Bernoulli molecular explanation

1. Bernoulli molecular explanation

Bernoulli equation is derived from the principle of Energy conservation in the case of inviscid (zero viscosity)
flows.
In the particular case of incompressible flow the form is the well known:






+  =  

(1)

Where ,  and  are the fluid pressure, density and temperature, is the fluid height with respect to a


reference geo-potential surface and  is the gravity acceleration (9.81  )

The above is extrapolated from applying the inviscid, potential (irrotational) and incompressible simplifications
of the Navier-Stokes (momentum conservation) and continuity (mass conservation) to the energy conservation
equation.
From a molecular standpoint, how we can explain the fact that where the flow velocity increases, the pressure
decreases (considering a fluid flow travelling at the same "height" i.e. considering zero gravity potential energy
effects)?
We have to remind what is velocity, pressure (and temperature as well) from a molecular perspective. Lets
first consider the case of a stationary fluid/gas (perfect gas) in a container.
Stationary Fluid in a Tank/Container
From a molecular standpoint, in the container the  molecules/particles move in random directions with
velocity  on average, colliding with each other and with the container walls.
Pressure is a hence a measure of the force exerted by moving particles (fluid molecules) travelling randomly in
the fluid with average speed  when they hit each other or (in the case of a fluid in a container) hit the walls of
the container. As molecules hit the walls, they exchange (linear) momentum with the walls and thus exert a
force. In collisions, they shall "bounce elastically" (neglecting here entropy effects).
Pressure as a measure of force due to molecules collisions.
More specifically, it can be demonstrated that pressure is the force (per surface unit) exerted on the container
walls when the  molecules hit the wall in one second (thus exchanging momentum along the normal direction
to the wall) travelling at an average speed of  (for the sake of clarity we shall refer to molecule or particle
as the same). Pressure is proportional to the term   :
http://cnx.org/content/m42217/latest/?collection=col11406/latest

But  (more specifically   ) is also a measure of the energy of a particle. In fact in the fluid the
particles/molecules will be travelling in all random directions at an average velocity . Now, integrating the
term   for all particles will give us a measure of the total energy of the fluid. While dividing by  we obtain
a measure of the temperature. Hence both pressure and temperature are measures of the average
translational kinetic energy due to random / brownian motion of particles (hence due to molecular velocity).
Then in what these two measures are different and how they are related? The difference is that pressure is
proportional also to density, i.e. a higher density of the fluid will result in a higher pressure as there will be
more particles hitting the same wall surface in the unit time.
In our case density is assumed constant hence pressure and temperatures are directly linked to each other, i.e.
their relationship is linear.
Moving Fluid in a pipe
So far we have considered a stationary fluid/gas in a container. Now, lets consider the case of a pipe where all
particles, in addition to moving randomly with molecular velocity, are also moving in one direction with a
constant stream velocity. Thus each particle velocity can be broken down into two components. We denote
the fluid stream velocity as  and the molecular (kinetic translation energy related) velocity as  . In other
words  is the component is the velocity component of a molecule which, if averaged across all molecule, will
yield a zero value (because the fluid is at rest in a frame of reference moving with the fluid). This shall not
mean that each individual particle is at rest (again, in a frame of reference moving with the fluid). In fact each
particle will be moving randomly in all directions. But integrating this velocity term for all particles at a moment
in time (in the said moving frame of reference) the result shall be 0.
Fluid (Stream) vs Kinetic Translation velocities: Macroscopical vs Microscopical.
Hence, as said, for each particle, the total velocity  can be broken down into the "molecular"
("microscopical") velocity , component (as said we refer to this also as the "kinetic translational" velocity of
the particle) and a fluid flow stream "macroscopical" velocity . The latter  term indicates the (common)
migration or stream velocity for all particles moving through the pipe. In this frame of reference the
particles have no specific stream velocity in any preferential direction (on average), in a situation similar to the
example of the container. We are repeating over and over these concepts to ensure they are well understood.















Now, the Bernoulli principle states that the sum of the energies associated with these two components is
constant on average for the fluid. In fact in the Bernoulli equation, the pressure term is proportional to the
square average of the molecular velocity  , while the velocity term (where the velocity is the constant fluid
flow velocity) is proportional to the flow macroscopical kinetic energy (square average of the velocity ).
We should however be careful in re-writing Bernoulli (1) in the following form to take into account the breakdown of velocity components performed earlier:







+  =  

(1 b)

 and being constant in our examples.

