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Information
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Information(shortenedasinfo)isthatwhichinforms.Inother
words,itistheanswertoaquestionofsomekind.Itisalsothat
fromwhichdataandknowledgecanbederived,asdata
representsvaluesattributedtoparameters,andknowledge
signifiesunderstandingofrealthingsorabstractconcepts.[1]As
itregardsdata,theinformation'sexistenceisnotnecessarily
coupledtoanobserver(itexistsbeyondaneventhorizon,for
example),whileinthecaseofknowledge,theinformation
requiresacognitiveobserver.
Atitsmostfundamental,informationisanypropagationofcause
andeffectwithinasystem.Informationisconveyedeitherasthe
contentofamessageorthroughdirectorindirectobservationof
something.Thatwhichisperceivedcanbeconstruedasa
messageinitsownright,andinthatsense,informationisalways
conveyedasthecontentofamessage.
Informationcanbeencodedintovariousformsfortransmission
andinterpretation(forexample,informationmaybeencodedinto
asequenceofsigns,ortransmittedviaasequenceofsignals).It
canalsobeencryptedforsafestorageandcommunication.

TheASCIIcodesfortheword
"Wikipedia"representedinbinary,
thenumeralsystemmostcommonly
usedforencodingtextualcomputer
information

Informationresolvesuncertainty.Theuncertaintyofaneventismeasuredbyitsprobabilityof
occurrenceandisinverselyproportionaltothat.Themoreuncertainanevent,themoreinformationis
requiredtoresolveuncertaintyofthatevent.Thebitisatypicalunitofinformation,butotherunitssuch
asthenatmaybeused.Example:informationinone"fair"coinip:log2(2/1)=1bit,andintwofair
coinflipsislog2(4/1)=2bits.
Theconceptthatinformationisthemessagehasdifferentmeaningsindifferentcontexts.[2]Thusthe
conceptofinformationbecomescloselyrelatedtonotionsofconstraint,communication,control,data,
form,education,knowledge,meaning,understanding,mentalstimuli,pattern,perception,representation,
andentropy.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Informationtheoryapproach
3 Assensoryinput
4 Asrepresentationandcomplexity
5 Asaninfluencewhichleadstoatransformation
6 Asapropertyinphysics
7 Theapplicationofinformationstudy
8 Technologicallymediatedinformation
9 Asrecords
10 Semiotics
11 Seealso

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11
12
13
14

Seealso
References
Furtherreading
Externallinks

Etymology
TheEnglishwordwasapparentlyderivedfromtheLatinstem(information)ofthenominative
(informatio):thisnounisderivedfromtheverbinformare(toinform)inthesenseof"togiveformtothe
mind","todiscipline","instruct","teach".Informitselfcomes(viaFrenchinformer)fromtheLatinverb
informare,whichmeanstogiveform,ortoformanideaof.Furthermore,Latinitselfalreadycontained
thewordinformatiomeaningconceptoridea,buttheextenttowhichthismayhaveinfluencedthe
developmentofthewordinformationinEnglishisnotclear.
TheancientGreekwordforformwas(morphecf.morph)andalso(eidos)"kind,idea,
shape,set",thelatterwordwasfamouslyusedinatechnicalphilosophicalsensebyPlato(andlater
Aristotle)todenotetheidealidentityoressenceofsomething(seeTheoryofForms)."Eidos"canalso
beassociatedwiththought,proposition,orevenconcept.
TheancientGreekwordforinformationis,whichtransliterates(plrophoria)from
(http://www.wordreference.com/gren/%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%82)
(plrs)"fully"and(http://www.wordreference.com/gren/%CF%86%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%89)
(phorein)frequentativeof(pherein)tocarrythrough.Itliterallymeans"fullybears"or"conveysfully".
InmodernGreeklanguagethewordisstillindailyuseandhasthesamemeaningasthe
wordinformationinEnglish.Unfortunatelybiblicalscholarshavetranslated(plrophoria)into"full
assurance"creatingaconnotativemeaningoftheword.Inadditiontoitsprimarymeaning,theword
asasymbolhasdeeprootsinAristotle'ssemiotictriangle.Inthisregarditcanbe
interpretedtocommunicateinformationtotheonedecodingthatspecifictypeofsign.Thisissomething
thatoccursfrequentlywiththeetymologyofmanywordsinancientandmodernGreeklanguagewhere
thereisaverystrongdenotativerelationshipbetweenthesignifier,e.g.thewordsymbolthatconveysa
specificencodedinterpretation,andthesignified,e.g.aconceptwhosemeaningtheinterpretantattempts
todecode.

