This tutorial reviews topics from physics that relate to electrical

networks. Specifically, the concepts of voltage, current, charge, power,

and energy will be reviewed. You are advised to have a calculator
handy.
Consider the circuit below.

How much charge flows through the headlight in 2 hours?

Q=

coulombs

Charge flowing through the headlight in 2 hours = 5 amps x 3600 seconds/hour x 2

hours = 36000 coulombs.

How long does it take before one million electrons flow through the headlight? Round
your answer to the nearest femtosecond (one femtosecond is 10-15 seconds).

t=

femtoseconds

The time it takes for one million electron to flow through the headlight = Q/I = 1.602 x
10-19 coulombs per electron x 106 electrons/5 amps = 32.04 x 10-15 seconds, which is
approximately 32 femtoseconds.

How much power is consumed by the headlight?

P=

watts

In DC circuits, power is just voltage times current.

P = VI = 12 x 5 = 60 W

Electrical engineers express energy either in kilowatt-hours (kW-hr) or joules (J),

depending on the application.

How much energy is delivered to the headlight if it is left on for 3 days? Round your
answer to the nearest kW-hr.
W=

kW-hr

Work (energy) is power times time.

W = Pt = 60 watts x 3 days x 24 hours/day = 4320 watt-hours = 4.32 kW-hr
This rounds to 4 kW-hr.

Now let's do a problem using joules as the unit of energy.

How much energy is used by the headlight in 5 minutes?
W=

Work (energy) is power times time.

W = Pt = 60 watts x 5 minutes x 60 seconds/minute = 18,000 joules

This tutorial will test your understanding of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL),
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL), and Ohm's Law. All the circuits in this tutorial
can be solved "in your head", but writing down a few loop equations and node
equations couldn't hurt. There are a lot of "distracters" -- circuit elements that do
not contribute to the solution.

Find the current I. Type the value in the box below, then click on the Submit Answer
button. If you don't get it right, you'll be given a hint and asked to try again.
A

The formal solution for this problem looks like this:

Consider the loop shown in red, consisting only of the 25 resistor and the 75 V
battery. KVL solved around the red loop:
-V25 + 75 = 0
V25 = 75
I = V/R = 75/25 = 3A

Now let's add another voltage source to the circuit to create a new problem.

Find the current I.

A
The formal solution for this problem looks like this:

Let's solve KVL around the red loop, the one consisting of the 25 resistor, the 125 V
battery, and the 75 V battery:
-V25 - 125 + 75 = 0
V25 = 75 - 125 = -50
I = V/R = -50/25 = -2A

Here's a new problem.

Find the voltage V.

V

In the figure below, it can be seen that the 5A current from the current source also goes
through the 18V battery and the 10 resistor.

In this way, KCL is solved by inspection. Now all you need to do is apply Ohm's Law:
V = IR = 5 x 10 = 50V

Now let's add another circuit element and solve again.

Find the voltage V.

V
The traditional way to solve this problem is shown below. First, the unknown currents
I18 and I10 are defined, then two nodes are identified.

KCL can then be solved at Node A:

-5 + 8 + I18 = 0
I18 = 5 - 8 = -3A
Now we solve KCL at Node B:
-8 - I18 + I10 = 0
-8 - (-3) + I10 = 0
I10 = 8 - 3 = 5A
Then we apply Ohm's Law:
V = IR = 5 x 10 = 50V
The above is a perfectly good way to solve the problem, but there is a faster way. This
involves the use of a supernode.

Anything can be treated as a node, so we choose to lump the 8A source and the 18V
battery into a single node. It can be seen that only the current from the 5A source enters
the supernode, and only I10 leaves. KCL is then easy to write:
-5 + I10 = 0
I10 = 5A
You will find that using supernodes can greatly simplify some problems.
It should be clear that the value of the 8A current source makes no difference to the
solution.

Now let's add yet another circuit element and solve again.

Find the voltage V.

V

The circuit is shown below, with I10 and the supernode defined.

KCL can then be solved at the supernode:

-5 + 11 + I10 = 0
I10 = 5 - 11 = -6A
Then we apply Ohm's Law:
V = IR = -6 x 10 = -60V
We could have used the 20 ohm resistor and the 12V battery in a supernode instead of
using the 8A source and the 18V battery. The results would have been exactly the same.

What is the resistance between A and B?

ohms

Ordinarily, two resistors are not in series if there is a node between them, but in this
problem, the 1 and 3 resistors behave as though they are in series, because no
current can flow through the 2 resistor. The result is a total resistance of 4 .
Now let's look at another problem.

