when viewed in light of cultural values and family circumstances [54].
These cultural variations remind us that just like parenting practices, teacher practices such as the conceptualization of their classroom environments and goal
orientation can be fully understood only in their larger ecological context.
This study investigated teachers and observers perceptions of the nature of
classroom climates and goal orientation in biology high school classrooms in Kenya.
The following research questions were addressed: How do teachers perceive the
classroom climate in their biology classes? Are there school and gender differences
in the teachers perceptions of the classroom climate and goal orientation? Do teachers and observers perceive the classroom climate and goal orientation in biology classes similarly?
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Participants
Participants included 12 teachers who taught tenth- and eleventh-grade biology
classes of two boarding high schools in Kenya. Five of the teachers were from a
boys school (2 females and 3 males) and 7 from a girls school (3 females and 4
males). Professional experience ranged from 2 to 12 years. Both schools are national
schools, admit only high ranking students -those who score 350+ out of 500 points on
the eighth grade national examination [55]. Teachers in both schools are all graduates
from either one of the two main teacher-training national universities in the country.
(Note: Except for few cases, majority of the high schools in Kenya that admit students
who pass the eighth grade national examination are same sex boarding schools.
This is typical of the Kenyan education system). The average class size for both
schools was 45. The size of the schools ranged from 980 to 1,120 students. Biology
was chosen for this study because it is a required course for all high school students.
776
2.2 Procedures
Participation in this study was voluntary; research information and purpose was
sent to all biology teachers in both schools requesting their participation prior to data
collection. Data was collected from multiple sources using self-report and direct
observation measures during the second term (MayJuly) of the school year.
2.2.1 Construct validity
Prior to the visit, the Classroom Climate Questionnaire (CCQ; [9,56] and
Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS; [43,42] were sent to two volunteer
teachers from each of the schools where the project was conducted. The teachers (4)
were asked to examine the validity of the items by pointing out any terms that might
be confusing or misunderstood. The volunteer teachers were recruited via e-mail and
personal phone calls. All four teachers identified two terms that may mean something
different in the Kenyan context on the PALS and gave suggestions for changes. In
their view, smart meant dressed up, and dumb meant hard of hearing. Therefore,
smart was replaced with bright and dumb was replaced with stupid. To
control for possible bias, these four teachers did not participate in the final study.
2.3 Measures
2.3.1 Teacher surveys
All of the teachers completed the two surveys (CCQ and PALS). The surveys
were administered in English. (Note: English is the main language of instruction in the
grade.)
The
teachers
responded
to the
in their
Kenyan schools,
schools, starting
startingininthird
third
grade).
The
teachers
responded
to surveys
the surveys
in
their
freeand
time
and returned
them
to the upon
researcher
upon Itcompletion.
It took
free time
returned
them to the
researcher
completion.
took approximately
approximately
minutes
to complete
1015 minutes1015
to complete
each
survey. each survey.
2.3.2 The classroom climate questionnaire (CCQ)
This 54-item instrument adapted from the student survey [57] was developed
by Trickett and Moos [9,56] to assess three underlying sets of classroom dimensions
in junior high school classrooms: Relationship, Personal Growth, and System Maintenance and Change. The Relationship dimension identifies the nature and intensity of
personal relationships within the environment and assesses the extent to which teachers and students are involved in the environment and support and help each other.
The Personal Growth dimension assesses basic directions along which personal
growth and self-enhancement tend to occur. The System Maintenance and Change
777
dimension assesses the extent to which the environment is orderly, clear in expectations, maintains control, and is responsive to change.
Under these three dimensions are nine specific subscales (the original alphas
from Trickett and Moos study of [9] appear here): (a) Involvement (e.g., Students put
a lot of energy into what they do in this class, = .60); (b) Affiliation (e.g., Students
enjoy helping each other with homework in this class, = .59); (c) Teacher Support
(e.g., I take a personal interest in students in this class, = .72); (d) Task Orientation
(e.g., Students sometimes spent extra time on activities in this class, = .36); (e)
Competition (e.g., Some students try to see who can answer the questions first, =
.65); (f) Order and Organization (e.g., Activities in this class are clearly and carefully
planned, = .54); (g) Rule Clarity (e.g., There is a clear set of rules for students to
follow, = .49); (h) Rule Strictness (e.g., I make it a point of sticking to the rules I
make, = .45); and (i) Innovation (e.g., I like for students to try new projects, =
.39). All items are presented in a four-step Likert continuum (e.g., never happens to
often happens), with higher scores representing the high end of the scale. This survey
has been used in classroom climate studies [57,3,9,56,58] and has proven to be reliable and valid. A test-retest reliability of individual scores on scales, when administered twice with a 6-week interval between occasions, ranged from .83 for Rule Clarity
to .95 for Innovation [56].
