Textile History, 16 (I), 5-22, 1985

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress in the Petrie

Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: its Discovery
and Conservation
ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

In 1897 W. M. Flinders Petrie obtained the concession to excavate the site of Deshasheh in
the Fayum, and here he discovered a provincial necropolis dating to the late Old Kingdom.
In the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2494-2345 B.C.) Tomb 148b he discovered nine 'shirts'l piled
directly on top of the female burial lying in its solid-block wooden coffin.2 According to
Petrie, two of the nine dresses were too coarse and rotted to unfold, so were presumably left
in situ, but nowhere does he state the museum location of the remaining seven garments.
However, Petrie, who was rapidly gaining his reputation as the pioneer of scientific
archaeology in Egypt, was certainly not the man to be unaware of the possible future
potential of this type of archaeological material for his own study collection.
As is now well-known, the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, University College
London has a wealth of textile material,3 and, in 1978, during the course of curatorial work
on material from Deshasheh, I (RR) examined a jumbled mass of funerary rags only to
discover two of these fine linen tunics. One of them, UC. 31182,4 had been wrapped by
Petrie in a sheet of newspaper from The Athenaeum of 26 December 1898, and was labelled
by him on the outside, in characteristic blue crayon: 'Galabiyeh. V dyne Deshasheh.' It was
still in the practically pristine condition in which it had been discovered for the first time
eighty years previously. The other, UC. 31183 conserved, the subject of this article, was
simply discovered amongst the linen fragments, and was in an extremely weakened and
fragile state (Fig. 10). An exhaustive search in 1979 of the Journal d'Entree in the Cairo
Museum failed to reveal the present whereabouts of the remaining five garments.
Further linen from this tomb and from Deshasheh generally, now in the Petrie Museum,
takes the form of roller bandages placed on the bodies, and large cloths and shawls, often
newly laundered, invariably have a selvedge at one long side, and a fringe at the other, with
rolled hemmed short edges. An interesting fragment of 'fishing-net' linen from Tomb 995
was also found, characterized by a very open weave and the use of fine thread.
It was possible to undertake conservation work on UC. 31182 during 1979 when Mrs S.
Landi, Head of the Textile Section in the Conservation Department at the Victoria and
Albert Museum cleaned the dress and mounted it on a wire-netting frame shaped to fit.
From 1980 this dress has been on permanent display in a purpose-built exhibit case in the
Petrie Museum, standing adjacent to the First Dynasty (c. 3IOQ-2890B.C.) tunic from
Tarkhan, UC. 28614Bi, which was conserved, again by Mrs Landi, in 1978.6
An opportunity to have UC. 31183 conserved, which due to its fragile state had been
retained in museum storage, occurred in August 1981. At this date a long-term scheme of
04-4969/85101

05-18 $3.00

1985 Textile History

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

co-operation was inaugurated by which the Textile Conservation Centre at Hampton Court
Palace, which is under the direction of Mrs K. Finch, undertook the cleaning and
conservation of selected textiles from the Petrie Museum. The treatment of the dress was
suggested as a potential project for a final year student, so it was sent to the Textile
Conservation Centre and the following year, Jennifer Barnett, a conservator possessing a
great sensitivity for such early textiles, expressed her willingness to undertake the rather
daunting task. The description, condition and treatment of the garment, as presented in
this article, are drawn from the detailed report7 which she submitted as part of the course
work for the three year postgraduate Diploma Course in Textile Conservation, at the
Textile Conservation Centre, run in conjunction with the Courtauld Institute of Art,
University of London.
The aim of the conservation treatment had to be to support and improve the appearance
of the garment for display purposes in such a manner that vital historical evidence of
materials used in Fifth Dynasty burials was preserved. The garment was returned to the
Petrie Museum in December 1983 and since then has been on permanent display in the
same exhibit case as its companion dress (Fig. IS).
CONSTRUCTION OF THE GARMENT

The garment, of plain weave linen fabric, is very long (L. 137 cm) and narrow (W. 43 cm),
with a high waist, and long narrow sleeves (L. 66 cm; W. 23 cm). Originally the garment
probably comprised three cut pieces of fabric: the skirt and two sleeves which extend from
the wrist to the neckline to form the bodice (Fig. I). In this respect, it is identical in form to
its companion dress. The skirt is constructed by the stitching together of the two selvedges,

FIG. I.

Probable original appearance with actual

measurements.

