Contribution to organizational behavior

of B.f skinner:
B. F. Skinner's (Burrhus Frederick Skinner) elaboration of the theory of
reinforcement and his advocacy of its application to learning helped to establish
the Behaviorism and Programmed Instruction movement. Programmed
instruction is characterized by clearly stated behavioral objectives, small frames
of instruction, self-pacing, active learner response to inserted questions, and
immediate feedback regarding the correctness of a response. Individualized
instruction in essence replaces the teacher with systematic or programmed
materials. Individualized instruction can be print-based, computer-based, or can
use other media as long as the instruction is based on the concepts listed
above. It is linear, in that the author of the materials decided what step to
present next, and that step is presented, no matter what the learner wants.
Although logical subject matter is easier to individualize into programmed
materials, researchers have not found any subject matter that could not be
programmed.
During his 60-year career, Skinner discovered important principles of operant
conditioning, a type of learning that involves rewards and punishments. Skinner
believed that operant conditioning could explain even the most complex of
human behaviors. His theory is referred to as radical behaviorism as he focuses
on the functional analysis of behavior -- the relationship between environmental
events and a particular response (Bootzin, Loftus, Zajonc, Hall, 1975). This
exclusive focus is known as Radical Behaviorism as it makes no allowance for
cognitive or symbolic process.
In 1958, Skinner built a rote-and-drill teaching machine. Individualized
instruction was originally presented in book form, and sometimes still is. In
order to prevent students from looking at the answers in the book ahead of
time, Program Instruction became automated by inserting it into a teaching
machine. Teaching machines are devices that house, display, and present
printed programmed instruction. Feedback is given when the program is
advanced through actuation of a lever and the correct answer comes to view.
Programmed instruction is linear, in that the author of the materials decided
what step to present next, and that step is presented, no matter what the
learner wants. Later, in 1958, Norman Crowder developed what is called
intrinsic or branching programming, in which the learner's possible
responses are multiple choice, and the program branches according to the
response chosen. In this way students could skip steps they already knew, or
study remedial material on information already presented.

Skinner's work has also had wide influences on other fields, such as
Organizational Development. O. B. Mod (Organizational Behavior Modification)
is based on the idea that behavior is based on its consequences in that
behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences (reinforcement) and
tends not to repeat behavior that is followed by unfavorable consequences.

Skinner designed an apparatus, called anoperant chamber (sometimes

referred to as a Skinner box), that allowed him to formulate important
principles of animal learning. An animal placed inside the box is rewarded
with a small bit of food each time it makes the desired response, such as
pressing a lever or pecking a key. A device outside the box records the
animal's responses.
References
Bootzin, R., Loftus, E., Zajonc, R., Hall, E., (1975). Psychology Today: An
Introduction. New York: Random House.
Newstrom, J. & Davis, K., (1993). Organizational Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden Two Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Compan

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/skinner.html

Contribution in Organizational Behavior of

Abraham Maslow:
The primary contribution of Abraham Maslow In Organizational Behavior was the
HierarchyOf Needs:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg

Contribution in organizational Behavior of

Sigmund Freud:
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Freud's Theory Describes the theory of unconscious behavior as shaped by Sigmund
Freud. Give out the characteristics of needs or motives which are directed to satisfy by
human behavior The concepts of motivation are the central part of organizational
behavior. Whenever a Certain behavior is be encouraged is be encouraged give
rewards. Whenever a certain behavior is to be discouraged, give punishment. But
human behavior is not always motivated either by rewards or by punishment or both.
Much of the human behavior is instinctively based. The instincts behavior may be
jealously, love, anxiety, fear, lust ext. Implicit in the industrial approach to human
behavior is the hint that human behavior is unconscious behaviorist was Sigmund Freud
(1856 1939, Sigmund Freud, physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist and father of
psychoanalysis, is generally recognized as one of the most influential and authoritative
thinkers of the twentieth century) However, who shaped the theory of unconscious
behavior. Freud's theory of the unconscious, then, is highly deterministic, a fact which,
given the nature of nineteenth century science, should not be surprising. Freud was
arguably the first thinker to apply deterministic principles systematically to the sphere of
the mental, and to hold that the broad spectrum of human behavior is explicable only in
terms of the (usually hidden) mental processes or states which determine it. Thus,
instead of treating the behavior of the neurotic as being causally inexplicable-which had
been the prevailing approach for centuries-Freud insisted, on the contrary, on treating it
as behavior for which is meaningful to seek an explanation by searching for causes in
terms of the mental states of the individual concerned. Hence the significance which he
attributed to slips of the tongue or pen, obsessive behavior, and dreams-all, he held, are
determined by hidden causes in the person's mind, and so they reveal in covert form
what would otherwise not be known at all. This suggests the view that freedom of the
will is, if not completely an illusion, certainly more tightly circumscribed than is
commonly believed, for it follows from this that whenever we make a choice we are
governed by hidden mental processes of which we are unaware and over which we
have no control. The postulate that there are such things as unconscious mental states
at all is a direct function of Freud's determinism, his reasoning here being simply that
the principle of causality requires that such mental states should exist, for it is evident
that there is frequently nothing in the conscious mind which can be said to cause
neurotic or other behavior. An unconscious mental process or event, for Freud, is not
one which merely happens to be out of consciousness at a given time, but is rather one
which cannot, except through protracted psychoanalysis, be brought to the forefront of
consciousness. The postulation of such unconscious mental states entails, of course,
that the mind is not, and cannot be, identified with consciousness or that which can be
an object of consciousness-to employ a much-used analogy, it is rather structurally akin
to an iceberg, the bulk of it lying below the surface, exerting a dynamic and determining

influence upon the part which is amenable to direct inspection, the conscious mind
Deeply associated with this view of the mind is Freud's account of the instincts or drives.
The instincts, for Freud, are the principal motivating forces in the mental realm, and as
such they energies the mind in all of its functions. There are, he held, an indefinitely
large number of such instincts, but these can be reduced to a small number of basic
ones, which he grouped into two broad generic categories, Eros (the life instinct), which
covers all the self-preserving and erotic instincts, and Thanatos (the death instinct),
which covers all the instincts towards aggression, self-destruction, and cruelty. Thus it is
a mistake to interpret Freud as asserting that all human actions spring from motivations
which are sexual in their origin, since those which derive from Thanatos are not sexually
motivated-indeed, Thanatos is the irrational urge to destroy the source of all sexual
energy in the annihilation of the self. Having said that, it is undeniably true that Freud
gave sexual drives an importance and centrality in human life, human actions, and
human behavior which was new (and to many, shocking), arguing as he does both that
the sexual drives exist and can be discerned in children from birth (the theory of infantile
sexuality), and that sexual energy (libido) is the single most important motivating force
in adult life. However, even here a crucial qualification has to be added-Freud effectively
redefined the term sexuality here to make it cover any form of pleasure which is or can
be derived from the body. Thus his theory of the instincts or drives is essentially that the
human being is energized or driven from birth by the desire to acquire and enhance
bodily pleasure. Freud reasoned that human behavior is like an iceberg. Only small part
of which is visible. However, the part of iceberg, which is not seen, controls the seen
part. According to him human personality are always conflicting with three constructs.
The final outcome, which is the observable behaviour, is the product of this conflict. So
he got an idea that this is the reason why many a times a human can not verbalize his
motivations. Modern psychologists are prepared to recognize the existence of
unconscious behavior. But not like Freud. They believe human behavior is sparked by
motive. A motive is felt need. Human behavior is directed to satisfy these needs or
motives. They have five characteristics. The need having the highest strength
dominates the human behavior. A need once satisfied ceases to influence behavior.
when a need is satisfied, it gives rise to new need. needs are recurrent in nature. Needs
are ubiquitous. Psychologists do not totally agree on how to classify various human
motives. However some psychologists tend to classify motives according as to weather
they are unlearned or learned weather they are psychologically based.
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