THD 300

Ethan Hollinger
11/17/2015
Dr. Bruce Burningham

Whats Lost Is Now Found:

Unconventional Theatre Spaces of the Spanish Golden Age

In terms of the nuts and bolts of the theatre of the Spanish Golden Age, one of the most
interesting things is the reliance on found space. Pulling from the stylings of the troubadours, or
traveling performers, the primary revolution within scenery of the Spanish Golden Age of
Theatre was not some new stage mechanics or scientific machine to dazzle the audience, but
instead the utilization of found spaces as performance venues. From the auto sacrementals to the
corrale to the chamber performances, each utilized a found space in order to make the most use
of the staging. This reflects a unique symbiosis within the theatrical world of the time due to the
nature of integrating the performance within the community.
In general, before beginning any sort of discussion, it is important to begin with a
definition of terms. Now, when talking about a theatre, it is important to note that its not only
referencing the physical space, or the performative tradition, but also the experience that is

made as a whole. Art is often defined as an imitation of reality, and theatre is no exception to

this rule. This reality is taken to its most basic, playing on the human need to communicate.
Thus, the artistic endeavor of creating theatre in its purest form is the fundamental relationship
that makes up theatre: actor and audience. Or, in a more simplistic sense, someone to talk and
someone to listen.
However, in its imitations of life, theatre help to move us by showing us things that we
may otherwise be incapable of realizing. It can show us not only ourselves, but society as a
whole and provide critique and commentary on the subjects it discusses in a way that is usually
perceived to be more friendly and apt to make one think than a heated debate. Thus, the role of
the modern theatre has the potential to make strides forward on many fronts, through its subtle
political activist shrouded within its artistic endeavors. Such has been the case with Brechts
Epic Theatre or Boals Theatre of the Oppressed, using theatre as a means to fight social
injustice and encourage dialogue about the state of affairs in the world around the audience.
After all, Theatre is at best a trick mirror that both represents and distorts, showing as often the
myths of a societys self-image as its realities (Greer 393). So the representations theatre shows
are not always entirely unbiased. In fact, this in and of itself can lead to interesting discussions
regarding a society and its perceptions of self, as well as how its flaws are addressed.
Particularly when the purpose of theatre is stated as the quest for truth. With these definitions in
mind, one can properly examine one of the most controversial theatrical practices that has come
to exist in modern theatre: the found space.

On entering a theatre of any kind, a spectator walks into a specific space; one that is
designed to produce a certain reaction or series of responses. The reception of that space
becomes part of the total theatrical experience and sets the tone for what is to come. How big is
the space? What dcor is used? How bright is it? What temperature is it? Iis there food or other
items for sale? Is there music or other sound effects playing? These are just a few of the possible
design elements that may make up a theatrical space. As previously stated, theatre at its core is
the relationship between storyteller and audience. So one of the more interesting things to note is
the nature of the audience area. Are there seats? Is there a separate area at all? Are performers
mingling with the audience? These questions will begin to inform the audience whether they are
merely observers or, in fact, active participants of the experience they are about to undergo.
In terms of the theatre of the Spanish Golden Age, these ideas are especially prevalent in
the theatre of the time, even though they would not have recognized it as such during their own
time. Theatre was partaken in as a group activity- with the invitation to see the story, to engage
with it and experience it, rather than sit idly by. However, this was not accomplished by calling
people out to come to a new space specifically constructed for the purposes of theatre, but rather
instead building from and adapting to the familiar territory of the community. This is especially
interesting to note in the construction of the corrales- that even when they were adapted to be
long running theatres, they were still not necessarily built as freestanding buildings, but instead
as extensions of the existing framework around them. Three of the walls were used from existing

houses surrounding a common square. Then a semi-permanent stage and backdrop were added to
complete the space.
Now, as previously discussed, art imitates life. And as such, this is especially telling as
to the type of theatre being performed, reflecting the communal nature of the towns of the time.
Farmers would live in a village, and travel to their farms each morning rather than the
segregation of farm from farm as we are more familiar with. Spanish culture as a whole tends to
focus on the community rather than the individual. And this is reflected in within the theatre of
the time period. Now granted, in many ways, Spanish theatre of this time was an extension of
both government and church to reflect and further their own interests. The Church, the
monarchy, and other privileged groups that had to draw to themselves sectors of opinion exerted
all possible pressure to strengthen these extra-rational aspects so they could make use of them