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

one of which has a sparse, regular fringe (Fig. 2).8 The bodice comprises two similar
sections on either side which extend into sleeves, each using a single piece of fabric. Each
piece extends from the neckline, which is the selvedge, to the wrist. The seam which forms
the sleeve and bodice begins at the waist seam, continues up the side of the bodice and along
the sleeve to the wrist. This seam does not remain on the centre underside of the sleeve, but
twists around to one side (Fig. 5). This feature is very similar to both the other Deshasheh
dress, and to the Tarkhan tunic.
Three different types of seam can be distinguished on the garment (Fig. 3).9 At the skirt
side seam, the two selvedges were apparently held together and whipstitched, leaving no
seam allowance. The bodice/sleeve seam is secured with whipstitching over the two edges
rolled together. This continues for 20 cm from the waist seam, then the technique changes
to the whipstitching of an open seam which has seam allowances, the edges of which are

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

Pattern of the skirt and bodice/sleeves.

Three types of seam: rolled (bodice), open (sleeve and waist), edge to edge (skirt).

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

rolled and whipstitched. The waist seam is also whip stitched open with whipstitched rolled
edges (Fig. 4). The seam allowances vary in width from 8 mm to 30 mm, the greater width
being found on one side only of the sleeve seam (Fig. 5). This feature is also similar to the
sleeves of the Tarkhan tunic.
There are hems at the bottom of the skirt and at the end of the sleeve at the wrist. In both
cases, the raw edge of the fabric has been rolled under, but at the skirt hem, the roll is to the
outside, whilst the wrist hem is rolled to the inside (Fig. 5). The thread used for all the
stitching comprises three linen threads plied together with a 'z' twist. It is much thicker
than the woven threads.
The fabric is loosely woven, giving a light, airy, semi-transparent appearance, despite the
regular stripes of a close weave. The threads are single (unplied), and were identified as
4. The open waist
seam and the rolled bodice
side seam.
FIG.

FIG. 5. The wide seam

allowances on the sleeve
seam.

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

linen. The plain weave is spaced at regular intervals to form stripes. The weave count is
17 warps/em and 8 wefts/em with an average of 16 warps in each solid stripe, all of which are
warp faced, and an average of 2 warps in every space between them. In every 2 centimetres
there is an average of three solid stripes and two spaces between them. The warp count of
the stripes is inconsistent; in some areas they fork into two, sometimes continuing on to join
with another fork from an adjacent stripe. This can be seen most clearly on the bodice. In
other places, two whole stripes come together to form an extra wide stripe. The stripes are
most consistent, in width and spacing, where the stitching along the waist seam and the hem
of the skirt seems to hold them in place.
It appears that the three pieces of the garment were cut from a large piece of linen fabric
which had a fringe along one selvedge. It can be seen at the skirt side seam and at the
neckline on one side of the bodice (Fig. 1). The fringe is formed by the wefts, possibly in the
sequence shown (Figs. 6 and 7). The result is a sparse but regular and delicate fringe, quite
unlike any other examples which were examined in the course of research. 8
At each folded side of the skirt, narrow but very distinct soft convolutions can be seen
running along its entire length (Fig. 8). It is possible that this textural effect was obvious
over the entire garment before it was flattened in the burial. Although herringbone pleating

___:::.==.---.:-___

"'

__ .......
_ _ -:..-=---- t --~-_-:..--I-

-..~==---------- -------

1-

-_-_-===.a.:.a..- __ --u.:==-=---I___-===""=--=--=-----_-_-_ -_- ..;.~-_-_-_-==-=..o..;..;:.....-_-_---_===4--.- 1----

----

-----

-------1-.
1-.
1-

1--

FIG.

6.

Weave analysis of the fringe.

-ll~~I_

-!hl
\!
~
_i_i
i-i-bJ

FIG.

7.

bJ 6J-

Possible weaving sequence of the fringe.

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

FIG.

8.

Possible 'natural' pleating at the side of the

skirt.

is known,lo the accordion type of pleating predominates on Egyptian textiles. The latter is
characterized by straight, regular, concertina-like folds, deliberately formed by hand,
perhaps using a pleating board or by skilful folding. 11 The Tarkhan tunic has such pleats on
both sides of the bodice and round the sleeves.
In this case, however, the description 'natural pleating' is preferable, even though its
formation may be just as deliberate as mechanically formed pleating. It is suggested that this
fabric has not been 'creased' so much as 'encouraged' to form its own soft convolutions
through the combination of the striped weave and the natural tendency of wet linen fibres to
twist in an'S' direction (i.e. clockwise) when drying.
The solid stripes of the fabric are very closely woven compared with the open weave of the
stripes adjoining them. It is possible that each solid stripe, as it dries, turns clockwise along
its entire length, forcing the adjacent, more loosely woven stripes to follow. The extent to
which the latter can follow is limited by the turning of the next solid stripe, and so the twist
in the loose stripe changes direction to follow the next solid stripe, and so on (Fig. 9).
The overall effect would be similar in appearance to corrugated cardboard, a resemblance
displayed in the 'pleating' on our garment. A statue group in the Oriental Institute,
University of Chicago (10618)12 can be cited as a useful parallel. Here the woman wears a
tigh t-fitting, high waisted, sleeveless dress with vertical corrugations, representing either
fine pleats or stripes, running vertically. Pleats so formed would probably be flattened and
10

.. - - -- - .. - - - -

----,

"

.~

\
I

'

..

