Cell Biology

1. 1 Introduction to Cells
Cell Theory
>> According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells.
The cell theory states that cells are basic unit structure and function of
every living thing. The three main ideas include:
1. Cells are the building blocks of structure in living things
2. They are the smallest unit of life
3. Cells are formed from one another, pre-existing cells by division
4. Cells also store all information they require for growth, development
and behavior
5. Cells are the location for all the chemical reactions needed for life,
metabolism.
Common Cell Features
Surrounding cell membrane, that separates the contents of the cell
from its external environment.
Genetic material which stores instructions for the cells activities.
Activities are chemical reactions, catalysed by enzymes made in the
cells
Cells activities are powered by their own energy release system.

Exceptions to the Cell Theory

>> Looking for trends and discrepancies: although most organisms
conform to the cell theory, there are exceptions
There are some tissues and organisms that are not made of typical cells:
Skeletal Muscle It is made up of muscle fibres.
Like cells these fibres are enclosed inside a membrane,
They are much larger than most cells (300 or more mm long)
Contain hundreds of nuclei.

Giant Algae Such as Acetabularia

Can grow to a length of as much
as 100mm
We can expect them to consist of
many small cells
They only contain a single nucleus
so are not multicellular.
Aseptate Fungi
Consists of thread- like
structures called hyphae.
These hyphae are not divided
into sub-units containing single
nucleus.
They are long undivided
sections of hypha, which
contain many nuclei.

Unicellular Organisms
>> Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in
that cell.
Structure of unicellular organisms is more complex than most cells, in
multicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms carry out seven functions of
life
Nutrition - Obtaining food for energy and material, needed for
growth
Metabolism - Chemical reactions inside the cell to release energy
Growth - Irreversible increase in size
Response - Ability to react to changes in the environment
Excretion - To remove waste products of metabolism
Homeostasis - Keeping organisms internal environment constant
Reproduction - Producing offspring either sexually or asexually
Many unicellular organisms have a method of movement, but some
remain in a fixed position or merely drift in water or air currents.

Size of Cells

1nm a
10nm
100nm
1000nm
10000nm
(100m)

1cm

10^-2m

1mm

10^-3m

1m

10^-6m

1nm

10^-9m

centimete
r
milimeter
micromet
er
nanomete
r

molecule
cell membrane
virus
Bacterium (1m)
Organelles (10m)
100000nm Cells

Actual Size = Size of image / Magnification

>> Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size.
As the size of a structure increases, the surface area to volume ratio
decreases. For example, using a cube:
Length Surface Area Volume SA:V

As organisms get bigger, their volume and surface area both get
bigger, but not by the same amount.
As a result, larger organisms have a slower rate of exchange
(diffusion/radiation) with their outside surroundings.
This is true for organelles, cells, tissues, organs and organisms.
All organisms need to exchange substances such as food, waste,
gases and heat with their surroundings.
The rate of exchange of substances depends on the surface area of
the organism which is in contact with its surroundings.
For this reason, cells are very small so that they are able to
exchange substances efficiently

>> Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the

interaction of their cellular components.
Some unicellular organisms live together in colonies.
E.g. Volvox aureus, a variety of algae.

Organisms consisting of a single mass of cells, fused together, are

multicellular.
Individual cells in a group can organize themselves and interact with
each other to form a living organism with distinct overall properties.
The characteristics of the whole organism, including the fact that it
is alive, known as emergent properties.
When the component parts of a complex structure interact,
emergent properties arise. The whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.

>> Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular

organisms.
The human body has many specialized cells. Each cell has a unique
and specific role.
e.g the function of the red blood cell is to carry oxygen and the
function of the rod cell in the retina is to absorb light and transmit
impulses to the brain.
Multicellular organisms form tissues. Theyre a group of cells
combine which together to specialize and perform the same
function.
- This allows them to be more efficient
- Theyre able to develop the ideal structure, with the enzymes
needed to carry out the chemical reactions
This ability of cells to develop different ways of carrying out
specific/specialized functions is called differentiation.

>> Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others
in a cells genome.
Multicellular organisms are large and need to have specialized parts to
their structure so that all the necessary functions of life can be performed.
Differentiation - The cells can become specialized to perform their
function. These cellsswitch on, or express, particular genes that correlate
with these specific functions. The expression of these genes will influence
the shapes, functions and adaptations with that cell.
For example, a muscle cell will only express muscle genes, but not nerve
cell genes.
Specialization in multicellular organisms is more efficient for organisms
competing for a specific resource. Movement of nutrients, water, etc, can
happen faster and more effectively than passing between cells through
diffusion.
>> The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different
pathways is necessary in embryonic development. It also makes stem
cells suitable for therapeutic uses.
At early stages in embryonic development, the cells are capable of
dividing many times to produce large amounts of tissue.
They are also extremely versatile and can differentiate along
different pathways into any of the cell types found in a new animal.
The name stem cells was given to the zygote and the cells of the
early embryo in the 19th century, because all adult tissue stems
from them.
Stem cells have two key properties:
- Stem cells can divide again and again to produce high quantities
of new cells. They are useful for tissue growth or replacement of lost
or damaged cells.
Stem cells are not fully differentiated, so they can differentiate in different
ways to produce different cell types.

1. 2 Ultrastructure of Cells
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
>> Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization
Prokaryotes were the first organisms to evolve on this earth and
have the simplest cell structure
Functions of Prokaryotic Cells( Bacteria Cells)

- Plasma Membrane: regulates

movements of materials into and
out of the cell
- Cell Wall: strengthens and
maintains the structure of the cell
- Pili: assists in attaching to other
surfaces, which is important for
genetic DNA transfer
- Ribosomes(70S): protein
builders of the cell, where protein
synthesis occurs
- Cytoplasm: Contains DNA,
ribosomes, and organic
compounds needed to carry out
life processes.
- Nucleoid: Storage of genetic
information, the site of DNA
replication.
- Flagella: helps the cell move
around, allowing mobility
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
>> Eukaryotes have compartmentalized cell structure
Functions of Eukaryotic Cells
- Nucleus: Contains the
chromosomes consisting
of DNA. Uncoiled
chromosomes
(chromatin) are spread
throughout. This is
where DNA is replicated
and copied out to form
mRNA.
- rER (Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum): Contains
ribosomes. Synthesizes
proteins for the
secretion from the cell
- Golgi apparatus:
Processes proteins
brought in vesicles from
the rER for transport within the cell
- Lysosomes: Contains digestive enzymes, which can be
used to break down ingested food or break down organelles.

Its important for cell defence, digestion of harmful

organisms/chemicals
Mitochondria: Produces energy in the form of ATP for cell by
aerobic respiration. Also digests fat if being used by the cell
for energy.
Ribosomes(80S): Synthesize proteins, releasing it into the
cytoplasm, in the form of enzymes. Constructed in the
nucleolus.
Chloroplasts: Contain the pigment, chlorophyll used in
photosynthesis. Produces glucose and other organic
compounds by photosynthesis.
Vesicles: A single membrane that contains fluid inside.
Vesicles are small vacuoles that transport materials inside the
cell.
Centrioles: Contains microtubules, which move
chromosomes during cell division. Centriole forms an anchor
point for microtubules during cell division.
Cilia/Fagella: Both used for locomotion.

Cell division in prokaryotes

>> Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
Prokaryotes, if given right condition, can multiply rapidly by binary
fission. The cell will divide into two cells. The bacterial cells are
replicated, which grow to full size and divide again. This is asexual
reproduction. In this process the cell is replicated to form two identical
daughter cells.

The
The
The
The

DNA is first replicated, attaching itself to the plasma membrane

cell elongates to separate chromosomes
membrane folds in, pulling itself together in the middle
cell then splits into two daughter cells

The resolution of electron microscopes

>> Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light
microscopes.

Making separate parts of an object

distinguishable by eye is called
resolution.
The maximum resolution of a light
microscope is about 0.2m, which is
200 nanometers. The resolution
cannot be higher as it is limited by
the wavelength of light (400-700
nm).
If the resolution is made any higher,
the image is blurry. Therefore, the
maximum magnification with a light
microscope is 400x.
Beams of electrons have a shorter
wavelength, therefore that electron
microscopes have a higher
resolution.
The resolution of modern electron
microscopes is 0.001m or 1nm.
Electron microscopes therefore have
a 200x better resolution than light microscopes.
While light microscopes reveal the structure of cells, electron
microscopes reveal the ultrastructure.

1.3 Membrane Structure

Fluid Mosaic Membrane Structure
>> Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic
properties of phospholipid molecules

Phospholipids are in the structure of every cellular membrane

o Phospholipid molecules are amphipathic. There are two
parts to the molecule: one, which is attracted to water
(hydrophilic) and the other part that isnt attracted to water
(hydrophobic).
o The phosphate head is hydrophilic. The two fatty acid tails,
composed of hydrocarbon chains are hydrophobic.
o When phospholipids mix with water, they naturally arrange
into a bilayer position with the hydrophilic heads are facing
the water and the hydrophobic tails are facing inwards away
from the water.