What is the resistance between A and B?

ohms

The concept of "shorting out" components is important. If a resistor has both ends
connected to the same point, the resistor is shorted out and contributes nothing to the
circuit. Both ends of the 2 resistor are connected to point B. The total resistance is
just the 1 resistance.
Here's another problem.

10

What is the resistance between A and B?

ohms

The 10 and 15 resistors are in parallel because they are connected between the
same two points (point B on one end, and the node connecting all 3 resistors on the
other). This parallel combination gives 6 , which is then in series with 4 for a total
of 10 .

What is the resistance between A and B?

ohms

11

Oddly enough, the 20 and 30 resistors are in parallel. Note that both resistors are
connected to the node joining all 3 resistors on one end, and point B on the other end.
This makes the resistance of the parallel combination 12 , and the net resistance 17 .
Here's a new one:

What is the resistance between A and B?

ohms

12

The 7 resistor is shorted out because it's connected to the same point on both ends. It
doesn't figure in the solution. The 4 and 2 resistors are in series, making 6 . This
6 resistance is then in parallel with the 3 resistor, making 2 . Finally, the 2
resistance is in series with the 9 resistor, making 11 .

The voltage divider and current divider are useful concepts in analyzing circuits. Let's
start with the voltage divider, as shown in the circuit below.

Use the voltage divider formula to find V2.

V2 =

volts

That's right.

V2 = VSR2/(R1 + R2) = 120*10/(20 + 10) = 40 V

Now let's try another circuit.

13

Use the voltage divider formula to find V2.

V2 =

volts

That's right.

V2 = VSR2/(R1 + R2) = 240*10/(5 + 10) = 160 V

Now let's move on to the current divider.

Use the current divider formula to find I2.

14

I2 =

amps

That's right.

I2 = ISR1/(R1 + R2) = 30*4/(4 + 6) = 12 A

The current divider equation can be used for more complex circuits.

Use the current divider formula to find I2.

I2 =

amps

That's right.

15

I2 = ISR1/(R1 + R2) = 45*40/(40 + 50) = 20 A

Consider the circuit below.

How many essential nodes are there?

nodes

There are 3 essential nodes. They are shown below, circled in blue.

How many Kirchhoff's Current Law equations are need to completely solve the circuit?

16

equations

There are 3 essential nodes. This means that 2 KCL equations are needed.

How many Kirchhoff's Voltage Law equations are need to completely solve the circuit?
equations
2 KCL and 3 KVL equations are needed. The meshes for the KVL equations are shown
on the diagram in red.

17

How many Ohm's Law equations are needed?

equations

2 KCL, 3 KVL, and 5 Ohm's Law equations are needed, for a total of 10.

How many unknown currents should be sketched on the circuit?

currents

18

2 KCL, 3 KVL, and 5 Ohm's Law equations are needed, for a total of 10. The four
required currents are shown in the sketch below. The directions for the currents are
arbitrary. Note that it is not necessary to define a current in the branch on the left,
because the current (2 A) is already known.

How many unknown voltages should be sketched on the circuit?

voltages
2 KCL, 3 KVL, and 5 Ohm's Law equations are needed, for a total of 10 equations.
There are 4 required currents and 6 required voltages, for a total of 10 unknowns.
Notice that the number of equations equals the number of unknowns.
The required voltages are shown in the circuit below. The sign of the voltage of each
resistor is determined by the current direction. The sign of the voltage for the current
source is arbitrary.

19

Below are the 5 Ohm's Law equations needed.

V3 = 2 x 3
V4 = 4I4
V7 = 7I7
V8 = 8I7
V9 = 9I6
If the top node and the bottom node are selected, these are the resulting KCL equations:
Top Node: -2 - I5 - I7 = 0
Bottom Node: 2 + I4 + __ = 0
Fill in the blank in the above equation.
Put the missing current here.
2 KCL, 3 KVL, and 5 Ohm's Law equations are needed, for a total of 10 equations.
There are 4 required currents and 6 required voltages, for a total of 10 unknowns.

Below are the 5 Ohm's Law equations needed.

V3 = 2 x 3
V4 = 4I4
V7 = 7I7
V8 = 8I7
V9 = 9I6
If the top node and the bottom node are selected, these are the resulting KCL equations:
Top Node: -2 - I5 - I7 = 0
Bottom Node: 2 + I4 + I6 = 0
Three KVL equations must be written, one for each of the simple loops, as shown
below.
Left Loop: -VI + V3 + 5 - V4 = 0
Top Right Loop: -5 - V8 - V7 = 0
Bottom Right Loop: V4 + 6 - __ = 0
20

Fill in the blank in the above equation.