(Maravall 12). Therefore, the theatre of the time period reflects both the culture and the
machinations happening behind the scenes, and by studying performative traditions and the
works themselves, we can learn a good deal about why the Spanish theatre was so heavily
promoted by both the monarchy and the church. Maravall presents baroque culture as a guided
culture, controlled by monarchical absolutism, as urban and mass culture, which develops in
European cities to integrate the people into the modern state under sovereign authority. In this
sense, it is a conservative and hegemonic culture (Llolini 190). In fact, it goes so far as to stay
there was an investment on all levels to keep the traditional, as opposed to the progressive. And

as such, the traditional elements within the artistic realms began to see a return to the forefront,
even if the resurgence is primarily for ulterior motives.
In spite of these somewhat sinister machinations, the general populace were content to
help the theatre thrive. Theatre was well attended, and became a common practice of all levels of
society, instead of being seen as an art form dedicated to the aristocracy of the time period. Even
though some did not wish to be Even court theatre, which was reserved for those who could
afford it, was somewhat commonplace. And as we have already established the idea of the
theatre being a popular communal experience, it bears further study that this differed from
several other performative traditions of the time. Because of the nature of the political and
religious impetus behind the theatre of Spain in this time, it stayed away from some of the more
political contexts that Shakespeare tended to delve into. And because of the emphasis on
communal story telling with plays for the common people, it somewhat avoided the strict
Neoclassical rules of French theatre. Instead, Spanish theater made use of the communal nature
of its performance traditions and utilized found spaces in order to best serve the communities.
However, before we delve into the specifics of the Spanish Golden Age of Theatre and its use of
found spaces, it is important to establish some of the prevailing theories about the nature of

found space theatre and the psychologies behind it.

Many modern directors have experimented with the idea of a found space even within
an actual theater. The prevailing idea behind this is that we are, in essence, stripping away all of
the extraneous details and choosing which we value most to add back in for the sake of the

production. In his book aptly titled The Empty Space, Peter Brooks said it best when
describing theatre at its core: I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. A man walks
across this empty space whilst someone else is watching him, and this is all that is needed for an
act of theatre to be engaged. This directly ties back in to the idea that art imitates life. The
most simplistic of actions or spoken words are theatre, regardless of time or place. But, the
ideology behind the found space is the idea that we take either a traditional theatre space and use
it in a new way. Or we repurpose a different space to create something new and different where a
performative history has not existed. Thus, the intrigue and inherent beauty of the found space
is in its intrinsic simplicity that allows theatre to return to its roots, as opposed to the extravagant
pageantry that seems to accompany many of the modern theatrical endeavors today. For many
theatrical artists (especially with those that believe in the more political nature of theatre), the
found space is inherently superior to the overstimulating modern production. Why bother to
shout over the storm of noise when you can eschew those ideas of entertainment? Instead, utilize
a performance style that allows you to whisper, and have that whisper grow into a powerful
voice for change and reform. Yet even without the political statement, the stripped down, bare
bones performances that usually happen in found spaces lend themselves to more intense
experiences, many times because of their connection to the communal experience. It is, after all,
a very different experience to be herded into a warehouse with no seats for a performance than to
be ushered to your seat in a traditional proscenium theatre. Thus, theres an increased appeal for
a performance to eschew the idea of the traditional experience for utter simplicity and
storytelling. Much like ancient storytellers around a campfire, the lure of the found space is that