The attraction of the hydrophobic tail in the center keeps the

membrane stable.
The phospholipid bilayer consists of integral proteins, peripheral
proteins, glycoproteins and cholesterol.
o Integral Proteins: Span from one side of the phospholipid
bilayer to the other. They are involved in transporting
substances across the membrane
o Peripheral Proteins: Placed on the surface of the
membrane. Often slide and collide with each other, though
never flip or change sides. They are involved in maintaining
the cell shape or motility. They can be enzymes, which
catalyze reactions in the cytoplasm.
o Glycoproteins: Involved in cell recognition, which is part of
the immune system. Can also act as receptors in cell
signaling.
o Cholesterol: Binds together lipid in the plasma membrane
reducing its fluidity
o

>> Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the

membrane and function

Channel Protein: They span the membrane, allowing movement

of large molecules across. Within these are passive and active
membrane pumps. They only allow specific ions through
Receptor Protein: These detect hormones arriving at cells to
signal changes in function. They are also involved in other cell
substance recognition as in the immune system.
Enzymes: Integral proteins in the membrane may be enzymes (i.e
ATP maltase)
Electron Carriers: These are a chain of peripheral and integral
proteins that allow electrons to pass across the membrane. Active
pumps use ATP to move specific substances across the membrane.

>> Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes

Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes. Most of cholesterol
molecule is hydrophobic; one end is hydrophilic; so cholesterol fits
between phospholipids in the membrane.

Cholesterol restricts movement of phospholipid molecules

Reduces fluidity of the membrane
Reduces permeability of the membrane to hydrophilic particles such
as H2 ions.

This is important as animal cells need to maintain concentration

differences of these ions across membranes; hence diffusion through the
membrane must be restricted.

1.4 Membrane Transport

>> Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration, as a result of the random
motion of particles.
Diffusion occurs because more particles move from the area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Diffusion through a cell membrane will occur if the membrane is fully
permeable to the solute. In the case of the phospholipid bilayer, it is
permeable to non-polar substances, such glycerol, as well as oxygen and
carbon dioxide. They will diffuse quickly via this route.
Simple Diffusion: The molecules are small; hence they can simply pass
through the phospholipid molecules of the membrane, as it offers little
resistance. Examples include O and CO, as well as lipid molecules
Facilitated diffusion: For larger molecules, there are channel proteins to
take the through the membrane. These have complex shapes, which
provide a channel through the protein, or the pore. It acts as a shield
against the non-charged regions of the membrane for the molecule.
These channels only allow a specific type of substance through, but
there is no control over the direction of movement.

E.g chloride channels allow only chlorine ions to pass through

Passive movement means that no energy (ATP) is used for the movement
of molecules from one side of the membrane to the other. Simple and
facilitated diffusion are passive movements that require no energy.

Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules from a region of

low water concentration to a region of high water concentration, across a
partially permeable membrane.
Attraction between solute particles and water molecules are the reason for
water moving to regions with a
higher solute concentration

Active Transport is the movement of substances across membranes

using energy from ATP. Active transport can move substances against
concentration gradient from a region of lower to a region of higher
concentration
Protein pumps in the membrane are used for active transport. Each pump
only transports particular substances, so cells can control what is
absorbed and what is expelled. Pumps work in a specific direction the

substance can only enter the pump on one side and can only exit on the
other.
o They are called active because they need energy to function
o This energy causes the shape of the protein, allowing it to move the

molecule across the membrane

Sodium Potassium pump creates an electro-chemical gradient across the
membrane of all cells. The inside of the cell has a negative charge
compared to outside. In nerve cells, the pump is modified to create
electrochemical phenomena.
>> The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by
endocytosis or released by exocytosis. Vesicles move materials within
cells.

The fluidity of membranes allows them to move and change shape. Small
pieces of the membrane can be pinched off the plasma membrane to
create a vesicle containing some material from outside the cell. This is
endocytosis.
Endocytosis: A vesicle is formed when the plasma membrane in
folds, then breaks off. Part of the membrane is pulled inwards and a
droplet of fluid is enclosed when its pinched off. They can then move the
contents through the cytoplasm. The continuity of the plasma membrane
is not disrupted.
Exocytosis: The vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma
membrane, and its contents are secreted. The vesicle fuses with plasma
membrane, and its contents are expelled.
Vesicles move materials within the cell, for example vesicles move
proteins from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus.

1.6 Cell Division

The Role of Mitosis
Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter
nuclei.

The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell can divide from two genetically

identical nuclei by a process called mitosis.
Mitosis allows the cell to divide itself into two daughter cells, each
with one of the nuclei and therefore genetically identical to the
other.
Before mitosis can occur all of the DNA nucleus must be replicated.
This happens during Interphase the period before mitosis.
Each chromosome is converted from a single DNA molecule into two
identical DNA molecules called Chromatids.
During mitosis one of these chromatids passes to each daughter
nucleus.