Put the missing voltage here.
2 KCL, 3 KVL, and 5 Ohm's Law equations are needed, for a total of 10 equations.
There are 4 required currents and 6 required voltages, for a total of 10 unknowns.

Below are the 5 Ohm's Law equations needed.

V3 = 2 x 3
V4 = 4I4
V7 = 7I7
V8 = 8I7
V9 = 9I6
If the top node and the bottom node are selected, these are the resulting KCL equations:
Top Node: -2 - I5 - I7 = 0
Bottom Node: 2 + I4 + I6 = 0
Three KVL equations must be written, one for each of the simple loops, as shown
below.
Left Loop: -VI + V3 + 5 - V4 = 0
Top Right Loop: -5 - V8 - V7 = 0
Bottom Right Loop: V4 + 6 - V9 = 0
You now have 10 equations and 10 unknowns. It is therefore possible to solve for all of
the unknowns.

Consider the circuit below.

21

Several points on the circuit are identified by the letters a through g. Some of these are
essential nodes, and some are nonessential nodes. Although any node can serve as a
reference node, some are more convenient than others. The intelligent engineer will
select the node that allows the fewest, simplest node voltage equations to be written.
Which point (a through g) do you think is the best choice for the reference node?
node

Node a, the reference node, is now marked with the ground symbol. Note that node a
has the most branches (4), and that it has the most voltage sources connected to it (one
-- no other node has more than one voltage source connected to it).

22

You will now have to label most nodes with unknown voltages. If node c were such a
node, you would label it as Vc. For one node, you don't have to specify an unknown
because it is possible to specify the actual voltage.
Which node (b through g) is it?
node

23

Since node g is connected to node a only through a voltage source, we can label this
node with its actual numerical voltage, instead of labeling it with Vg.
What value should be used?
volts
Node g is now labeled on the diagram as -6V. Node e is also labeled. Since we don't
know what voltage it has (with respect to the reference node), we must assign it an
unknown (Ve).

24

In order to calculate the current flow in the branch with the 5V battery and the 7 ohm
resistor, it will be helpful to define a voltage at the nonessential node f. Instead of
labeling the node as Vf, we will label it with respect to the voltage at node e.
Node f should therefore be labeled as:
Ve +
Node f, labeled as Ve + 5, is now shown on the circuit.

25

Nodes c and d are special. These two essential nodes are directly connected by a voltage
source. This would be easy to deal with if either c or d were the reference node (recall
how we defined node g).
The correct way to handle this situation is to define one of the nodes as an unknown,
then define the second node with respect to the first one. Let's label node c as Vc.
Node d should therefore be labeled as:
Vc +
The circuit below is now fully labeled with node voltages.

26

We are now ready to begin writing Kirchhoff's Current Law equations at appropriate
nodes. No equation will be needed at either of the nonessential nodes (b and f), nor will
one be required at the reference node.
What other node (c, d, e, or g) does not need a KCL equation?
node
Node g needs no KCL equation because its voltage is already known.

27

Now let's write part of the KCL equation for node e. The current from e to g is:
[Ve - (-6)]/R = (Ve + 6)/R
R in the above expression is:
ohms
So far, so good. The current from e to g is (Ve + 6)/9. This is just Ohm's law for the
current through the 9 resistor.

28

The current from e to d is:

[X - (Vc + 4)]/8 = (X - Vc - 4)/8
X in the above expression is:

Ohm's law says that the current from e to d will be [Ve - (Vc + 4)]/8. This is found
by taking the difference in the voltages on the two sides of the 8 resistor. We now
have 2 of the 3 currents we will need at node e.

29

Now we will see why it was convenient to define a voltage at node f. Notice that the
current in the 5V battery is the same as the current in the 7 ohm resistor. Therefore, if
we can find an expression for the leftward current through the 7 ohm resistor, that same
expression will apply to the leftward current out of node e. This current is:
(Ve + 5 - X)/7
X in the above expression is:

We can now assemble these 3 currents to write the KCL equation at node e:
(Ve + 6)/9 + (Ve -Vc - 4)/8 + (Ve + 5)/7 = 0

30

Our next task will be to deal with nodes c and d. This can be done in two ways:
supernode or defined current. In the first method, nodes c and d are treated as a
supernode. In the second, a current is defined in the battery connecting nodes c and d.

Note that a circle is drawn around nodes c and d, so that they can be treated as
supernode cd. The sum of the currents out of this supernode is zero.

31

There are 4 currents flowing out of this supernode, one for each of the 2 branches at
node c, and one for each of the 2 branches at node d. The current through the 12 ohm
resistor is Vc/12.
What is the current out of node c going through the 11 ohm resistor?
A

That takes care of the node c part of the supernode. Let's move on to node d.