it provides a shared bond to experience and dream and discover through the eyes of another:
Something that may not always happen in the realm of big Broadway shows that border on
theater of cruelty in terms of exposure and overstimulation.
In the conventional modern theatre performances that we are accustomed to, the stage (or
whatever space the production will ultimately inhabit) allows for a broad visual perspective that,
to some extent, supplants imagination and instead usually fills in the lines of all of the
necessaries of the stories. This leads to some beautiful design work and breathtaking stage
pictures, but it also tends to capitalize on the willing suspension of disbelief in order to bring
about the ideals of escapist theatre. The result is that the communication between actors and
audience is almost exclusively one directional- from the stage to the audience, who is not forced
to engage, but rather allowed to escape into the realm of the story presented to them. Within the
bounds of escapism, the audience has not come to think about some great social problem or deal
with socioeconomic upheaval. Instead, they wish to escape into another world. To care about
someone elses problems for a while instead of their own. If art imitates life, then we have
become a highly individualized and narcissistic society focused on ourselves. A theatrical
audience as a whole may be sitting within inches of each other, but will most likely not engage
with the actors as anything beyond an attentive or pensive listener, much less engage with each
other as a part of the group. The nature of theatrical performance has become individualized,
seeking to allow for our own personal experience of the work, rather than as a collective group
experiencing the story as a whole, with the actors as a part of the group. This trend has continued

to perpetuate the unique me vs. them dichotomy that pervades most forms of modern
entertainment. In many instances, it is not even a question of the communal us vs. them, but
instead the emphasis on the individual strengthens the 4th wall into an insurmountable barrier that
prevents honest dialogue and instead constrains theatre into the realm of escapist entertainment.
One performative trend in modern theatre is to instead work towards breaking down that wall, is
to create situations and performances without the 4th wall at all, inviting the communal
experience instead of the individual. The performance creates a neutral space and then the
performers address the spectators directly as they walk, talk and sit among them in a space that is
collaborative and mostly devoid of the rigid formality of traditional theatrical experiences.
In an additional added layer, performances can eschew the traditional theatre space
entirely in favor of a found space, such as a church, a warehouse, an office building, or any other
space where the primary architectural purpose is not a theatrical experience, but instead a place
that will be transformed by the imposition of an audience and performers upon it. Additional
theatrical elements may be included, be it sets, lighting or other traditional elements of the
theatre. Yet often, it is the space is set up just by clearing a large enough space to accommodate
the audience. This choice is up to the director and the artists themselves, as they will know what
best suits the nature of the piece. Because the space dictates so much of the emotional and
sensory impact of the performance, often directors seek spaces that provide the necessary impact
on the audience when mounting a production. This is one reason that many times, you see some
of the elements of theatricality bleeding into the audience, be it the roots of an onstage tree, or

the proscenium arch looming over the audience, or even actors appearing from non-traditional
offstage entrances. Even the auditorium lighting levels and color temperature of the lamps
chosen are effective communication tools to acclimate the audience and help them transition into
the world of the play. But these considerations occur with the idea of the formal separation of
audience from actor, and whether the audience should be merely observers or are also tasked
with active participation within the work. Also, the production team must also decide other
details about the invasion of the actors into audience space, and how that will impact the
production, as well as the psychological impact of the feel of the space and whether it feels open
or confined, friendly or hostile, or many other emotional invocations of the audiences primary
encounter with the world of the play and how it will help to ease them towards the willing
suspension of disbelief. Yet, although the space may change, much of these factors are still
present when a performance takes place within a found space.
One of the major impacts on our modern theatrical ideas today was Jerzy Grotowski, a
renowned director and one of the pioneers and champions of found space theatre. In an
interview with Jean-Marie Drot, he creates an interesting dialogue regarding the nature of his
theories on poor theatre. Grotowski advocates for the stripping down of theatre to the bare
essentials, comparing it as an antithesis of cinema and more visual forms of entertainment.

Jean-Marie Drot: What strikes you straight away, is the sobriety, by that I mean
that you have removed, everything which for us seems to form part of the theatre.

You have removed the scenery, you have removed the make up, you have
removed the tape recorder, you have removed...everything, except the theatre,
you could say.
Grotowski: We have been searching for that for a long time, what is the sense of
the theatre, because, when we observe the situation, of the theatre compared with
cinema and television, we have considered that many of the purely technical
methods, that are still now Because, in television, in cinema, we can make much
better arrangements, change the place, the action, the location of the action,
transform the actor via costumes, special effects, artificial snow, artificial wind,
everything, make up. All that can be prepared, in cinema or in television, all that
can be prepared much better than in the theatre.