Mitosis is involved whenever cells with genetically identical nuclei are

required in eukaryotes: during embryonic development, growth, tissue
repair and asexual reproduction.
Although mitosis is a continuous process cytologists have divided the
events into four phases
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Interphase This is when the DNA is replicated. The cell will

replicates its centrosome, which is important for the movement of
chromosomes.
It consists of 3 phases:

G1 Phase: The cytoplasm is still

active, the cell continues with normal
functions such as protein synthesis,
mitochondria replication or
cholorplast replication. There is all
the activity of growing a cell.

S Phase: The synthesis phase, when

the DNA is replicated. The mass of
the DNA in the cell doubles. All the
chromosomes are copied and form
chromatids. These remain attached
until they divide in mitosis.

G2 Phase: The third stage, when

there is further growth of the cell,
preparing for cell division to take place.
The cell replicates all the genetic materials in its nucleus, so that
after mitosis both the new cells have a complete set of genes. Some
do not progress beyond G1 because they are never going to divide
so do not need to prepare for mitosis. They enter a phase called G0,
which may be temporary or permanent.

Prophase The chromosomes become shorter and flatter

by coiling. To become short enough they have to coil
repeatedly. This is called supercoiling. The nucleolus
breaks down. Microtubules grow from the structures
called Microtubule Organising Centres (MTOC) to form a
spindle shape array that links the poles of the cell. At
the end of prophase the nuclear membrane breaks
down.

Metaphase The centrioles move to opposite ends of

the cell. Microtubules in the cytoplasm start from a
spindle. Radiating out of the centrioles.
These attach to the centromeres and are arranged at
the equator of the spindle. In plant cells the same
structure is formed, but without the presence of
centrioles.

Anaphase The centromeres divide, the spindle fibers

shorten and the chromatids are pulled by the
centromere to the opposite poles. Once separated,
they are referred to as chromosomes.

Telophase The nuclear membrane reforms

around both groups of chromosomes at the
opposite ends of the cell. The begin to
decondense and become chromatin again.The nucleolus
reforms. Interphase then follows the division of cytoplasm.

Cytokinesis The division of the cytoplasm to form two cells. It occurs

after mitosis, and is different in plant and animal cells.

In plant cells a new cell is formed across the equator of the cell,
with plasma membrane on both sides. This divides the cell into two.

In animal cells the plasma membrane at the equator is pulled

inwards until it meets in the centre of the cell, dividing it in two.

Mitotic Index
Is the ratio between the number of cells in mitosis in a tissue and the total
number of observed cells. A high index indicates a fast growing tumour.
One cell of each of the four stages of mitosis is identified right.
mitotic index = number of cells in mitosis / total number of cells

Cell Cycle in Eukaryotes

The cell cycle is the sequence of events between one cell division and the
next. It has two phases: interphase and cell division.
Interphase: very active in the life of a cell when many metabolic
reactions occur, reactions like cell respiration also occur during cell
division, but DNA replication in the nucleus and protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm happen during interphase.

Mitochondria and cytoplasm increase as they grow and divide

In plant cells, the chloroplasts increase in the same way

Uncontrollable Cell Division

o
o

Tumors, or cancers, are cell mass formed as a result of uncontrolled

cell division. They can occur in any tissue.
In a tumor, the normal repressed state of mitosis is disrupted by
mutation to the proto- oncogene. As a result, the cells begin to

o
o
o

divide uncontrollably. The proto-oncogene mutates into the

oncogene, resulting in the loss of control of cell division.
The cells form an irregular mass of cells; the tumor. Some cells may
break away and form a secondary tumor elsewhere. Eventually they
take over the surrounding, healthy cells, which can lead to
malfunction and death.
It is caused by damage to DNA chromosomes. The accumulation of
mistakes in DNA causes cancer, which is why it is more common in
older people. Another cause is damage to the gene that codes for
p53, the protein that stops the copying of damaged DNA.
The damage to the DNA can result from ionizing radiation (X-rays,
gamma rays...), some chemicals (tar in tobacco smoke) as well as
virus infections. Some factors are also inherited.
The development of cancer requires at least two mutations; one of
the proto-oncogene; two of the tumor suppressor.
Cancer exerts its deleterious effect on the body by destroying the
adjacent tissues (such as compressing nerves, eroding blood
vessels), replacing normal functioning cells (such as replacing blood
forming cells in the bone marrow or the heart muscles so that the
heart fails).