32

The current from node d to node e is

(Vc + X - Ve)/8
What is X?

You can see that, when dealing with a supernode, all points on the supernode may
not have the same voltage. The top end of the supernode has a voltage Vc. The bottom
end has a voltage Vc + 4.
The remaining current is the current from node d to node g, which is:
[Vc + 4 - (-6)]/13 = (Vc + 10)/13
Now we have all 4 currents out of the supernode, so we can write KCL at the
supernode:
Vc/12 - 2 + (Vc + 4 - Ve)/8 + (Vc + 10)/13 = 0

33

Remember that we also had the KCL equation for node e:

(Ve + 6)/9 + (Ve - Vc - 4)/8 + (Ve + 5)/7 = 0
Notice that this is 2 equations and 2 unknowns -- all we need to solve the circuit. Once
Ve and Vc are calculated, all voltages and currents in the circuit can be easily found.
Now let's see how to approach nodes c and d using a defined current instead of a
supernode.

We define a current (in an arbitrary direction) in the 4V battery as shown below.

34

Having done this, we now solve nodes c and d in the usual way. KCL for node c is:
Vc/12 - 2 + X = 0
What is X?

For node c we have:

Vc/12 - 2 + I4 = 0
Now let's try node d.

35

KCL for node d is:

(Vc + 4 - Ve)/8 + [Vc + 4 - (-6)]/13 - X = 0
What is X?

Our 3 KCL equations are now:

Node e: (Ve + 6)/9 + (Ve - Vc - 4)/8 + (Ve + 5)/7 = 0
Node c: Vc/12 - 2 + I4 = 0
Node d: (Vc + 4 - Ve)/8 + (Vc + 10)/13 - I4 = 0

36

There are 3 unknowns (Vc, Ve, and I4) in the above equations. The circuit can therefore
be solved (do so, if you wish.)
Consider the circuit below.

37

Three meshes are defined, a, b, and c. It will be necessary to define a current in each of
these meshes. Two of them will be unknowns, to be found by calculation. The third can
be immediately labeled with a numeric value.
Which mesh (a through c) can be labeled numerically?
mesh

Mesh c can be labeled numerically, because it contains a current source that is shared
by no other mesh.

38

What numerical value should be assigned to the current in mesh c?

amps

Mesh c is now labeled numerically. The other 2 meshes are labeled with unknown
currents. Furthermore, the 3A source is now labeled with an unknown voltage. It is not
necessary to label the 2A source with an unknown voltage, because no equation will be
written for mesh c.

39

We can now begin writing the mesh current equations for the circuit. It is traditional to
put sources on the left of the equation, and passive devices like resistors on the right.
For mesh a, the left side of the equation will be:
X - V3
What is X?

The 4V source is entered as negative in the expression because voltage drops are
taken as negative when they appear on the left side of the equation.

40

We now complete writing the mesh current equation for mesh a:

-4 - V3 = 9Ia + 8(Ia - X)
What is X?

The equation for mesh a is now complete:

-4 - V3 = 9Ia + 8[Ia - (-2)] = 9Ia + 8(Ia + 2) = 17Ia + 16

41

We now write the mesh current equation for mesh b:

V3 + 5 = 10X + 6[Ib - (-2)]
What is X?

The equations for the meshes are complete.

mesh a: -4 - V3 = 17Ia + 16
mesh b: V3 + 5 = 10Ib + 6[Ib - (-2)] = 16Ib + 12

42

Notice that there are 2 unknown currents and one unknown voltage. Therefore we need
an additional equation.
This additional equation will involve the

source

The current in the 3A source has not yet been used in any equation.

43

The equation for this current is:

3 = Ib - X
What is X?

We now have 3 equations and 3 unknowns. The simplified versions of the equations are
shown below.
mesh a: -20 - V3 = 17Ia
mesh b: V3 - 7 = 16Ib
3A source: 3 = Ib - Ia

44

With 3 equations and 3 unknowns, it is now possible to solve the circuit.

This simulated laboratory is intended to teach some aspects of Thevenin's Theorem for
DC circuits. You will need a calculator.

An instructor in a circuits laboratory uses a selection of resistors, DC voltage sources,

and DC current sources (all of which may be considered to be ideal) to build a complex
circuit. She attaches a wire to each of two points in the circuit, then seals the rest of the
circuit inside a "black box," with just the two wires sticking out, as shown below.
___________________
|
|
|
|-------o
|
Black Box
|
|
|-------o
|___________________|

You arrive in the lab, and the lab instructor asks you to find out how much current will
flow between the two wires when they are tied together. The only things she lets you
use are a resistor and a digital voltmeter.
Click the button below to connect the voltmeter to the two wires, then look at the results
on the voltmeter.
45

___________________
Voltmeter
|
|

|
o-------|

|
|
o-------|
Volts
|
|___________________|

You examine the resistor, and you find that it has a value of

616 ohms.