Informationtheoryapproach
Fromthestanceofinformationtheory,informationistakenasanorderedsequenceofsymbolsfroman
alphabet,sayaninputalphabet,andanoutputalphabet.Informationprocessingconsistsofaninput
outputfunctionthatmapsanyinputsequencefromintoanoutputsequencefrom.Themappingmay
beprobabilisticordeterministic.Itmayhavememoryorbememoryless.[3]

Assensoryinput
Ofteninformationcanbeviewedasatypeofinputtoanorganismorsystem.Inputsareoftwokinds
someinputsareimportanttothefunctionoftheorganism(forexample,food)orsystem(energy)by
themselves.InhisbookSensoryEcology[4]Dusenberycalledthesecausalinputs.Otherinputs
(information)areimportantonlybecausetheyareassociatedwithcausalinputsandcanbeusedto
predicttheoccurrenceofacausalinputatalatertime(andperhapsanotherplace).Someinformationis
importantbecauseofassociationwithotherinformationbuteventuallytheremustbeaconnectiontoa
causalinput.Inpractice,informationisusuallycarriedbyweakstimulithatmustbedetectedby
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specializedsensorysystemsandamplifiedbyenergyinputsbeforetheycanbefunctionaltothe
organismorsystem.Forexample,lightisoftenacausalinputtoplantsbutprovidesinformationto
animals.Thecoloredlightreflectedfromafloweristooweaktodomuchphotosyntheticworkbutthe
visualsystemofthebeedetectsitandthebee'snervoussystemusestheinformationtoguidethebeeto
theflower,wherethebeeoftenfindsnectarorpollen,whicharecausalinputs,servinganutritional
function.

Asrepresentationandcomplexity
ThecognitivescientistandappliedmathematicianRonaldoVigoarguesthatinformationisaconcept
thatinvolvesatleasttworelatedentitiesinordertomakequantitativesense.Theseare,any
dimensionallydefinedcategoryofobjectsS,andanyofitssubsetsR.R,inessence,isarepresentation
ofS,or,inotherwords,conveysrepresentational(andhence,conceptual)informationaboutS.Vigothen
definestheamountofinformationthatRconveysaboutSastherateofchangeinthecomplexityofS
whenevertheobjectsinRareremovedfromS.Under"Vigoinformation",pattern,invariance,
complexity,representation,andinformationfivefundamentalconstructsofuniversalscienceare
unifiedunderanovelmathematicalframework.[5][6][7]Amongotherthings,theframeworkaimsto
overcomethelimitationsofShannonWeaverinformationwhenattemptingtocharacterizeandmeasure
subjectiveinformation.

Asaninfluencewhichleadstoatransformation
Informationisanytypeofpatternthatinfluencestheformationortransformationofotherpatterns.[8][9]
Inthissense,thereisnoneedforaconsciousmindtoperceive,muchlessappreciate,thepattern.
Consider,forexample,DNA.Thesequenceofnucleotidesisapatternthatinfluencestheformationand
developmentofanorganismwithoutanyneedforaconsciousmind.
Systemstheoryattimesseemstorefertoinformationinthissense,assuminginformationdoesnot
necessarilyinvolveanyconsciousmind,andpatternscirculating(duetofeedback)inthesystemcanbe
calledinformation.Inotherwords,itcanbesaidthatinformationinthissenseissomethingpotentially
perceivedasrepresentation,thoughnotcreatedorpresentedforthatpurpose.Forexample,Gregory
Batesondefines"information"asa"differencethatmakesadifference".[10]
If,however,thepremiseof"influence"impliesthatinformationhasbeenperceivedbyaconsciousmind
andalsointerpretedbyit,thespecificcontextassociatedwiththisinterpretationmaycausethe
transformationoftheinformationintoknowledge.Complexdefinitionsofboth"information"and
"knowledge"makesuchsemanticandlogicalanalysisdifficult,buttheconditionof"transformation"is
animportantpointinthestudyofinformationasitrelatestoknowledge,especiallyinthebusiness
disciplineofknowledgemanagement.Inthispractice,toolsandprocessesareusedtoassistaknowledge
workerinperformingresearchandmakingdecisions,includingstepssuchas:
reviewinginformationinordertoeffectivelyderivevalueandmeaning
referencingmetadataifanyisavailable
establishingarelevantcontext,oftenselectingfrommanypossiblecontexts
derivingnewknowledgefromtheinformation
makingdecisionsorrecommendationsfromtheresultingknowledge.
Stewart(2001)arguesthatthetransformationofinformationintoknowledgeisacriticalone,lyingatthe
coreofvaluecreationandcompetitiveadvantageforthemodernenterprise.

