CHAPTER 2: DIFFERENTIATION

Since we can model many physical problems using curves, it is important to obtain an
understanding of the slopes of curves at various points and what a slope means in real
applications.
In this section, we show you one of the historical approaches for finding slopes of
tangents, before differentiation was developed. This is to give you an idea of how it
works. After you really understand this concept of differentiation, we can learn how to
find slopes (gradients) of tangents directly using derivatives in next section.

Figure: 2.1

The slope of a curve at the point P means the slope of the tangent line at the point P.
We need to find this slope to solve many applications since it tells us the rate of
change at a particular instant.
2.1 INTRODUCTION: THE SLOPE OF A LINE

Figure: 2.2

Three lines with different slope.

The slope of a line, also called the gradient of the line, is a measure of its
inclination. A line that is horizontal has slope 0, a line from the bottom left to
the top right has a positive slope, a line from the top left to the bottom right has
a negative slope.
Gradient can be defined in two (equivalent) ways:
1. to express it as how much the the line climbs for a given "step"
horizontally. We denote a step in a quantity using a delta () symbol.
Thus, a step in x is written as x. We can therefore write this definition
of gradient as: y/ x
2. we can define gradient as the "tangent function" of the line:
Gradient = tan ()
where is the angle between the line to the horizontal (measured clockwise).
Those who know how the tangent function is generated (opposite side over
adjacent side) will be able to spot the equivalence here.
In this work, we write change in y as y and change in x as x

Likewise, the step in y from P to Q is given by:

This leads to the very important result below.

The definition of slope m, between two points (x 1 ,y 1 ) and (x 2 ,y 2 ) on a line is

given by:

We use this to find a numerical solution to the slope of a curve.

Example: Find the slope of the curve f(x) = x2 at the point (2,4), using a numerical
method.
Solution: We start with a point Q(1, 1) which is near P(2, 4):

The slope of PQ is given by

Figure:2.3 (a)

Now we move Q further around the curve so it is closer to P. Let's use Q(1.5, 2.25)
which is closer to P(2, 4):
The slope of PQ is now given by:

Figure:2.3 (b)

We see that this is already a pretty good approximation to the tangent at P, but not
good enough.
Now we move Q even closer to P, say Q(1.9, 3.61).

Now we have:
o
Figure:2.3 (c)

We can see that we are very close to the required slope. Now if Q is move to (1.99,
3.9601), then slope PQ is 3.99. If Q is (1.999, 3.996001), then the slope is 3.999.

Clearly, as x 2, the slope of PQ 4. But notice that we cannot actually let x= 2,

since the fraction for m would have 0 on the bottom, and so it would be undefined. We
have found that the rate of change of y with respect to x is 4 units at the point x = 2.
We will now extend this numerical approach so that we can find the slope of any
continuous curve if we know the function. We will see an algebraic approach that can
be used for most functions.
2.2 THE SLOPE ON A FUNCTION
Most functions we are interested in are not straight lines. We cannot define a gradient
of a curved function in the same way as we can for a line. In order for us to understand
how to find the gradient of a function at a point, we will first have to cover the idea of
tangency. A tangent is a line which just touches a curve at a point, such that the angle
between them at that point is zero.
Consider the following four curves and lines:
Figure:2.4 (a)

Figure:2.4 (c)

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

(b)
(i)Figure:2.4
(ii)

Figure:2.4 (d)

The line L crosses, but is not tangent to C at P.

The line L crosses, and is tangent to C at P.
The line L crosses C at more than one point, but is tangent to C at P.
There are many lines that cross C at P, but none are tangent. In fact,
this curve has an undefined tangent at 'P.

A secant is a line drawn though two points on curve. We can construct a definition of
the tangent as the limit of a secant of the curve drawn as the separation between the
points tends to zero. Consider the diagram below.

As the distance h tends to zero, the secant

line becomes the tangent at the point x 0 .
The two points we draw our line through
are:

P( xo , f ( xo )) and
Q( xo + h, f ( xo + h))
As a secant line is simply a line and we
know two points on it, we can find its
slope, m:

Figure:2.5

This expression is called the difference quotient. Note that h can be positive or
negative.
Now, to find the slope of the tangent line at xo , we let h zero. We must find the
limit of the above expression as h tends to zero:
Let

2.3 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION AT A SPECIFIC POINT.

The differentiation or derivative is the formula m tan (slope of tangent line) on a curve
at a specific point. So
Or

or dy

dx

( x0 , f ( x0 ))

= lim
h0

f ( xo + h) f ( xo )
h

This is the definition of the derivative of a function at x = xo . If the limit exists we

say that f is differentiable at x = xo and its derivative at x = xo is dy

dx
x= xo

The definition of the derivative of a function at any x if the limit exist, is :

d y
f ( x + h) f ( x )
is called
= lim
dx h0
h
first principles of differentiation.