You now connect the resistor between the two wires coming out of the black box. Click
the button below to connect the voltmeter across the resistor, then look at the results on
the voltmeter.
Based on this information, you should be able to figure out the solution. When you
think you know the answer, enter it in the box below, and click the "Submit Answer"
button. Be sure your answer is in milliamps.
This is what you want to tell the lab instructor: "If I connect together the two wires from
the black box, the current will be

milliamps

What value of RL will cause the most power to be consumed in RL?

RL =

That's right. For maximum power transfer,

RL = RTH = (180)(120)/(180 + 120) = 72

46

Now we want to calculate the power consumed by RL. Before we do that, we should
first find the Thevenin voltage of the circuit connected to RL.
VTH =

volts

That's right. The Thevenin voltage is found as follows:

VTH = (40)(180)/(180 + 120) = 24 V

The complete Thevenin equivalent circuit, with RL connected to it, is shown below.

What is the power consumed by RL?

P=

watts

That's right.
PL = VTH2/(4RL) = 242/(4 x 72) = 2 W

47

Superposition is a powerful theorem that allows the engineer to break up a large,

difficult problem into several small, simple problems.
Consider the circuit below.

We want to find I0. This could be done by using such techniques as the node voltage
method or the mesh current method. Instead, we will solve it using superposition.
Calculate the contribution of the 480 V source to I0.
I480 =

That's right. You start from the original circuit.

Then you redraw the circuit with the 12 A source and the 720 V source removed; here's
what you get:

48

Now it's clear that the 100 and 140 resistors are in series, and the 150 resistor is
shorted out.
I480 = 480/(100 + 140) = 2 A
Let's move on to the next source. Calculate the contribution of the 12 A source to I0.
I12 =

That's right. You start from the original circuit.

Then you redraw the circuit with the two voltage sources removed; here's what you get:

The 150 resistor is shorted out. I12 can be found from the current divider equation:
I12 = (12)(100)/(100 + 140) = 5 A
Let's move on to the final source. Calculate the contribution of the 720 V source to I0.
Assume that I720 is in the same direction as I0.
I720 =

That's right. You start from the original circuit.

49

Then you redraw the circuit with the 480 V source and the 12 A source removed; here's
what you get:

The mesh current equation for the mesh on the left can then be written.
-720 = 100I720 + 140I720
I720 = -720/(100 + 140) = -720/240 = -3 A
Let's review our findings:
Contribution to I0 from the 480 V source = I480 = 2 A
Contribution to I0 from the 12 A source = I12 = 5 A
Contribution to I0 from the 720 V source = I720 = -3 A
Now calculate I0.
I0 =

That's right.
Contribution to I0 from the 480 V source = I480 = 2 A
Contribution to I0 from the 12 A source = I12 = 5 A
Contribution to I0 from the 720 V source = I720 = -3 A
Therefore I0 = I480 + I12 + I720 = 2 + 5 - 3 = 4 A

50

Consider the circuit below.

v(t) = 3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t) volts

We will soon calculate i(t), but for now, let's just concern ourselves with the current in
the resistor.
At t = 0, what will the current in the resistor be?
Resistor current =

amps

That's right.
v(t) = 3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t) volts, so
v(0) = 3 + 6x0 + 5x1 + 2x0 = 8V
resistor current = v(0)/R = 8/10 = 0.8A
Let's show all the branch currents on the circuit diagram:

51

We now know that iR(0) = 0.8A.

In general,
iR(t) = v(t)/R = 0.3 + 0.6t2 + 0.5e-4t + Xsin(8t) amps
Find X.
X=

That's right.
iR(t) = v(t)/R
iR(t) = [3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t)]/10
iR(t) = 0.3 + 0.6t2 + 0.5e-4t + 0.2sin(8t) amps

Now let's try to find iC(t) .

Recall the general formula for calculating the current in a capacitor:
iC(t) = C(dvC/dt)
Notice that the voltage across the capacitor is the source voltage, v(t). This gives us the
following:
iC(t) = 20x10-6[dv(t)/dt]
It appears that we must calculate the time derivative of v(t):
dv(t)/dt = d[3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t)]/dt

52

Let's do this one term at a time. What's the derivative of the 3?