Jean-Marie Drot: Which attracts you to what you call, the poor
theatre.

Grotowski: Yes, the poor theatre, the bare theatre, after all that which is not
theatre itself. You can say that, what is the rest? There remains only the living
man, the living man, that is the actor, who can transform himself for the others,
the witnesses, and who can find a sort of relationship with these others, with the
spectators. In the end all that is being done now, is the naked man, this actor. All
that can occur at the same time, music, sculpture, scenery, all that...

Jean-Marie Drot: But in the actor?

Jerzy Grotowski: In the actor, in his body, there is the entire
theatre, you can say but against the dreams about total theatre,
that is, the total theatre through the total actor.

Grotowskis poor theatre has several components: such theatrical conventions as lighting,
makeup, costume, props, and scenery are minimized or eliminated entirely. But, he goes still
further to say that the only essential part of theatre is the actor who creates it for other. The
emphasis, rather than on space or designed elements, lies instead on the relationship between the
actor and the audience, and the communal experience that this creates. As such and in order to
break the 4th wall, the entire theatre becomes a part of the experience, and the entire theatre is
utilized as a part of the stage mechanism. This goes hand in hand with the nature of found theatre
spaces- the eschewing of the complex for the simplistic. It could be say that this type of theatre is
even returning to its true roots of storytelling. Countless others have embraced similar things,
including Brechts conceptualizations of Epic theatre or the French avant-garde movement
towards theatre of the absurd, breaking down the traditional for the community experience.

Grotowski begins his own book Towards A Poor Theatre by wondering what separates
the theatre from its chief rivals, film and television. He finds that the essential unique element of
theatre is contact with the living organism - the actor. Since theatre can never be as visually

rich and lavishly designed and lit as film or television, he believes that theatre should be
impoverished in these regards, and putting the emphasis back on the actor and the storytelling
within the found space. Thus, Grotowski criticizes contemporary productions, rich theatre,
that attempt to copy the scenography techniques to create a cinematographic feel to the
production, with gimmicks and extravagance. Therefore, it seems that he would much have
preferred the theatre of previous eras, noting that the simplistic storytelling and general feeling of
community created within those artistic endeavors. One of his contemporaries, Peter Brook

(another acclaimed director and found space practitioner) said Grotowski is showing us
something which existed in the past but has been forgotten over the centuries; that is that one of
the vehicles which allows man to have access to another level of perception is to be found in the
art of performance. To step away from the cerebral nature of the statement, simply put, the
implication is that in performance, the audience gains a new vantage point that may prove
enlightening. Also worthy of note is the idea that Brook presents that this type of art, of theatre,
has existed throughout the ages, yet recently has fallen prey to the modern sensibilities. So, there
are times throughout history that this type of theatre has existed. Within the Spanish Golden age
of theatre, this is especially prevalent as all three major types of theatre can be seen as a part of
the found space traditions.

Now, with this in mind, we can see many similarities within three major types of theatre
being produced in the Spanish Golden Age. The appearance of theatre within this time show a
remarkable amount of resilience. That it did so, despite the occasional, if not always universally

respected, closure of the theaters in periods of national mourning, pestilence, or as a result of the
objections of moralists, is a testament to both its remarkable vigor and the vigor of the
supporting society, and the vibrancy with which they met life (Pym). The theatre of this time is
every bit as lively, creative and unique as the culture it imitated. In general, each type of theatre
makes extensive use of a found space instead of a space specifically created for the theatrical
endeavors. In speaking about the origins of theatre, most scholars believe that theatre arose out
of three primary human needs: to tell stories, rituals, and the innate human need to play. All three
of these ideas are present in each of the major theatrical types within the Spanish Golden Age,
specifically in the utilization of the found space. The found space reflects the idea that theatre is
born out of a community in answer to the idea of the human need to tell stories and the need of
artists to imitate life. Within these spaces, the experience creates a connection of humanity, both
in actor/audience relationships, and also within the audience as they relate to each other and
react/expound upon their shared experiences of the theatrical work. Each of the three major
styles of theatre being produced in the time has its own relationship to the idea of the found
space.