Traditionally, this survey has been used to assess learning environments
mostly in the United States. Therefore, there was a need to determine if the internal
consistency reliabilities of the scales in the present study were comparable to the original survey. To this end, the Cronbachs alpha values were calculated for the nine
subscales. Reliabilities are presented in Table 1. As seen in Table 1, most of the
current study scales reliabilities were comparable to the original survey. Rule Clarity,
Rule Strictness, and Innovation had relatively high reliabilities compared to the original
subscales. However, Competition ( =.36) and Order and Organization ( = .34) had
low reliabilities. Teachers had several
several questions
questions regarding
regarding these
these subscales that could
attributedtotocultural
cultural
differences.
For examples,
most teachers
put question
be attributed
differences.
For examples,
most teachers
put question
marks
or
asked
the researcher
to explain
the the
meaning
of ofthe
(a) A
marks
or asked
the researcher
to explain
meaning
thefollowing
following items:
items: (a)
students grade is lowered if he/she gets homework in late (Note: Because the
schools are boarding schools, homework is usually completed during class time.);
(b) Students have to work hard for a good grade in this class; (c) I hardly ever have
in in
their
seats;
andand
(d) Students
dontdont
interrupt
whenwhen
I am
to tell
tell students
studentstotoget
getback
back
their
seats;
(d) Students
interrupt
I am talking.
As several
teachers
commented,
that common
sense.
talking.
As several
teachers
commented,
Isnt Isnt
that common
sense.
778
Table 1. Reliabilities for the original and the current study classroom climate
subscales
Subscale
Involvement
Affiliation
Teacher support
Task focus
Competition
Order & organization
Rule clarity
Rule strictness
Innovation
Note. Number of items per subscale = 6.
Original
.60
.59
.72
.36
.65
.54
.49
.45
.39
Current
.86
.58
.63
.49
.36
.34
.79
.80
.60
2.3.3 Patterns of adaptive learning scales (PALS)

This 22-items survey was developed and used by Midgley et al. [42,43] to assess teachers perceptions of various constructs associated with students goal structures. It assesses mastery and performance-approach goal structures at the school
and classroom levels. The School Mastery Goals scale (seven items) assesses individual teachers agreement that the purpose of academic work in the school is to gain
mastery over content and to demonstrate student improvement (e.g., In this school,
the emphasis is on really understanding schoolwork, not just memorizing it, = .81).
Note: the attached Cronbachs alpha values are from the original scale [42]. The
School Performance-Approach Goals scale (six items) assesses teachers perception of their schools desire for students to appear able and outperform others
(e.g., In this school, students hear a lot about the importance to getting high test
scores, = .70).
The Classroom Mastery Goal scale (four items) assesses teachers perceptions of whether the purpose and meaning of academic tasks and achievement emphasized in their classes focuses on student improvement and mastery (e.g., In my
classroom, I consider how much students have improved when I give them report card
grades, = .69). The Classroom Performance-Approach Goal scale (five items) assesses teachers perceptions of whether their classroom academic tasks focus on
competition and ability (e.g., In my classroom, I display the work of the highest achieving students as an example, = .69). All items are presented in a five-point Likerttype format (strongly disagree to strongly agree), with higher scores representing the
high end of the scale. The scale has been used in several studies [48]; [43]; [42]
which have proven its reliability and validity. Reliabilities of the subscales in the present study were reasonable (Table 2).