Since pressure is proportional to the average square of the "molecular" velocity , , it is clear that where a
fluid with a certain energy level is moving with a constant velocity  through the pipe, the average square of
the molecular velocity will be smaller than the case of the same fluid when it is at rest (or the same fluid with a
velocity  < ).
In other words, in the case of the tank with a valve open allowing the fluid to escape through a pipe, the fluid
average squared molecular velocity being higher in the fluid in the tank, will be lower as the same fluid is
escaping through the pipe, having the fluid being acquired a stream velocity. Here the fluid is the same, where
same means there has not been any energy exchange resulting in the fluid overall energy being increased or
decreased.
A quantitative explanation of this is the following. Consider a bi-dimensional fluid flow at rest (e.g. in the tank)
and the same travelling at speed  (somewhere downstream in the pipe). This can be the case of a tank
much larger than the pipe connected to it and allowing the fluid to escape at velocity . Now, in the tank the
fluid has particles travelling in all directions with all speeds ranging from zero to infinity (statistically), but with
average . For sake of simplicity, let's assume that all particles have here speed exactly equal to || in modulus
but with random direction with equal probability distribution from 0 to 2#. In the general case, it shall be
demonstrable that the same result will yield. The envelope of velocities for all particles can be shown as in the
picture below. There shall not be any preferential direction as otherwise the fluid overall will not be at rest.
%


Integrating from 0 to 2# the square of the velocity  will give us of course   which we know is proportional to
the pressure and the temperature of the fluid.
In the second case of the same fluid in motion as said we can break down the velocity  into its components 
&
and &&&&&
 . Writing in term of molecular velocity components along the x and y axis yields:
 = ' ( + * +
&&&&&

(2)

having indicated the x and y axis unit vectors.

Pipe




6
$

As done previously, the envelope spanned by  for all possible angles provide a visualization of all possible
velocities in the case of the (part) of the (same) fluid in motion in the pipe. This envelope (in term of squared
velocity i.e. overall energy) shall be the same for the fluid at rest or in motion under the same conditions as (1).
Integrating in the case of the fluid in motion we have:
 1
 456
,,,
  (./) = 1 27 3( + ' ) + *

(3)

i.e.

 1

,,,
  = 1 27 8( +   6) + 
./6 956

(4)

After some simple calculation and considering that, to respect the energy conservation principle, the square
average of  must be the same for the fluid where it is in motion in the pipe or where it is at rest in the tank (it
is the same fluid), we obtain the following scalar equation, which is a form of the Bernoulli equation:

,,,
,,,,,
  =  + 
 =  

(5)

Rearranging and enlarging:

 =
 
,,,
,,,,,


Pressure
/Temp
term

Total
Energy
term

(6)

Stream
Velocity
term

Considering ,,,
  must be the same (as it encompasses both pressure term and fluid kinetic energy) and
remembering that ,,,,,
  is the term proportional to pressure (and temperature), what (6) tells us is that the
average squared molecular velocity for the fluid in motion must be smaller than the same squared molecular
velocity for the (same) fluid at rest. This also means that the molecules will on average exert a lower force onto
the pipe's walls when the fluid is in motion with an average velocity of  in the direction of $ in the example.
So pressure will be lower when the fluid is in motion ("escaping the tank" in the example) as opposed to the
same fluid at rest, provided the Bernoulli equation conditions are met i.e. there are no energy exchanges, the
fluid is incompressible ( =  ), the fluid is irrotational, gravity effect are neglected (same height). Also, as
pressure will be lower, also temperature will be lower since from the state equation of gas we have that

;<= where ; is a constant hence where  increases/decreases, also = shall increase/decrease accordingly if
 =  .
Jet Air Flow Condensation
This helps also explaining and visualizing the effect of jet condensation (vapor condensation trails or
"contrails") observed when flying in high relative humidity conditions. It can be observed as the air leaving the
wing or an airplane, for example, rapidly expands - typically above the wing - as the air flow is accelerated
(with good approximations in fact air can be considered an incompressible fluid for the range of velocities
experienced by - subsonic - aircrafts). As air expands and pressure decreases, subsequently also the
temperature decreases. When the air temperature rapidly decreases below the dew point (point of
condensation) temperature, the water vapor contained in the air flow starts condensating thus generating the
vapor trails. This can typically be observed at landing for example in near-saturated air when wing flaps and
slats enhance the pressure gradient at low airspeed.