First, looking at the auto sacrementals, or the religious dramas of the time, these
productions make exceptional use of the idea of found space as the performance itself took place
on a two or four carros or two story wagons, in parades around major cities as part of the Corpus
Christi processions once a year. The general frivolity and playful spirit that surrounded the
festival reflects the need to play, the annual routine of the familiar ritual, and the stories being

told all reflect the simplicity of the found space as it ties back into the origins of theatre. The
social, or public, quality of Spanish religious faith, together with a long and rich history of
popular theatre and dance traditions, readily lent itself to the development of the fiesta, a
distinctly social, rather than individual, phenomenon(Brooks 2). The environment created by the
celebratory atmosphere helped to cement the sense of community. On the whole, artistic
expression received considerable encouragement from Rome, which recognized that religious
spectacle could orchestrate sight, sound, and movement into a tangible and sensual
demonstration and experience of the Catholic faith. And in keeping with the reformationist spirit
moving the Catholic world, art and spectacle were seen as appropriate weapons in the fight
against Protestantism and toward Catholic Reform (2). As time went on, many people expanded
the form and continued to provide new stories. During one recorded account, the celebration
then included choirboys costumed as angels or biblical figures, music, a parade of the
cathedrals relics, floats of biblical scenes, a great throne for the Host, and processions of
dignitaries from the church, the city government, and the nobility. Popular elements were also
included in the processions at this date, with floats, dragon figures, several dances, and plays
being paid for by the guilds (3). Finally, accused of displaying irreverence toward the sacrament
during the 18th century, their performance was in 1765 prohibited by royal decree.
What began as an extension of the church into the community evolved into an annual
festival of storytelling that occurred throughout this period of history. The dramas celebrated the
mystery of the Eucharist by mixing the human, supernatural and allegorical into one melting pot

of stories that took utilized both the traditional Biblical stories as well as the stories of the saints
of the church. This form was born out of pageant wagons that were initially living tableaus that
achieved agency and then finally a dramatic form. Yet, the dramatic form was designed in a
series of scenes that moved throughout the city. Whenever these theatrical pageant wagons were
in use, they stopped in various open spaces about the city and creating a shared theatrical
experience with the people that stopped to watch or gathered along the parade route in
anticipation. Its also interesting to note the progressive nature of the story telling, as one wagon
told its story and moved on, with all of the stories fitting into the grand larger arc. The
performers repeated themselves as they moved throughout the city, yet each stop represented a
different space with a new audience to interact with. The nature of this interaction changed based
on the location, while the performance itself did not. And this is very much a found space
contribution to the idea of theatre, that each audience is part of the changing space, and the
performance itself creates theatre wherever it travels. As there is no permanent space, the space
truly is a found space, incorporating multiple locations for the performances. Yet the traveling
festivities encompasses the entire community with the atmosphere that encourages the
experience.
Slowly, the Spanish passion for movement and rhythm began to play a role until there
were also elaborately choreographed dances that happened along the route. Although separate
from traditional narrative that occurred during the autosacramentals, the dances were a slightly
different branch of the same performance traditions that contributed to the festival of Corpus

Christi. These dances were performed in the citys cathedral and also at spots designated along
the parade route. Some of the works presented theatricalized versions of courtly balls, while
others were more popular and dramatic compositions based on religious, mythological, or
historical events. Typically, such works had around twelve dancers and one fife-and drum
player, all of whom marched amid the cathedrals clergy, and then performed at designated spots
in major plazas or before such important centers of religious or civic authority as the city hall
and the cathedral (4). Remarkably, at a time when women were barred from the public stages of
England and were still far inferior in number and prestige to male actors in Italy, France, and
also in Spain, the dances of Sevilles processions regularly featured men and women performing
together, with rich costumes and lively steps (Brooks 2). Even more surprising considering the
time period, however, is the fact that many of these dances were choreographed by womenwomen who bid for commissions, signed their names to contracts, and were paid fees for their
work by the City Council (3). The female choreographers were accorded full business privileges
and obligations, with their contracts essentially identical to those of the men hired by the city