, ~,

'-~

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

,..

FIG. 9.

Cross-section of possible formation of the

'natural' pleating.

.y ....) '.Y '. J

,

stretched out by wear or unsympathetic storage, but would be reformed each time the
garment dried after washing.
It was not until conservation treatment had commenced that the possibility of this kind of
pleat formation was deduced. A day after humidity treatment, an 8 cm long, partly
detached section of the selvedge had twisted dramatically in an'S' direction, probably as the
moisture gained in the humidity treatment was released from the fibres. No other solid
stripes were so obviously affected, but this is to be expected as no others were so wide, nor so
detached. These factors probably amplified the minimal twisting effect expected from such
a small moisture loss (compared with that which would be obtained from a thorough
wetting and drying).
No evidence has been found for the possibility that such textures could have been
produced by weavers sensitive to the inherent qualities and behaviour of the materials
which they used. Rather the impression is that textural effects are either to be attributed to
mechanical means applied to a woven cloth, or to non-woven techniques such as sprang or
knitting. However, as so few textiles survive from this period, and even fewer have been
documented or conserved (with the exception of the more spectacular examples, such as
garments), this lack of evidence is hardly surprising.
CONDITION OF THE GARMENT AND THE PROCESS OF CONSERVATION

The garment is remarkably strong and supple for its age. It is incomplete; one sleeve is
missing altogether, detached from the shoulder, and the other sleeve/bodice is also detached
but mostly whole. At the top of the skirt, a large area is missing, extending from the centre
front to the centre back (Fig. 10). The edges of the missing areas are stained reddish brown
and are very brittle and fragile. Various small holes are associated with this staining over the
garment.
There is little physical damage: small holes and a torn and frayed area at the bottom of the
bottom of the skirt at the side seam. Overall, the garment is very creased, especially in the
stained areas where the shape of the dress is completely distorted. The state of the
degradation of the linen fibres was investigated with a view to the possibility of washing the
garment, but it was found that the dark stained fibres would disintegrate and probably be
lost if subjected to the process of wet washing.
The ageing and degradation of organic materials, including textiles, results in higher than
normal levels of acidity due to the by-products of the associated chemical breakdown
reaction. High levels of acidity are harmful to degraded textiles and can be reduced by wet
washing, so the level of the acidity of the garment was measured with this view. Samples
were taken from the clean, strong fibres and also from the dark, brittle fibres at pH 7 and
pH6 respectively. The average result was almost neutral and at an unusually safe level for
II

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

FIG. 10.

The garment before conservation.

such an ancient textile. A recent research paper measured modern linen at pH 5. I and linen
from an ancient mummy wrapping at pH 4. 1,13 results which also suggest that the pH
reading of the garment is unusual. However, it was thus unnecessary to consider the
reduction of the acidity as a reason for washing the garment.
With the usual pH levels in mind, the many and various small deposits of soilings over the
garment were closely examined. Under the stereomicroscope, five different types of matter
were easily discernable:
I.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Transparent: large (2 cm), much resembling dried sugar syrup, and seemed to be fresh
compared with the other deposits.
Black/grey: tiny specks, appeared to be bitumen, molten when deposited.
Russet: appeared to be beads of resin, molten when deposited.
Gold/yellow: a combination of resin like and crystalline particles and also yellow
powder, sometimes associated with the dark strained areas.
Grey: an amalgam of yellow, resin like particles and grey matter.

It is likely that these substances are traces of those used in the burial ritual. The materials
most used by the Ancient Egyptians in their mummification techniques are natron, resin,
bitumen, woodpitch, and waxes.14 With the exception of the large transparent soilings,
which seem to be food stains probably deposited after excavation, the soilings are very
similar in appearance to these substances.
12