Derivative =

That's right. The derivative of a constant is zero.

dv(t)/dt = d[3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t)]/dt

Let's do the next term. What's the derivative of 6t2? Format your answer so that there are
no spaces between characters.
Derivative =

That's right.
d(6t2)/dt = 6x2t = 12t

dv(t)/dt = d[3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t)]/dt

What's the derivative of 5e-4t? Since you can't type superscripts, just type the answer in
one long string, with no spaces.
Derivative =

53

That's right.
d(5e-4t)/dt = (-4)5e-4t = -20e-4t

dv(t)/dt = d[3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t)]/dt

What's the derivative of 2sin(8t)? Just type the answer in one long string, with no
spaces.
Derivative =

That's right.
d[2sin(8t)]/dt = (8)2cos(8t) = 16cos(8t)
Putting this all together, we have:
dv(t)/dt = d[3 + 6t2 + 5e-4t + 2sin(8t)]/dt
dv(t)/dt = 0 + 12t - 20e-4t + 16cos(8t)

Recall that we took this derivative so that we could calculate iC(t), since
iC(t) = Cdv/dt
This gives us the following equation for iC(t):
iC(t) = (20x10-6)[12t - 20e-4t + 16cos(8t)]
iC(t) = [240t - 400e-4t + 320cos(8t)]x10-6
iC(t) = 240t - 400e-4t + 320cos(8t) microamps
What is the capacitor current at t = 0? Give your answer in microamps.

54

iC(0) =

That's right.
iC(0) = 240(0) - 400e-4(0) + 320cos(0) A
iC(0) = 0 - 400 + 320 A
iC(0) = -80 A
We had previously found:
iR(0) = 0.8A

Now let's consider the current in the inductor. First, let us assume that it is given that the
inductor current is 9 A when t = 0. Some boundary condition on the inductor current is
necessary as a starting point for the integration we are about to do. In any problem you
are given, it will always be possible to figure out boundary conditions, if they are not
explicitly stated.
What is i(t) at t = 0 (the current in the voltage source)? Round off your answer to the
nearest amp.
i(0) =

That's right. By KCL:

i(0) = iR(0) + iC(0) + iL(0)
i(0) = 0.8 A - 80A + 9 A
i(0) = 9.79992 A ~ 10 A

55

Below is the formula for the current flow in an inductor:

iL(t) = (1/L)[integral{0 to t} v()d + iL(0)
(HTML does not have mechanisms for displaying the integral symbol.)

For the above circuit, this equation becomes:

iL(t) = (1/.04)[integral{0 to t} v()d + 9
iL(t) = 25[integral{0 to t} v()d + 9
where v() is given by:
v() = 3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin(8) volts
iL(t) then becomes:
iL(t) = 25[integral{0 to t} (3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])d + 9
Let us solve the integral one term at a time.
integral{0 to t} (3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])d
What is the integral of the 3? Since you can't type the Greek letter , use t instead.
Integral =

That's right.
integral(3) = 3

Let's find the next term in the integral.

integral{0 to t} (3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])d

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What is the integral of 62? Use t in place of in your answer. Also, you can't type a
superscript, so just type a string.
Integral =

That's right.
integral(62) = 23

integral{0 to t} (3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])d

What is the integral of 5e-4? Use t in place of in your answer. You can't type a
superscript, so just type a string.
Integral =

That's right.
integral(5e-4) = -1.25e-4

integral{0 to t} (3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])d

What is the integral of 2sin[8]? Use t in place of in your answer. Be sure to use
brackets, not parentheses, in your answer. For values less than 1, put a zero before the
decimal point.

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Integral =

That's right.
integral(2sin[8]) = -0.25cos[8]
Let's review the results of the integration:
integral(3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])de-40.25cos[8]

But the values of must still be evaluated between the limits of 0 and t. To get the upper
limit, we'll just substitute t for . The lower limit will be a constant.
integral{0 to t} (3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])dtte-4t0.25cos[8t] + K
where tte-4t0.25cos[8t] is the upper limit of the integration, and K is the
lower limit.
What is K?
Lower limit of integration =

That's right.
K = 1.5
The net result of the integration is:
integral(3 + 62 + 5e-4 + 2sin[8])dtte-4t0.25cos[8t] + 1.5

58

Recall why we did this integration. We needed it to calculate iL(t).