(7). The theatrical stylings of the autosacrementals did not discriminate between gender or even
social status necessarily, but rather created a communal space that promoted the celebration of
religious passion and fervor through a creative festival of the arts.
One other element worth noting about auto sacrementals was that they were produced by
trade guilds at the request of the church until the mid-sixteenth century. Each different guild
sponsored a specific wagon annually, with some even becoming long, outstanding rivalries about

who had the most impressive or showcased their guild the best. During the mid-sixteenth
century, the municipal authorities took over and began to pay for these performances at great
expense, justified in both the enjoyment of the people and in service to God (Brooks 2).
However, given the purpose of the pieces, its unknown how much of an impact the auto
sacrementals had on the general populace, but nonetheless the message is clear that the effect of
theatre on society is dependent on the capacity on which it was used. As the auto sacrementals
were put on annually however, perhaps looking at the commedia that took place in the corrales
of the time period would be a more accurate depiction of the true nature of theatre for the time.
The corrales were something that was unique and decidedly Spanish in origin. With a
basis in the courtyard performances of traveling bards and troupes, the corrale was an expansion
of this construct, taking place in a rectangular courtyard enclosed by buildings on three sides.
With the addition of a semi-permanent stage and a permanent backdrop, it provided a space that
was both intimate and familiar, yet exciting and transformative to the audiences. Within the 3
existing walls, a communal space was established that invited the intimacy of a story while
encouraging the playful atmosphere and ritual gatherings as each troupe came and went.
Included in the space were refreshment booths, as well as galleries for more spectators including
gender specific galleries and box seats. And in doing so, we add another layer that is worth
touching on.
Within the performative found space of the corrale, there was also the performance of
gender in terms of separation and the dichotomy that exists wherein. Even though many plays

dealt with the ideas of mistaken identity and the possibility of mixed up genders, men and
women were both forbidden from dressing in the garb of the opposite gender. However, women
were able to bend the rules a bit as long as they wore the traditional male dress from the waist up
while wearing a skirt from the waist down. Unlike many other theatre communities in this time
period, women were allowed to perform, but the practice remained highly controversial until
1599 when a royal decree stipulated that only women married to an existing male company
member were allowed to perform on the stage. Yet even then, one acting company was led by a
woman, Francisca Lopez (Brooks 6). Two other directors of theatrical troupes employed in
Sevilles fiestas were women: Juana de Pinero, in 1660, and Magdalena Lopez, also listed as a
widow, in 1677 (7). All of these stipulations were a reflection on the culture of the time, with the
pieces produced within the found space of the corrale strongly paralleling the life outside the
courtyard, including the gender restrictions of the time period. Yet, even in this, there was some
flexibility in the name of art.
The audiences were often lively and unruly rather than the somewhat restrained
audiences that we are familiar with today. A broad mix of spectators from all classes, the
Musketeers, to the farmers and merchants, to the religious or political figures who may have
rented windows in the surrounding houses that made up the corrale space in order to keep from
being associated with the theater itself, yet who still didnt want to miss out on the entertainment
the theatre had to offer. And as such, the theatre was a communal experience that reflected the
life it was imitating, both in terms of story and within the theatre space itself. And depending on
the nature of the performance and the response of the crowds, actors could be met with tomatoes

or thunderous applause, as dictated by the whims of the audience. The nature of the found space
created something special, instantly transporting the audience to the locales of the play yet which
had suddenly become localized through the space and people around them. Many times as well,
the actors were known to make improvisational political or religious quips from the stage. After
all, anyone associated with a theatre troupe was fair game to be accused of prostitution of petty
theft, if not worse. Thus, it was not uncommon for the performers to take improvisational jabs at
local figures who may have given them trouble during the time they were in town for the run of
the performances (Brooks 4). Theatre is still reflective of a communal experience at this time, as
the ideas of escapism and individuality have not become forefront to the extent that they will
within our modern theatrical contexts. Thus, it is unsurprising to find that the original corrales
were licensed to charitable organizations within the community in order to put on fundraiser
performances- the proceeds of which were then used support hospitals and aid the poor.
In complete counterpoint to the concept of the corrale which embraced the idea of the
storytelling of the common man, the court performances of the time were quite common within
the upper echelons of society. These arose during the theatre loving Philip IIs reign. There was
quite a wide repertoire of plays performed, as evidenced by the accounts by Spaniards, foreign
ambassadors and dignitaries of such performances and the huge amount of archival material
unearthed (Robbins 1). While it began primarily based in the kings palace at Alcazar, soon this
hearkening back to the troubadours and bards of the past began to happen in households of
anyone that fancied themselves a part of the upper class. It was done within many rooms and
open spaces within the house, but the intimacy allowed for an entirely new level of found