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

It was not possible to analyse and identify the soilings conclusively, or to investigate the
possibility that one or all of them were responsible for the degradation of the dark stained areas.
However, natron, a naturally occurring compound, comprised of sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate with traces of sodium chloride and sulphate,15 would tend to produce an alkaline
effect in this case, and so it may well be the cause of the neutral pH readings of the linen.
The potential continuing degrading effect of the soilings, and the possibility of testing the
natural pleating theory were sound reasons for wet washing the garment, but the soilings
and the dark, degraded areas would be lost and never fully investigated. Thus it was decided
that the certainty of losing parts of the garments outweighed the possible benefits of
washing. 16
The proposed treatment of the garment aimed to relax the creasing and distortion, fully
to support the entire dress with a suitable fabric without obscuring construction details, to
protect the degraded areas by covering them with a suitable material, and to construct the
missing areas to give a complete appearance to the form of the garment. The intention was
to avoid, as much as possible, any obscuring of the historical evidence which the garment
presents (not only the soilings but also the weave and construction), yet to do everything
possible within that limitation to restore its form and make it safe for display and careful
examination.
The two pieces of the garment will be referred to as the sleeve and the dress. They were
treated separately, using the same techniques and materials, then joined together in the final
stage of the conservation treatment.
To remove the creasing, the two pieces were carefully eased and pinned into shape on
specially constructed polystyrene and high density foam rubber forms. During this
procedure, a large area on the sleeve was noticed to be stretched and looked very similar to
the distortion one might expect from an elbow bending in a tight sleeve. In addition, the
position of the distortion on the sleeve was consistent with this possibility. However, no
further indications of wear could be found on the garment.
It was decided that the removal of the creasing would be aided by the introduction of
moisture into the fibres, and as the work room was very warm and dry (RH 43%), the
garment had probably lost moisture since coming out of storage, perhaps rendering the
degraded fibres more brittle.
Various methods were considered before selecting the method of placing the pinned out
pieces in a specially constructed polythene sheeting tent, the atmosphere of which could be
made more humid by placing a small container of water inside. 17It was difficult to know
before hand exactly how effective the treatment would be, for although new linen is highly
absorbant and moisture retentive, it is impossible to assess the degree with which a piece of
ancient linen would retain these properties.
After the treatment, when the pins were first removed from the pieces, the fibres stayed in
their realigned position. The worst creases were still evident, but much reduced. After a
day, the fibres started to assume their previous creasing but as the application of the support
fabric commenced immediately, the creasing was easily corrected as work progressed. It is
difficult to know whether it was the humidity treatment or the pinning out which was more
effective, or the combination of both.
The selection of the support materials received a great deal of consideration. is Cotton
voile was finally selected as the support fabric because it blends well with the open weave of

13

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

the dress, it is easy to manipulate, is also cellulose, and has a similar drape, handle and
physical properties to those of the garment. Nylon net was selected as the overlay to protect
the degraded areas. Despite its differing physical properties, its qualities of elasticity, nonfraying edges, unobtrusive appearance and ease of handling were highly desirable for this
particular application. Both materials were also readily obtainable and easy to dye. Their
ease of manipUlation avoids the overhandling required of more difficult fabrics such as silk
and polyester crepeline, which would increase the risk of damaging the brittle, degraded
areas of the garment. Button cotton thread split to its finest strand, was selected as the finest
and most compatible thread for couching and support stitching. Machine twist cotton
thread was used only on the voile and net in reconstructing the garment.
The selection of colours for the support materials was difficult. Many different beige and
cream colours and tones were considered, but, as even the palest cream obscured the open
weave and stripes of the garment, it was decided that the voile should remain white. A
reddish brown was chosen for the net overlay, which was to continue over the voile of the
reconstructed areas to reduce the contrast between the darkly stained degraded edges and
the white voile (Fig. r I).
FIG. II.
Placement of
the net overlay.

Both pieces were fully supported on the cotton voile which was applied with a variety of
stitching techniques. The voile was aligned, selvedge to selvedge with the linen, and the two
were then pinned together, as straight as possible, allowing sufficient voile to accommodate
any undulations in the linen fabric. A variety of polystyrene forms were used throughout so
that the fabrics could be pinned flat in the desired alignment as the stitching progressed. A
staggered brick pattern of lines of running stitches was initially applied as the actual
support. The couching stitches then secured the fragile and frayed areas, the dark stained
edges and the various holes.
On the bodice, the couching stitches were passed across the stripes as this was the most
effective direction for appearance and support. However, to follow this practice on the skirt
would have had the effect of flattening and stiffening the soft appearance of the hanging
linen. The stitching on the skirt was thus applied in a vertical direction, using running
stitching almost exclusively, even along the long degraded edge. To achieve full support,
the lines of running stitch there were applied closely together, no further than r .5 cm apart.
The missing sleeve was reconstructed from a pattern taken from the detached one. The
voile support was first cut to that shape and seamed before applying it to the garment. The
net overlay was placed over the dark degraded areas and extended a little over the stronger

14

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

linen. It was secured in the degraded areas with running stitches placed between each stripe
in the linen. The edge of the net was pinked rather than sewn down with a continuous line of
running stitch around the edge, as this would have had the unsightly effect of flattening the
linen. Instead, the lines of stitching following the stripes were taken from edge to edge of the
net. In this fashion, the net appeared to 'float' on the linen rather than to clamp it into
position. On the reconstructed sleeve, the net extends right down to the wrist, and on the
skirt, as far as the reconstructed waist seam.
So as not to obscure the seam stitching and seam allowance of the bodice, the voile was
trimmed and turned back on either side of the seams, then sewn together under and through
the bodice seam, leaving it fully exposed. This was done at the waist seam and the bodice/
sleeve seams (Figs. 12 and 13). The hems were also left exposed. The side seam on the skirt
FIG. 12. Exposed seam
at the waist, inside view.