779
Table 2. Reliabilities for the original and current study patterns

of adaptive learning scales
Scale
Perceived School Goals:
Mastery
Performance- Approach
Perceived Classroom Goals:
Mastery
Performance-Approach
# of Items
Original
Current
7
6
.81
.70
.53
.51
4
5
.69
.69
.61
.60
2.3.4 Classroom observations

Prior to data collection, a team of graduate students received a 2-day mandatory training of classroom observations. Several observations (ranging from 68) were
made for each of the twelve teachers, with approximately six observations per
teacher, spread over the second term (MayJuly) of the school year. At least two graduate students observed each classroom at the same time for all the observations used
in this analysis. Observation time ranged from 4080 minutes. Observers used two
observation forms: the Classroom Climate Observation Form [57] and the Patterns of
Adaptive Learning: Classroom Observation Form [43,42]. Both observation forms
tapped into similar concepts as those of the teachers surveys. The classroom
climate form was developed by the researcher and has been used in previous research with reasonable reliability [57,3], and the patterns of adaptive learning was
developed and used by Midgley et al. [42,43]. They were on a four-point Likert-type
format, with space provided at the bottom for observer comments. Using Cohens
Kappa statistic, an inter-rater agreement beyond chance was established at 0.95.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Teacher Survey Data
A preliminary analysis was conducted to determine if there were differences
among dependent measures by the length of teaching experience. No significant differences were found. Some of the teachers taught more than one class and grade.
There were a total of twenty classes (11 from the boys school and 9 from the girls
school). Some teachers taught both grades 10 and 11. Therefore, a second preliminary analysis was conducted on the teachers data to determine if there were differences among the dependent variables by class and grade. No class and grade differences were evident. Consequently all the classes and the two grades were combined in subsequent analyses.
Note: Cohens d was used to calculate effect sizes.
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3.1.1 How do teachers perceive their classroom climate?

Two t-tests were conducted on the classroom climate variables to examine how
teachers perceived their classrooms. The first test examined the nine classroom climate variables with school as the independent variable. No significant effects were
found. The second analysis examined the classroom climate measures with gender
as the independent variable. This test revealed significant effects between male and
female teachers on Teacher Support, t(10) = 3.76, p = .01, d = 2.201 indicating that
the male teachers perceived themselves as being more supportive of their students
compared to the female teachers. In addition, male teachers saw their classrooms as
being more innovative compared to female teachers, t(10) = 2. 93, p = .05, d =1.882.
There was no significant interaction effect between school and gender on classroom
climate variables. See Table 3 for all the means and standard deviations for the classroom climate measures.
Table 3. Overall means and standard deviations for classroom climate for
male and female teachers
Subscales
Involvement
Affiliation
Teacher support
Task focus
Competition
Order & Organization
Rule clarity
Rule strictness
Innovation
Females
Mean
3.17
3.43
3.17
3.57
3.03
3.17
3.30
2.70
2.60
SD
.66
.32
.24
.25
.14
.39
.96
.83
.56
Males
Mean
3.45
3.69
3.64
3.59
3.31
3.31
3.59
3.29
3.36
SD
.52
.35
.20
.36
.42
.24
.33
.38
.49
Sig.
n.s
n.s
.01
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
.05
Note. Mean range: Low=1.0, High=4.0; Males: N= 7, Females: N=5
3.1.2 What are teachers perceptions of their school and classroom goal
orientation?
Descriptive statistics were conducted to determine what types of goals teachers report on the PALS subscales. Overall, teachers reported greater school and
classroom structured performance-approach goals. Tests of means revealed a significant difference between male and female teachers perceptions of their school performance goals, t(10) =2.98, p =.05, d =1.874 and classroom performance goals, t(10)
=3.12, p =.05, d = 1.964. Compared to female teachers, male teachers perceived their
school to be encouraging performance approach goals. Similarly, they perceived their
classrooms to be encouraging performance approach goals. See Table 4 for all
means and standard deviations. Tests of means revealed no statistical difference
781
between the two schools. In addition, there was no significant interaction between
school and gender on goal orientation.
Table 4. Overall means and standard deviations for goal orientation
based on gender
Scales
Females
Mean
4.13
4.26
3.64
3.45
School Performance Approach

School Mastery goals
Classroom Performance Approach
Classroom Mastery goals
SD
.36
.27
.26
.62
Males
Mean
4.82
4.29
4.46
3.62
SD
.37
.61
.70
.72
Note.