space, in which the constrictions of the fourth wall may be erased even further after the
performance, as the troupe would interact with their hosts before departing on their way. The
court theatre demonstrates the ideals of found space in its close knit intimacy in forcing close and
personal relationships between the audience and actors, as the actors many times stayed for
dinner or other events to get to know their hosts and possibly garner donations for their
continued efforts. In addition, breaches in the fourth wall were common, causing the collision of
stage and real space into each other, creating a somewhat chaotic and playful feel as the actors
called upon the audience at length to interact and continue the storytelling (87). Although the
stories themselves tended towards more simplistic works, they still maintained an intensity in
spite of their light hearted content which quickly made them a popular diversion, albeit one that
could not be afforded by everyone.
In terms of the actual physical space for performances, the settings and decor employed
in court plays across Europe in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries were, largely,
generic and repetitive (Robbins 80). In Spanish machine plays, this range is narrowed down
quite significantly, so that a typical court play will have sea-scenes; some form of wilderness;
the underworld (though this noticeably less frequently than elsewhere in Europe); royal
residences; palace formal gardens; and one or more celestial palaces of the gods. The normal
trajectory of the arcs of the plots meant that the scenic elements representing chaos gradually
gave way to those representing order, harmony and civilization as the plot resolves itself (80).
~
From scenes of ship wrecks, pe n ascos and wild forests, to royal gardens, palaces and

celestial apotheoses, the simplistic scenic elements charted the progression of the plot from
chaos towards order. This is especially evident within the plays of Calderon. But as a whole,
rather than embracing new and creative settings to maintain interest, instead the focus was on
arresting architecture and ornamental design of individual sets and, especially, in the number
employed across a play and the rapidity of their changing before the spectators eyes. With a
little closer study, we often find genuine ingenuity and originality on the part of both playwright
and scenographer. It is as if, freed from the constraints of both the mythological plots and the
Italian Baroque staging traditions of the standard court machine play, both scenographers and
dramatists were able to be far more inventive in their use of stage space and in the ways that they
made this relate to, and engage with, real space (81). It is indeed the artistic freedom that
evolved out of the unique limitations of this type of theatre that allowed the exploration of the art
form and created entirely new innovations. Many explicitly reflect and represent, as their texts
invariably in some form refer to, real space, stage space reproducing the actual physical space of
the auditorium and / or the palace in which the play is performed (81). Ultimately, the world
created by these pieces is both reality-and-fiction and at its core, a consummate piece of theatre:
ingenious, flattering, and comic, it brings together all aspects: the real and fictional, the outside
and inside, being intermingled and blurring the lines together by means of the spatial conceits
created by the dramatist and scenographer (91). And this in fact, represents the nature of the
found space: all at once a study in paradoxes, designed to challenge and recreate in a way that is
simply not possible within the traditional performative framework we engage in.