iL(t) = (1/L)[integral{0 to t} v()d + iL(0)
iL(t) = (1/.04)[integral{0 to t} v()d + 9
iL(t) = 25[integral{0 to t} v()d + 9
We can now plug in for the integral we just calculated:
iL(t) = 25[tte-4t0.25cos(8t) + 1.5 + 9
iL(t) then becomes:
iL(t) = 75tte-4t6.25cos(8t) + 37.5 + 9
iL(t) = 75tte-4t6.25cos(8t) + 46.5 amps
This was the last piece in the puzzle. Previously we found:
iR(t) = 0.3 + 0.te-4tsin(8t) amps
iC(t) = 240te-4t320cos(8t) microamps
We can now construct a complete equation for i(t). From KCL:
i(t) = iR(t) + iC(t) + iL(t)
i(t) = 46.8 + 75.00024t + 0.6tte-4tsin(8t) - 6.24968cos(8t) amps
Find i(t) for t = 0.1 second. Round your answer to the nearest amp.
i(t) =

That's right.
i(t) = 46.8 + 75.00024t + 0.6tte-4tsin(8t) - 6.24968cos(8t) amps
i(0.1) = 46.8 + 75.00024(0.1) + 0.6(0.1)(0.1)e-0.4sin(0.8) 6.24968cos(0.8) amps
i(0.1) = 46.8 + 7.500 + 0.006 - 4.354 amps
i(.01) = 29.532 ~ 30 amps
Many students make the mistake of treating 8t as an angle in degrees. It is not in
degrees. It is in radians. Most calculators can be set to find trigonometric functions in
radians.

59

In this tutorial, you will use what you have learned about first order
systems to solve three problems, each one progressively more complex
than the last, and building on the results of the last. Consider the
circuit below.

Assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged. The switch is closed at t = 0.

Find v(0-). This is the voltage on the capacitor the instant before the switch is closed.
v(0-) =

We now know that v(0-) = 0.

Find v(0+). This is the voltage the instant after the switch is closed.
v(0+) =

We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = 0.

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Find v(infinity).
V
We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = 0, and v(infinity) = 120V.

Find , the time constant. Give your answer in milliseconds.

ms
We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = 0, v(infinity) = 120V, and = 600ms.

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We can now apply the following formula to get a complete expression for the behavior
of the voltage for t > 0:
v(t) = vf + (v0 - vf)e(-t/)
The result will be
v(t) = 120 - ____e(-t/)V
What is the value that's supposed to be in the blank?

We now have the final expression for the capacitor voltage as a function of time:
v(t) = 120 - 120e(-t/)V

You'll need your calculator for this part. Find v(t) for t = 200 ms. Round your answer to
the nearest volt.
v(200 ms) =

Now let's modify the circuit by adding another resistor.

62

It is no longer necessary to assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged. Instead, we

simply say that the switch has been open for a long time, then the switch is closed at t =
0.
Find v(0-).
V

We now know that v(0-) = 0.

Find v(0+).
V

We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = 0.

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Find v(infinity).
V

We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = 0, and v(infinity) = 90V.

Find , the time constant. Give your answer in milliseconds.

ms

We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = 0, v(infinity) = 90V, and = 450ms.

64

We can now apply the following formula to get a complete expression for the behavior
of the voltage for t > 0:
v(t) = vf + (v0 - vf)e(-t/)
The result will be
v(t) = 90 - 90e(-t/)V
What is the value that's supposed to be in the blank?

Now let's modify the circuit by adding another voltage source.

The switch has been open for a long time, then the switch is closed at t = 0.
Find v(0-).
V

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We now know that v(0-) = -200.

Find v(0+).
V

We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = -200V.

Find v(infinity).
V

We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = -200V, and v(infinity) = 40V.

66

Find , the time constant. Give your answer in milliseconds.

ms

We now know that v(0-) = v(0+) = -200V, v(infinity) = 40V, and = 450ms.

We can now apply the following formula to get a complete expression for the behavior
of the voltage for t > 0:
v(t) = vf + (v0 - vf)e(-t/)
The result will be
v(t) = 40 - __e(-t/)V
What is the value that's supposed to be in the blank?

67

The final result for the capacitor voltage is

v(t) = 40 - 240e(-t/) V

At t=0, this evaluates to -200 V. At infinity, it evaluates to 40 V. The voltage is a

decaying exponential that gradually approaches 40 V.

This will give you practice in dealing with RLC circuits. Consider the circuit below.

The switch has been closed for a long time. The switch is opened at t = 0. It is
necessary to find i(t) for t > 0. First, let's find initial and final conditions (the boundary
values).
What is i(0-)? This is the current just before the switch is opened.
amps

We now know that the current before the switch is opened is 0.

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Now let's open the switch.

What is i(0+)? This is the current the instant after the switch is opened.
amps

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0.

It will also be useful to determine initial conditions for the capacitor.

What is vC(0-)?
volts

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If vC(0-) = -80V, then vC(0+) = -80V, because you can't change the voltage across a
instantaneously

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0. The initial capacitor voltage is -80V. The circuit is
redrawn below for the situation after the switch is opened.