7, Females:
Note. Mean
Mean range:
range: Low=1.0,
Low=1.0, High=5.0;
High=5.0; Males:
Males: N=
N= 7,
Females: N=5
N=5
Sig.
.05
n.s
.05
n.s
3.2 Classroom Observations

Only observations that were made by two observers at the same time
were used for analysis. After establishing an inter-rater reliability at 0.95, only one
observers ratings for all the twelve teachers were used for analysis. Seventy-two observations were analyzed, with six observations per teacher. All observations conducted by the same observer were combined to provide multiple samples of
data for each teacher which could then be averaged as a general profile of the
teachers classroom climate and goal orientation according to the subscale ratings.
Descriptive statistics and independent t-tests comparing schools, gender and grades
were conducted on the data.
3.2.1 What are observers perceptions of the classroom climate in biology
classes?
Preliminary analyses exploring class and grade-level differences in observers
survey reports revealed no statistically significant effects. Therefore, class and grade
were not included in subsequent analyses.
From the overall descriptive statistics, observers saw classroom climates conducive to high student involvement and task focus and with highly supportive teachers.
Teachers were also observed to make clear rules and to be strict in enforcing these
rules. See Table 5 for all means and standard deviations.
Table 5. Overall means and standard deviations for classroom
climate based on observation data
Task Focus
Teacher Support
Rule Strictness
Overall
Mean
3.63
3.45
2.50
SD
.27
.32
.00
Boys School
Mean
SD
3.55
.27
3.60
.31
2.50
.00
Girls School
Mean SD
.24
3.70
3.30
.25
2.50
.00
Sig.
n.s
.05
n.s
782
Rule Clarity
Innovation
Student Involvement
Affiliation
Order and Organization
2.50
2.22
2.01
1.85
1.55
.00
.52
.29
.73
.53
2.50
1.83
1.90
1.50
1.25
.00
.18
.16
.40
.42
2.50
2.60
2.21
2.20
1.85
.00
.31
.35
.82
.47
n.s
.01
n.s
.05
.01
Note. Mean range: Low=1.0, High=4.0; boys school: N=5, girls school: N=7. Values are based on 6
observations per teachers (total = 72 observations)
Tests of means were conducted to examine whether observers reported significant differences in the classroom climate between the schools and the teachers
gender.
The first t-test revealed significant school differences in the classroom
climate on Innovation, t(10) = 5.10, p =.01, d = 2.125 with the boys school teachers
classrooms being perceived as more innovative; Order and Organization, t(10) = 3.10,
p =.01, d = 2.200 with the girls school teachers classrooms being reported as more
organized; Teacher Support, t(10) =2.32, p = .03, d = 1.988 with the boys school
teachers being perceived by observers as more supportive of their students; Affiliation, t(10) = 2.41, p = .02, d = 1.809 with the girls school classrooms being perceived
as more friendly compared to the boys schools classrooms. No significant gender
differences were found.
3.2.2 What are observers perceptions of goal orientation in biology classrooms?
Descriptive statistics conducted on the patterns of adaptive learning classroom
observations showed class activities to be carefully planned. Observers noted that
teachers stayed on task and covered the amount of material intended to be covered
during class time, and they (teachers) also checked to see if students understood the
material being covered. Rarely did observers see students being recognized for their
work or emphasis being placed on trying hard and making learning fun. Observers
reported few incidences where students worked in collaborative groups. All observers
marked N/O-Not Observed against the items examining the teachers authority. The
items were (a) The teacher is consistent in dealing with students who break
rules, and (b) The teacher explains what the rules are and enforces them if necessary. Table 6 reports all means and standard deviations.
783
Table 6. Overall means and standard deviations for goal orientation

based on observations
Subscales
Task
Time
Evaluation
Social
Grouping
Help-seeking
Messages
Recognition
Authority
Overall
Overall
Mean SD
3.21
.33
2.50
.14
2.16
.43
1.71
.26
1.67
.23
1.60
.56
1.38
.31
1.25
.39
1.00
.00
Boys
BoysSchool
School
Mean SD
2.78
.35
2.50
.00
2.11
.27
1.50
.22
1.00
.34
1.61
.57
1.61
.22
1.22
.45
1.00
.00
Girls
GirlsSchool
School
Mean
SD
3.60
.24
2.50
.19
2.20
.50
1.85
.27
1.05
.25
1.60
.58
1.65
.38
1.20
.39
1.00
.00
Sig.