Some common notation for derivative

are:

Figure:2.6

Eample : Find

dy

from first principles if y = 2x2+ 3x.

dx

Solution: Let f(x) = 2x2+ 3x so

We now need to find dy :

dx

We have found an expression that can give us the slope of the tangent anywhere on
the curve.
If x = -2, the slope is 4(-2) + 3 = -5
If x = 1, the slope is 4(1) + 3 = 7
If x = 4, the slope is 4(4) + 3 = 19

We can see that our answers are correct when we graph the curve (which is a
parabola) and observe the slopes of the tangents.

Figure:2.7

This is what makes calculus so powerful. We can find the slope anywhere on the
curve (i.e. the rate of change of the function anywhere).
Example :
a. Find y' from first principles if y = x2 + 4x.
b. Find the slope of the tangent where x = 1 and also where x = -6.
c. Sketch the curve and both tangents.
Solution:
a. Note: y' means "the first derivative". This can also be written dy/dx.
Now f(x) = x2 + 4x

So

b. When x = 1, m =
When x = -6, m =

Figure:2.8

c. Sketch:
2.3.1 Definition A function f is differentiable at a if f (a) exists. It is
differentiable on an open interval (a,b) [or (a, ) or ( ,a) or ( , )] if it
f is differentiable at every number in the interval
Example:

Where is the function

f ( x) = x differentiable?

Figure:2.9

2.3.2 Theorem: Differentiable Implies Continuous

If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
(The converse of this theorem is false)
In the next section, we will see some (much simpler) rules for differentiation. We
won't use "differentiation from first principles" very often, but it is good to have an
understanding of where differentiation comes from and what it can do for us.

2.4 HOW CAN A FUNCTION FAIL TO BE DIFFERENTIABLE

We saw example 3.31 f ( x) = x is not differentiable at x= 0 , this is because
the graph changes direction abruptly (sharply) when x=0 . In general, f is not
differentiable at x= a, if:
(i) the graph of a function f has a sharp corner (cusp).
(ii)
(iii)

f not continuous at a.
the graph of a function f has a vertical tangent line at x=a.

Figure:2.10

Example: Consider y = g ( x) . Find x, where y = g ( x) not differentiable.

Figure:2.11

Example: Find x at which f is not differentiable.

2
(i)
(ii) f ( x ) =
f ( x)= x 2
2
x x

(iii)

f ( x) = x3

2. 5 RATES OF CHANGE
Suppose y is a quantity that depends on another quantity x. Thus y is a function of x
and we write y= f (x). If x change from x 1 to x 2 , then the change in x is
So, the difference quotient
is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x. y = f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
x
x2 x1
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
y
lim
= lim
x2 x1
x 0 x x 0
is called rate of change or instantaneous rate of change.
We can find the rate of change of one variable compared to another in this examples:
Temperature change at a particular time
Velocity of a falling object at a particular time
Current through a circuit at a particular time
Variation in stock market prices at a particular time
Population growth at a particular time
Temperature increase as density increases in a gas
Later, we will see how to find these rates of change by differentiating a function and
substituting a value.
Example:
1. The area of a circle is related to its diameter d by equation

A=

2
d
4

How fast does the area change with respect to the diameter when the diameter is 10m.
2. Population growth rate

Solution:
1. The rates of change of the area with respect to the diameter is

2.5.1 Motion along a Line

Suppose that an object is moving along a coordinate line, usually horizontal or vertical,
so that we know its position s on that line as a function of time t, s = f (t ) .

Figure:2.12

s f (t + t ) f (t )
Displacement =
Velocity =
Acceleration =
Speed =

Example: The free fall of a heavy ball bearing released from rest at time t=0 sec
with equation s = 4.9t .
2

(a) How many meters does the ball fall in the first 3 sec.
(b) What is its velocity, speed and acceleration when t = 3?

2.6 SOME RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION

1) Constant Rule: If f ( x) = c , then
d n
x = nx n1 , n positive
2) Power Rule:
dx
3) Constant multiple: If y = cf ( x) , then
d
( f ( x) g ( x) ) = f ( x) g ( x)
4) Sum and Difference:
dx
Example:

( )

2.6.1 Derivatives of product and quotient of two Functions

If u ( x) and v( x) are differentiable at every x, then
1)

d
dv
du
=
+ v
( uv ) u
dx
dx
dx

2)

d
( uv ) =
dx

du
dv
+ u
dx
dx
2
v

2.6.2 The Chain Rule

Useful for derivative of composite functions.
If f (u ) is differentiable at the point u = g ( x) and g ( x) is differentiable at
x , then the composite function ( f g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) is differentiable at x,and

( f g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) g ( x)
In Leibnizs notation, if y = f (u ) and u = g ( x) , then

dy dy du
,
=
dx du dx
Where dy/du is evaluated at u = g ( x) .
Example:

2.6.3 Higher Order of Differentiation

Assumed f can be differentiated as often as necessary, the second derivative of f
is

f =
( x) f (2)=
( x)

For integer

d2 f
d
=
[ f ( x)]
2
dx
dx

n 1 , nth derivative is

dn f
d ( n1)
f =
f
( x) =
( x)
n

dx
dx
(n)

3
Example: Find the third derivative of f ( x) = 4 x 5 x + 9

2.7 LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION

The calculation of derivatives of complicated functions involving products,
quotients or powers can be simplified by taking logarithms.
Steps:
1.
Take logarithms of both sides of equation and use properties of logarithm
to simplify.
2.
Differentiate with respect to x.
3.

Solve for dy
dx

Example: Find
2.8 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
These following equations define an implicit relation between the variables x
and y.

x3 + y 3=
9 xy 0 and y 2 + xy 3 =
sin x 0
We cannot write an equation F ( x, y ) = 0 in the form y = f ( x)

2. 9 DERIVATIVES OF FUNCTIONS
2.9.1 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Table :2.1

y
sin x
cos x
tan x
cosec x
sec x
cot x
Example:

dy
dx

cos x
sin x
sec2x
cosec x cot x
sec x tan x
cosec2x

2.9.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions:

Table :2.2

y
ex
f x
e ( )

ax
f x
a ( )

Example:

dy
dx

ex

f x
e ( )f ( x )
a x ln a , a - constant
f x
a ( )f ( x ) ln a

2.9.3 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions:

Table :2.3

dy
dx

ln x
ln f ( x )

loga x
loga f ( x )

Example:

x
f (x )
f (x )
1
x ln a
1
1

f (x )
ln a f ( x )

2.9.4

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Table :2.4

dy
dx

sin x
1

cos 1 x
tan1 x
sec 1 x
cot 1 x

cos ec 1 x

Example:

1x2
1

, -1 < x <1

1x2
1
1+ x2
1

, -1 < x <1

x x 2 1
1

1+ x2

x x 2 1

2.10 RELATED RATE

The problems of finding a rate of change from other known rate of change is called a
related rate problem.
EXAMPLE
1. A tank of water in the shape of a cone is leaking water at a constant rate of
. The base radius of the tank is 5 ft and the height of the tank is 14 ft.
(a) At what rate is the depth of the water in the tank changing when the depth of the
water is 6 ft?
(b) At what rate is the radius of the top of the water in the tank changing when the
depth of the water is 6 ft?
Solution

Figure:2.13

As we can see, the water in the tank actually forms a smaller cone with the same
central angle as the tank itself. The radius of the water cone at any time is given
by r and the height of the water cone at any time is given by h. The volume of
water in the tank at any time t is given by,
and weve been given that

dV
= 2
dt

(a) At what rate is the depth of the water in the tank changing when the depth of the
water is 6 ft?
dh
when h=6 .
For this part we need to determine
dt
r 5
5
= . Thus r = h
From the figure,
h 14
14
2

1 5
25
V =
=
h h
h3
Then
3 14
588

The only formula that weve got that will relate the volume to the height also includes
the radius and so if we were to differentiate this with respect to t we would get,

dV dV dh
=
dt
dh dt
So, in this equation we know

= -2and h = 6, and want to find h .

3(25) 2 dh
2 =
h
588
dt

When h = 6,

dh
75
=
(6)2 0.1386
dt
2(588)

The height is decreasing at a rate of 0.1386 ft/hr.

(b) At what rate is the radius of the top of the water in the tank changing when the
depth of the water is 6 ft?
In this case we are asking for

dr
dt

Recall from the first part that we have,

2.11 INDETERMINATE FORMS AND LHOSPITAL RULE

Example:

x2 + x 2
Find the limit by using LHospital rule if lim
x 1
x2 x

2.11.1 Indeterminate Forms /, 0,

Example:
(i) Find the limit of this / form.

(ii) Find the limit of this . 0 form.

Strategy: If f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable functions then rewrite the
product fg as a quotient;

f ( x=
).g ( x)

f ( x)
g ( x)
=
and apply
1/ g ( x) 1/ f ( x)

LHospital rule.
(a)
(b)

(ii) Find the limit of this form.

Strategy: If f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable functions then convert the
difference f-g into a quotient ( using a common denominator, rationalization or
common factor) and apply LHospital rule.

2.11.2 Indeterminate Forms 1 , 00 , 0

Sometime handling by taking logarithm of the functions.
g ( x)
Strategy: If f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable functions in the form f ( x)
then

(a) Take natural log. Let y = f ( x)

g ( x)

ln y = g ( x) ln f ( x)
(b) Followed by strategy 1 or 2.
Example: Find the limit