has the same appearance on both sides so it was not exposed entirely. However, it can be
viewed through a 'window' made in the voile near the hem, which also serves to give an
inside view of the weave (Fig. 14).
The aims of the conservation treatment were achieved as the distortion and creasing are
barely noticeable, and the missing areas have been reconstructed so that the appearance of
the garment is dramatically improved. The full support and the exposure of the construction detail allows the dress to be displayed and carefully examined. In the event of the
soilings proving to be seriously damaging to the garment in the future, and a decision being
taken to wash the garment, it should be possible to do so without removing the support
fabrics or stitching already applied. Alterations may be necessary afterwards, especially if
the dark degraded areas are lost, but the garment would be fully protected, as it is now, for
the processes of wet washing and drying.
As this garment was not designed as one meant to be worn, to have mounted it on a
human-shaped dummy would not have presented a historically accurate display, especially
as the garment is over-long for normal wear. Pictorial and sculptural evidence suggests that
such garments were worn skin-tight. However, to have been displayed as such would have
placed too much strain on the dress.

15

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

FIG. 13.

Waist seam, outside view.

FIG. 14.

'Window' in the support fabric.

The chosen solution was a shape with neck and shoulders and a short torso ending at the
waist seam. The neck and shoulder shape performs two functions: it is the minimum form
required to indicate that the textile is a garment, and it holds the bodice in the correct
alignment for the skirt to hang straight (Fig. 15). The torso is mounted on a pole which does
not obscure the transparent nature of the open weave or the stripes. In addition, the torso
section is separate and can be carefully lifted off the pole with the garment still mounted on
this support. The facility of the mounting ensures that the garment can be easily removed
from the display, and stored safely elsewhere should the need arise, without disturbing the
textile greatly.
PARALLELS TO THE DESHASHEH DRESSES

Representations of sleeved, let alone horizontally pleated dresses on the monuments are
decidedly absent. However, this is not surprising as tomb reliefs and sculpture are
essentially both idealized and conservative in nature and fail to mirror contemporary
fashions in Ancient Egyptian dress. (For example, form-fitting and very narrow dresses are
shown, whereas the reality presents us with baggy garments; and the very fine, clinging
linen of the monuments is matched in reality, apart from items of royal attire, by heavy,
closely woven, and consequently bulky weaves.) Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged
16

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

FIG. 15. The garment

after conservation
(right) displayed alongside its companion dress
in the Petrie Museum.

that both the reliefs and statue groups are often so badly worn as to make it impossible to
~etermine any line around the wrists which would indicate sleeves.
During an examination of all the major rock-tomb sites of both the Old and Middle
Kingdoms, in Middle Egypt, as well as at Giza and Saqqara, during the summer of 1979,
only one sleeved garment was noted, and this was at Deshasheh itself. The Tomb of the
Fifth Dynasty Overseer of the Royal Fortresses Inti contains a depiction, on the south side
of the recess, of a young girl, S3l-k3w, standing in front of the feet of the tomb-owner and
his wife. 19 She is obviously some relation of the deceased, and appears to be wearing a longsleeved garment as opposed to the customary female dress,20 which is sleeveless and held up
by straps.
Early extant garments are of course extremely rare, but thirteen parallels to the
Deshasheh dresses survive in museum collections. However, they differ in that all thirteen
display horizontal pleating to both the skirt and the bodice/sleeves.
An inventory of these relevant garments is given below:
NAGA-En-DtR
Tomb N94 -

Sixth Dynasty (c. 2345-2181 B.C.)

17

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

Adult Female burial accompanied by a total of twelve dresses.21
Cairo IE 8814422
Boston 34.56a23
Boston 34.56b
Boston 34.56c
Boston 34.56d
Boston 13.3966a
Boston 13. 3966b
Boston 13.3966c
[Boston Untraced24]
[Boston Untraced25]
Tomb NI 10 - Sixth Dynasty
Adult Female burial.
Cairo IE 88145
GEBELEIN

Unnumbered Tomb - Sixth Dynasty

Unsexed burial.
Turin Inv. No. 1408726
ASYUT

Tomb 13 - Eleventh Dynasty (c. 2133-1991 B.C.)

Un sexed burial with 'plusieurs' identical garments, but only one salvageable.
Louvre E 1202627
MEIR

Unnumbered plundered Tomb Unsexed burial.