Sig.
.01
n.s
n.s
.05
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
n.s
Note. Mean range: Low=1.0, High=4.0; boys school: N=5, girls school: N=7. Values are based on 6
observations per teachers (total = 72 observations)
To examine whether the means were significantly different, tests of means

were conducted with the goal orientation measures as dependent variables and
school and the teachers gender as independent variables. The first test of analysis
examined the four goal orientation measures with school as the independent variable.
Significant effects were found for Task Focus, t(10) = 4.29, p = .01, d = 2.210 with the
teachers in the girls schools classrooms being perceived by observers as more task
oriented. The classrooms of the teachers in the boys school were perceived as
significantly
2.005compared
compared to the
the girls
girls
significantly social,
social, t(10)
t(10) == 2.54,
2.54, pp == .02,
.02, d d= =2.005
classrooms. The test of means by gender did not reveal any significant effects
for the goal orientation as reported by observers.
4. DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to examine teachers perceptions of their classroom
climate and goal orientation in high school biology classes. Teachers from the two
schools did not differ significantly in their perception of their classroom climate. All the
teachers saw their classes as being high in task focus, student involvement, affiliation,
and order and organization. This perceived similarity could be due to the fact that the
two schools are boarding, all the teachers are trained at either one of the two
main teacher training universities, the curriculum is centralized across schools in
the country, and all students wear uniforms [55]. For example, during the second term
of the school year (the period of observations), all the tenth grade teachers in both
schools were teaching about pollination and human reproduction, while all the
eleventh grade teachers were teaching about gaseous exchange and immunity
and the immune response in humans.
784
However, when the classroom climate was assessed by the teachers gender,
a significant difference emerged. The male teachers from both schools saw themselves as being more supportive of their students compared to the female teachers.
This finding was surprising. Since the two schools are boarding, students are away
from their parents for nine months per year and teachers act as surrogate parents
we expected no significant difference in the teachers perceptions of their support for
their students. More research is needed to further explain and understand this finding.
Male teachers also perceived their classroom climate to be high in innovation.
Results on goal orientation revealed all teachers perceive their schools and
classrooms practices as more performance focused. However, male teachers reported significantly high school and classroom performance-focused practices. The
fact that male teachers perceived their classrooms to be high in teacher support
and innovation and also reported high performance-focused practices is contrary to
the findings from [36] and [38] studies which found that classroom climates that were
high in task involvement and innovation led only to mastery-focused practices and
goals. It is likely that teachers perceptions of environmental goal structures are partially influenced by their existing goal orientations. As Pintrich [33] study in the United
States found, if teachers believe that there is an emphasis on competition and demonstrating ability, these beliefs should affect their own motivation and classroom practices.
The other possible reason for these teachers inclination to performance-focused practices could be the nature of the education system in the country. The Kenyan education system is examination oriented. The centralized national examinations
for twelfth graders are quite intense. Eleventh-grade students start preparing for the
national examination in January, the beginning of the year. Eleventh-grade teachers
spent a considerable amount of time reviewing past examination questions with their
students. Bear in mind that all but two of the teachers participating in this study taught
at least one eleventh grade class. Teachers whose students perform well are publicly
recognized by the school and sometimes given awards. In addition, the government,
through the Ministry of Education, publicly announces and publishes the top ten
schools. Plus, this national examination is the single determinant to college or university [55]. It is therefore safe to say that the academic practices that these teachers
report are emphasized within the societal context and also relate to their own perceptions of the academic goal orientation emphasized in the school context. As Ames
[30] and Midgley et al. [29] reported, practices such as public honor rolls or special
785
privileges based upon academic standing send important messages to teachers

and students regarding what constitutes success in a given school. Likewise, the
results from this study support classroom climates being a reflection of cultural contexts.