Unfortunately, as with all things, the quest for the bigger and better minimalized the
impact as the court demanded new and more dynamic entertainment. Nortons Anthology notes
an excellent example: a design by Cosimo Lotti, who designed a stage that floated above the
waters of a nearby lake. A special silver chariot was drawn across the surface of the lake by two
large fish, while a mountain in the background was transformed into a place for Calderons Love
is the Greatest Enchantment. While the artistic response to the insatiable desire of the populace
did lead to interesting developments as they adopted some Italian scenography techniques, it also
meant the performances became more and more performative and less about the dialogue the
found space helped to foster. And this was true not only in the performances of the court, but
also the spaces of the corrale as it was slowly modernized and replace with more and more of the
Italian theatrical stylings for scenographic techniques.
Within the general performative culture of our modern day, Spanish Theatre has been
ostracized in the theatrical culture of today as people believe the plays to be static and flat in
light of their strict code of honor that seems to have no bearing on our more modern
sensibilities. In addition, the strict religious fanaticism and refusal to delve into the darker,
more human side of the human condition also seem to be major detractions from modern
productions. Also, the barrier of translation has also proven to be difficult for many, as there is
some question in whether or not the translations are faithful to the original work in terms of not
only its content, but also its poetic forms. However, despite the challenges of the adaptation of
Spanish Drama to the modern age, the theatre of the sixteenth- and seventeenth- century Spain
provided the world with some of its first global drama due to the spread of the works throughout

Spains extensive empire. While generally having been ostracized in a performative nature, in
recent times, the theatre of the Spanish Golden Age has been getting an expanded exploratory
inquisition, particularly with regard to the scenographic innovations of court theatre and the
much different styles of acting that were utilized during the time period. As always, the academic
side prevails, continuing its longstanding research into the history of the time period. On a more
general note, the growing academic interest in staging, alluded to earlier, may well reflect a
certain dissatisfaction with hermeneutic criticism's tendency over recent decades to privilege the
productive role of the solitary reader at the expense of a properly rigorous historical
contextualization of the seventeenth-century text. This tendency, that is to say, has sometimes
risked blurring the fact that these texts were written to be performed, and to be performed, more
to the point, with a particular historical audience in mind. It is therefore to be welcomed that so
many Golden-Age drama scholars should continue to recognize the fundamental importance of
history, of those interwoven contextual pressures which mediate the complex relationship
between the text, its transmission, and its articulation and reception as performance (Pym). And
furthermore, as Pym says in his commentary on the current state of Spanish Golden Age
theatrical within the world:
But a failure to embrace theory does not perforce imply a failure to progress. In
fact, it is now clear that the essentially ahistorical formalism and moralism of past
approaches to Golden-Age drama studies, most obviously represented in the
highly influential work of A. A. Parker from the 1940s on through the sixties and
beyond, has now definitively given way to a determination to read these plays

historically. But this is not just a question of history writ large, the kind of history
that investigates the drama's role in relation to great affairs of state, to the role of
the monarch, to Spanish history itself, and so on. It has also, importantly,
involved an increasing focus on different aspects of that country's social history.
The representation of women in the comedia, for example, continues to excite a
good deal of academic interest, as might be expected of a corpus of drama shot
through with the heady contradictions of Spanish male prejudice toward the
female sex. Then again, the fact that women's roles in the comedia, uniquely in
early modern theater, were actually represented by women has also proved of
great interest to feminist critics. Certainly one can detect a growing interest over
recent years in the representation in Golden-Age drama of "voiceless" minorities
or marginal groups such as the moriscos (Muslims "officially" converted to
Christianity), slaves, or, indeed, the indigenous peoples of the New World. This
increasingly interdisciplinary exploration of the shapes and boundaries of
seventeenth-century constructions of otherness, whether constituted in terms of
race, gender, status, or culture, looks set to continue. It is a trend which must, I
think, be most heartily welcomed and encouraged.

And in many ways, this will continued to be something explored. Much like the time period, the
nature of the theatrical endeavors will continue to provide the ability to develop our

understandings of ourselves through the lens of art. The ideas of creating a community
performance space for the production of theatrical endeavors is seeing a resurgence in popularity
as people strive to recreate the collective group experience that they so desperately crave, and
one of the most beneficial areas to study would be to consider the nature of the Spanish
community and its theatre during the Golden Age and the performative found spaces it utilized.
These found spaces were ultimately responsible for the communal atmosphere which helped to
foster the public forum responsible for much of the availability of such entertainments to the
general public. The found spaces of the time reflects the nature of the society, of the art, and of
the time period. And perhaps we have lost much of our simplicity in how we perceive theatre,
trading the powerful for the entertaining, and the communal for the individual. And perhaps it is
very much past time we search for and find them.