Cairo IE 4368428
Cairo Unregistered

Eleventh Dynasty

THEIR WEAR IN LIFE

The horizontal pleating of these dresses naturally serves to shorten the finished length of the
garment to a level (c. 70 cm) making everyday wear possible. In addition, the garments all
display distinct signs of wear in the form of creasing and loss of pleating around the armpits
and elbows, and perspiration staining. Approximately half the number were placed in their
funerary contexts inside-out (e.g. the Tarkhan and Asyut dresses), representing the manner
in which garments were laundered, pleated, and subsequently stored in linen chests.
The Deshasheh and Naga-ed-Der dresses derive from female burials. As the Asyftt
dresses were excavated from a burial which contained both a battle axe and a walking-stick
as grave-goods,29 a male owner is indicated. This is reinforced by the made-to-measure
dimensions of the surviving dress in the Louvre. 30 Whilst the form of the dress represents a
logical development from the Old Kingdom female shift with shoulder-straps, the style
would be equally suitable for the male agricultural supervisor.
It is significant that all these garments, with one exception, derive from provincial
cemeteries confined to a narrow area of the Fayum and the northern part of Upper Egypt.
They may thus appear to be indicative of a purely local fashion dictated by the adverse cold
of the winters in these regions. They therefore simply adapt the monumental form by
extending the shoulder-straps along the arms. The need for warmer clothing is illustrated
18

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

by the long robes, kilts, and stoles depicted in the Meir tomb reliefs. 31They would also have
provided protection for the wearer engaged in agricultural labour , especially in view of the
fact that sickle flints, polished by the grain, would have been very hard on the skin. At least
during the Ramesside Period (c. 1320-1085 B.C.), the cloak (Egyptian 43yt) could command
a high price, and so is never worn by the fellahin. These dresses were therefore probably the
equivalent of the New Kingdom 'bag-tunic' (mss), the daily working garment of the
agriculturalists. 32
The Gebelein dress presents an exception to the rule, as it was excavated in the very
centre of Upper Egypt, and, therefore, in a warm climate all the year round. Indeed in form
the dresses are remarkably similar to the modern Arab galabiyeh; thus they would have been
equally effective in a hot summer climate. It should be noted that when worn in life, the Vshaped necklines, at both front and back of the garment, could be fastened by means of
three pairs of strings of twisted flax. These ties still survive on some of the garments
(Deshasheh UC. 31182, Gebelein, and Asyut dresses), and would have afforded additional
protection to the wearer.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DESHASHEH DRESSES

The excessive length, lack of pleating, and extremely narrow width of the Deshasheh
dresses seems to indicate that they were designed exclusively as grave-goods. The finished
lengths for the dresses of 142 cm (UC. 31182) and 137 cm (UC. 31183) can be related to the
female body in Tomb 148b, which measured 135 cm for the corresponding distance. It
should also be remembered that whilst the dresses bear stained areas from the mummification procedure, they also show a lack of staining and creasing from daily wear.
Thus they represent a traditional stage33 between the placing of simple hanks of yarn with
the body, attested as far back as Nagada I (c. 3800-3500 B.C.) burials,34 with the pictorial
representation of garments intended to act in a magical fashion, as evidenced by the tombchapels of Khufukha'ef (I) at Giza35 and Fetekti at Saqqara.36 Here men are depicted
p}~cing long pleated lengths of linen into boxes as part of the funerary equipment of the
deceased. 'Fake' dresses have also been found,37 which take the form of sheets cut to
slmulate the front of a tunic with a V-shaped neck.
" It is noteworthy that the hieroglyphic determinative for a sleeved garment CZ3' ,
occasionally used in the Old Kingdom linen-lists38 for 33f-linen, with the amount written
with a thousand-sign below, is very similar to the Deshasheh dresses. Certainly linen was
one of the main objects of the tomb robbers at Deshasheh (where it was often found half
dragged out of a coffin, and hanging over the edge), as it doubtless was elsewhere, and this
may have encouraged the substitution of wall-reliefs for the actual material. This further
develops into the representation of garments on Middle Kingdom coffins.39 However, the
placing of actual garments in tombs is still encountered in a limited form at later periods, as
witnessed by Petrie's excavation of a Twentieth Dynasty (c. 1200-1085 B.C.) tomb at
Kahun. Here he found 'three or four perfect shirts', sleeveless in form, which had been
neatly folded up in packets and placed between the mummy bandages.4o
As far as the history of Ancient Egyptian dress is concerned, this style of garment enjoyed
only a brief and limited vogue. Doubtless this was both due to the fact that they proved
impractical, for the pleats would sag from the weight of the linen, and because they were
19