In the past, research has found that those in positions of power, in this case
teachers, perceive environments they are in more positively than those not in positions of power [56,57,3]. Contrary to these findings, teachers and observers in the present study viewed the classroom climate similarly. Like the teachers, observers reported more student involvement, high teacher support, positive student-student interactions, clear classroom rules, and hardly any disruptive incidences. The observed
classroom environment enabled teachers more time to devote to student learning.
However, when the two schools were compared statistically on classroom climate,
significant differences emerged on innovation, order and organization, teacher support, and affiliation. Observers noted that in the girls school, the teachers were more
innovative and organized, and students were friendly towards each other. On the other
hand, teachers in the boys school were observed to be more supportive of their students. This finding was quite unexpected. Further research investigating teachers
perceptions of their support for their students in same-sex schools is warranted. In
addition, future research conducted with students and teachers to assess their perception of classroom climate would be helpful.
On the patterns of adaptive learning, observers just like the teachers, reported
high task focus; teachers stayed on task and made sure that the amount of material to
be covered was covered during the allotted class time. Teachers consistently checked
to make sure their students understood the material being completed. However, significant differences regarding task focus were found between the two schools. In the
girls school, observers reported significantly more task focus in the classrooms compared to the boys classrooms. In addition, observers noted high positive studentstudent interactions in the girls school. It appears that students engage in more positive interactions in the girls classrooms.
In both schools, observers noted that teachers rarely recognized students for
their work or class participation. In the same vein, hardly any emphasis was placed
on making learning fun. The only work displayed in the classrooms were science related posters, a class time table, and a schedule of after-class activities. In addition,
there were few incidences of collaborative group work during class. This is interesting
since science classrooms in the US and Europe have been shown to regularly have
786
small group-based experiments [1, 8]. It appears as though the teachers in this
study emphasize mastery of content more than critical thinking skills and inquiry
learning that is usually embedded in active student-student interactions or small
groups activities.
The teachers authority was apparent. Students sat in rows facing the teacher,
did not get out of their seats nor talk without the teachers permission. All classrooms
appeared to be well-managed with clear rules and the greatest emphasis placed on
covering the material intended to be covered during class time. The overriding element
was task focus regardless of the grade, gender, class, or school. It was no wonder
that observers consistently checked N/O-Not Observed on items inquiring about the
teachers authority.
This study had some limitations. The sample of teachers included in this study
was limited to 12 teachers and thus restricted higher level statistical analyses. This
calls for caution in interpreting the findings. In addition, these teachers were in samesex boarding schools, therefore, the results may not generalize to all high school biology teachers. Furthermore, this study did not collect data on the students in these
teachers classrooms to examine their perceptions of classroom climate and goal
orientation. In addition, the reliabilities, particularly those of the classroom climate
scale, were generally low. This could be attributed to the cultural differences where
some of the items might have been interpreted differently.
5. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the study findings from teachers and observers reveal positive
classroom environments that are high on task focus and high performance-focused
practices at both the classroom and school level. Previous research in the United
States examining classroom climates and goal orientations has reported a positive
correlation between positive classroom climates and mastery goals [30,31,38,17].
Kaplan and Maehr [32] for example, found mastery-focused practices to be associated with positive outcomes, whereas performance-focused practices were associated with negative outcomes. Importantly, these studies do not explicitly include aspects of culture or perhaps the interpretation of goal orientations by different cultures.
Given that the definition of a mastery goal centers on learning, understanding, and
improvement, it is likely that culturally valued activities that reflect this goal are
necessary, if not sufficient, for the creation of a meaningful goal orientation. The
two schools in the present study are among the top national schools in the country
787
[55]. If the primary objective of students, teachers, and administrators is to perform

better on the national examination, it is unlikely that they would focus on activities that
do not meet this end. In this study, performance-approach goals could be defined as
learning due to the nature of Kenyas national testing protocol. This finding supports
current research in goal orientation that indicates performance goals to be associated with high achievement and self-efficacy [20, 26, 25].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank all the teachers who participated in this study. Thank
you also for allowing us to come into your classrooms to observe.
COMPETING INTERESTS
We, the authors have no competing interests that could potentially bias our
work.
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