We will need to find i'(0) (the derivative of i at t = 0). We can do this by first finding
vL(0+).
What is vL(0+)?
volts

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0. The initial capacitor voltage is -80V. The initial
inductor voltage is 80V.

70

What is di/dt evaluated at t = 0?

amps/second

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0. The initial capacitor voltage is -80V. The initial
inductor voltage is 80V. i'(0) (di/dt evaluated at t = 0) = 20000 amps/second.

What is if = i(infinity)?
amps

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0. The initial capacitor voltage is -80V. The initial
inductor voltage is 80V. i'(0) (di/dt evaluated at t = 0) = 20000 amps/second. The final
current if = 0.

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This concludes the analysis of boundary conditions.

We now notice that the circuit above is a

RLC circuit

It is a series RLC circuit. Notice that the two resistors can be combined into a single
48 resistor.

What is ?
radians/second

is 6000 radians/second.

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What is 0 (the resonant frequency)?

radians/second

is 6000 radians/second and 0 is 5000 radians/second. Notice that these are

angular frequencies.

This circuit is

damped

is 6000 radians/second and 0 is 5000 radians/second. The circuit is overdamped.

For overdamped circuits, two damping constants are important:
s1 = - + sqrt(2 - 02)
s2 = - - sqrt(2 - 02)

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What is s1? Round off your answer to a whole number.

seconds-1.

is 6000 radians/second and 0 is 5000 radians/second. The two damping constants

are:
s1 = - + sqrt(2 - 02) = -2683/seconds
s2 = - - sqrt(2 - 02) = -9317/seconds
The general form of the equation for overdamped circuits is:
x(t) = xf +
In this particular case, we wish to find i(t), so,
i(t) = if +

If this formula is evaluated at t = 0, the result is

i(0) = if + X + Y,
where X is

74

Reiterating what we know about the boundary values:

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0. The initial capacitor voltage is -80V. The initial
inductor voltage is 80V. i'(0) (di/dt evaluated at t = 0) = 20000 amps/second. The final
current if = 0.
Reiterating what we know about the series RLC circuit:
is 6000 radians/second and 0 is 5000 radians/second. The two damping constants
are:
s1 = - + sqrt(2 - 02) = -2683/seconds
s2 = - - sqrt(2 - 02) = -9317/seconds
In general,
i(t) = if +
At t = 0,
i(0) = if + A1 + A2

Using what we know about the boundary values, we can show that,
A1 is

Reiterating what we know about the boundary values:

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0. The initial capacitor voltage is -80V. The initial
inductor voltage is 80V. i'(0) (di/dt evaluated at t = 0) = 20000 amps/second. The final
current if = 0.
Reiterating what we know about the series RLC circuit:
is 6000 radians/second and 0 is 5000 radians/second. The two damping constants
are:
s1 = -2683/seconds
s2 = -9317/seconds
In general,
i(t) = if +
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The evaluation of this equation for t = 0 gives us,

A1 = -A2

In order to get the one additional equation we need, we must take the derivative of the
general equation above. This gives,
i'(t) = di/dt = 0 +
where X is

Reiterating what we know about the boundary values:

The initial current i(0+) = i0 = 0. The initial capacitor voltage is -80V. The initial
inductor voltage is 80V. i'(0) (di/dt evaluated at t = 0) = 20000 amps/second. The final
current if = 0.
Reiterating what we know about the series RLC circuit:
is 6000 radians/second and 0 is 5000 radians/second. The two damping constants
are:
s1 = -2683/seconds
s2 = -9317/seconds
In general,
i(t) = if +
The evaluation of this equation for t = 0 gives us,
A1 = -A2

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In addition to the above information, we now have an expression for i'(t):

i'(t) = di/dt =
Let us now evaluate this equation at t = 0. What is the value of A1? Give the value to 3
significant figures.
A1 =

amps

The complete equation for the current in the circuit is now:

i(t) = 3.01(e-2683t - e-9317t) A

An inspection of this equation shows that the current starts at 0, rises, then falls back to
0 again. It may be instructive to find the time at which the current reaches its peak
value. Give its value rounded off to the nearest microsecond.
t(imax) =

microseconds

The complete equation for the current in the circuit is:

i(t) = 3.01(e-2683t - e-9317t) A

77

i(t) reaches a maximum at t = 188s.

What is the peak current? Give your answer to 3 significant figures.

imax =

amps

The complete equation for the current in the circuit is:

i(t) = 3.01(e-2683t - e-9317t) A
i(t) reaches a maximum of 1.30A at t = 188s.
A plot of i(t) is shown below.

78