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

aesthetically unappealing, being both clumsy and ugly. However, be this as it may, they
certainly deserve a place in the history of dress as evidence of early extant garments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our grateful thanks to Mrs K. Finch without whose enthusiasm for the
joint Petrie Museum and Textile Conservation Centre linen treatment project this dress
would never have been conserved.
Professor S. Curto, Superintendent of the Museo Egizio, Turin and Dr J. L. de Cenival,
Conservateur en chef of the Musee du Louvre, Paris, afforded every facility for the
examination of the dresses in their collections. This served to provide much additional
material regarding the daily wear of these garments, some of which has been utilized in this
article.
Dr Peter Lacovara and Ms Leslie Smith, respectively of the Egyptian and the Textile and
Costume Departments of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, have generously provided the
latest information on newly rediscovered dresses in their museum.
The photographs in this article were all taken by Jennifer Barnett in the course of
conservation work and are the copyright of the Textile Conservation Centre, with the
exception of Fig. 10 which was provided by the Central Photographic Unit, University
College London, at the time of the rediscovery of the dresses.
REFERENCES AND NOTES
1 His first-hand account of the discovery is given in the unpublished W. M. F. Petrie, 'MSS Journal',
28 December 1896-9 March 1897, pp. 47-50, original in the Griffith Institute, Oxford, copy in the Petrie
Museum. For the relevant site publication: W. M. F. Petrie, Deshasheh (London, 1898), pp. 16; 31-32;
and PI. XXXV.
2 Both the coffin and body are now in the Cairo Museum, JE 31894 and JE 31875 respectively.
3 For basic background material on the Petrie Museum and its textile collections: R. Hall, 'Garments in
the Petrie Museum -of Egyptian Archaeology' in Textile History 13, No. I (Spring 1982), pp. 27-45; and
Figs 1-17.
4 R. Hall, 'TwoJinen dresses from the Fifth Dynasty site of Deshasheh now in the Petrie Museum of
Egyptian Archaeology, University College London' in J. Egyptian Arch. 67 (1981), pp. 168-71; and
Pis XIX; XX.
5 So-named after the description in Papyrus Westcar of Snofru's female rowers. R. Hall, 'Fishing-net
(i3dt) Dresses in the Petrie Museum' in Gottinger Miszellen 42 (1981), pp. 37-43; and PIs 1-2.
6 S. Landi and R. M. Hall, 'The Discovery and Conservation of an Ancient Egyptian Linen Tunic' in
Studies in Conservation 24, NO.4 (1979), pp. 141-52; and Figs I-I I. R. Hall and B. Adams, 'New
Exhibitions in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology' in The Museum Archaeologist 4 (1979),
pp. 9-10. Inner London Education Authority, ILEA Contact 7, NO.3 (May 1978), p. 12.
7 J. Barnett, 'The Conservation of an Early Egyptian Funerary Garment' (Unpublished Conservation
Report 1983). Copies can be consulted at the Textile Conservation Centre and at the Petrie Museum.
8 L. Bellinger, 'Textile Analysis: E:arlyTechniques in Egypt !1ndthe Near East' in Workshop Notes Paper
NO.2 (June 1959). M. do Pilar,'Tisseres etJlranges de Toiles Egyptiennes' in Bulletin de Liaison du Centre
International d'Etude de TextilesAnciens No. 28 (Juillet 1968), pp. 97-114. Egyptian fringed textiles were
also examined at the British Museum and at the Petrie Museum.
9 I::orsewing and darning techniques used on Egyptian textiles: R. Hall, 'Stopfen und Niihen' in Lexikon
der Agyptologie, Band VI (Weisbaden, 1985) (forthcoming).
10 W. Needler, 'Three pieces ofU npatterned Linell from Ancient Egypt in the Royal Ontario Museum' in
V. Gervers (editor), Studies in Textile Hist~t)! (Ro.yalOntario Museum, 1972), p. 240, and Fig. 2.

20

ROSALIND HALL AND JENNIFER BARNETT

11 E. Staehelin, Untersuchungen zur iigyptischen Tracht im Alten Reich (Berlin, 1966), p. 14. E. Staehelin,
'Plissee' in Lexikon der Agyptologie, Band IV (Wiesbaden, 1982), cols 1060-61. E. Riefstahl, 'An additional
footnote on pleating in Ancient Egypt' in Newsletter American Research Center in Egypt, no. 92 (Winter
1975), pp. 28-29.
12 E. Staehelin, Untersuchungen zur iigyptischen Tracht im Alten Reich (Berlin, 1966), Tafel II, Abb. 2.
13 E. E. Peacock, 'Deacidification of Degraded Linen' in Studies in Conservation 28, No.1 (1983), p. 9.
14 A. Lucas and J. R. Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (London, 1962), pp. 270-326.
15 A. Lucas and J. R. Harris, ibid., p. 493.
16 For the full consideration of this decision: J. Barnett, ibid., pp. 16-24.
17 For the full consideration of this method and the tabulated RH (relative humidity) readings: J. Barnett,
ibid., pp. 29-30.
18 For the criteria for selection and the possibilities considered: J. Barnett, ibid., Appendix 7.
19 W. M. F. Petrie, Deshasheh (London, 1898), PI. IX.
20 E. Staehelin, ibid., Tafel III, Abb. 4.
21 G. A. Reisner, A Provincial Cemetery of the Pyramid Age. Naga-ed-Der,
III (Oxford University Press,
1932), pp. 11-13. For useful comparative material, from the same site, of female dress as depicted on
stelae: D. Dunham, Naga-ed-Der Stelae of the First Intermediate Period (Oxford University Press, 1937),
PIs. I-XXXIV.
22 V. Laurent-Tackholm,
Faraos blomster (Stockholm, 1951), p. 255.
23 E. Riefstahl, Patterned Textiles in Pharaonic Egypt (Brooklyn, 1944), p. 8; and Fig. 7.
24 W. Stevenson Smith, 'The Old Kingdom linen list' in Zeitschrift fur Agyptische Sprache 71 (1935),
p. 139; and Fig. I. E. Riefstahl and S. E. Chapman, 'A Note on Ancient Fashions: Four Early Egyptian
Dresses in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston' in Boston Museum Bulletin, LXVIII (1970), p. 245; and Fig. 1
(erroneously said to be Boston 34.56).
25 A one-sleeved example shown in the original Expedition photograph now in the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston.
26 R. Hall, 'A pleated dress from a Sixth Dynasty tomb at Gebelein now in the Museo Egizio, Turin' in
J. Ep.yptianArch. 70 (1984), pp. 136-39; and PIs XXII; XXIII and Fig. I.
27 E. Chassinant and C. Palanque, 'Une Campagne de Fouilles dans la Necropole d' Assiout' in Memoirs de
l'Institut Franfais d'Archeologie Orientale du Caire 24 (Le Caire, 1911), pp. 162-64; and PI. XXXIII. On
display at the IF AO CeI!tenary Exhibition in Paris, and illustrated in the accompanying catalogue: Un siecle
defouillesfranfaisesenEgypte
1880-1980 (Paris, 1981), p. 135, cat. no. 134.
28 M. A. B. Kamal, 'Rapport sur les fouilles de Said Bey Khachaba au Deir EI-Gabraoui' in Annales du
Service des Antiquites de l'Egypte, XIII (1914), pp. 171-72; and Fig. 21. W. Spiegelberg, 'Altaegyptische
gefaltelte (plissierte) Leinwandstoffe' in Ann. Serv., XXVII (1927), pp. 154-56; and PI. I.
29 The axe is now in the Cairo Museum, and the walking-stick is in the Musee du Louvre (E 11984).
30 These dimensions are as follows:
L. 139 cm, W. at hem 55 cm, and at bodice 48 cm.
L. of sleeves from neckline to wrist 84 cm.
W. of sleeves at wrist 16 cm.
31 A. M. Blackman, The Rock Tombs of Meir, III (London, 1915), PI. XIV. A. M. Blackman, The Rock
Tombs of Meir, V (London, 1953), PIs XIV; XVI. For the function of detachable sleeves: R. Hall, 'A pair of
linen sleeves from Gurob' in Gottinger Miszellen, 40 (1980), pp. 29-38; and PI. I. J. J. Janssen and R. Hall
'(htr i n) ish = pair of sleeves?' in Gottinger Miszellen, 43 (1981), pp. 21-26; and PI. I.
32 J. J. Janssen, Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period (Leiden, 1975), pp. 249-50. R. Hall, 'The
Pharaonic mss tunic as a smock?' in Gottinger Miszellen, 43 (1981), pp. 29-37 and PI. I and Fig. I.
33 For parallel uses of wrappers and garments with the deceased: W. M. F. Petrie, Kafr Ammar, H eliopolis
and Shurafa (London, 1915), pp. 12-19.
34 For Naqada grave 1563 of Petrie's Sequence Date 32: W. M. F. Petrie, Naqada and Ballas (London,
1896), p. 29. For Abadiyeh, Cemetery C of Petrie's Sequence Date 30: W. M. F. Petrie, Diospolis Parva
(London, 1901), p. 34.
35 For Reisner tomb no. G7140 of Khufukha'ef (I): A. Mariette, Les Mastabas de l'AncienEmpire
(Paris,
1884), p. 562, iv.

21

A Fifth Dynasty Funerary Dress

36 For Lepsius tomb no. LSI of Fetekti: C. R. Lepsius, Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien, Band IV,
Abteilung II (Berlin, 1849-59), PI. 96.
37 G. A. Reisner, A History o/the Giza Necropolis, I (Cambridge, Mass., 1932), pp. 452-53, and PI. 42.
Now Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 33-4-22a.
38 The slab-stela of Sethhekent from Tomb GI227 in the Western Cheops cemetery at Giza has most of the
features of the fully developed linen-list. For the linen-list in general: W. Stevenson Smith, ibid.,
PP134-49
39 G. Jequier, Les Frises d'objets des sarcophages du Moyen Empire
(Cairo, 1921), PP.24-26; and
Figs 64-69.
40 W. M. F. Petrie, 'MSS Journal', 26 September 1889- 27 June 1890 (Unpublished), p. 22.

22