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TheDanishDictionaryofInformationTerms[11]arguesthatinformationonlyprovidesananswertoa
posedquestion.Whethertheanswerprovidesknowledgedependsontheinformedperson.Soa
generalizeddefinitionoftheconceptshouldbe:"Information"=Ananswertoaspecificquestion".
WhenMarshallMcLuhanspeaksofmediaandtheireffectsonhumancultures,hereferstothestructure
ofartifactsthatinturnshapeourbehaviorsandmindsets.Also,pheromonesareoftensaidtobe
"information"inthissense.

Asapropertyinphysics
Informationhasawelldefinedmeaninginphysics.In2003J.D.Bekensteinclaimedthatagrowing
trendinphysicswastodefinethephysicalworldasbeingmadeupofinformationitself(andthus
informationisdefinedinthisway)(seeDigitalphysics).Examplesofthisincludethephenomenonof
quantumentanglement,whereparticlescaninteractwithoutreferencetotheirseparationorthespeedof
light.Materialinformationitselfcannottravelfasterthanlightevenifthatinformationistransmitted
indirectly.Thiscouldleadtoallattemptsatphysicallyobservingaparticlewithan"entangled"
relationshiptoanotherbeingsloweddown,eventhoughtheparticlesarenotconnectedinanyotherway
otherthanbytheinformationtheycarry.
Themathematicaluniversehypothesissuggestsanewparadigm,inwhichvirtuallyeverything,from
particlesandfields,throughbiologicalentitiesandconsciousness,tothemultiverseitself,couldbe
describedbymathematicalpatternsofinformation.Bythesametoken,thecosmicvoidcanbe
conceivedofastheabsenceofmaterialinformationinspace(settingasidethevirtualparticlesthatpop
inandoutofexistenceduetoquantumfluctuations,aswellasthegravitationalfieldandthedark
energy).Nothingnesscanbeunderstoodthenasthatwithinwhichnospace,time,energy,matter,orany
othertypeofinformationcouldexist,whichwouldbepossibleifsymmetryandstructurebreakwithin
themanifoldofthemultiverse(i.e.themanifoldwouldhavetearsorholes).
AnotherlinkisdemonstratedbytheMaxwell'sdemonthoughtexperiment.Inthisexperiment,adirect
relationshipbetweeninformationandanotherphysicalproperty,entropy,isdemonstrated.A
consequenceisthatitisimpossibletodestroyinformationwithoutincreasingtheentropyofasystemin
practicaltermsthisoftenmeansgeneratingheat.Anothermorephilosophicaloutcomeisthat
informationcouldbethoughtofasinterchangeablewithenergy.Toyabeetal.experimentallyshowedin
naturethatinformationcanbeconvertedintowork.[12]Thus,inthestudyoflogicgates,thetheoretical
lowerboundofthermalenergyreleasedbyanANDgateishigherthanfortheNOTgate(because
informationisdestroyedinanANDgateandsimplyconvertedinaNOTgate).Physicalinformationis
ofparticularimportanceinthetheoryofquantumcomputers.
InThermodynamics,informationisanykindofeventthataffectsthestateofadynamicsystemthatcan
interprettheinformation.

Theapplicationofinformationstudy
Theinformationcycle(addressedasawholeorinitsdistinctcomponents)isofgreatconcernto
InformationTechnology,InformationSystems,aswellasInformationScience.Thesefieldsdealwith
thoseprocessesandtechniquespertainingtoinformationcapture(throughsensors)andgeneration
(throughcomputation,formulationorcomposition),processing(includingencoding,encryption,
compression,packaging),transmission(includingalltelecommunicationmethods),presentation
(includingvisualization/displaymethods),storage(suchasmagneticoroptical,includingholographic
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methods),etc.Informationdoesnotceasetoexist,itmayonlygetscrambledbeyondanypossibilityof
retrieval(withinInformationTheory,seelossycompressioninPhysics,theblackholeinformation
paradoxgetssolvedwiththeaidoftheholographicprinciple).
InformationVisualization(shortenedasInfoVis)dependsonthecomputationanddigitalrepresentation
ofdata,andassistsusersinpatternrecognitionandanomalydetection.

Partialmapofthe
Internet,withnodes
representingIP
addresses

Galactic(including
dark)matter
distributioninacubic
sectionoftheUniverse

Informationembedded
inanabstract
mathematicalobject
withsymmetry
breakingnucleus

Visualrepresentation
ofastrangeattractor,
withconverteddataof
itsfractalstructure

InformationSecurity(shortenedasInfoSec)istheongoingprocessofexercisingduediligencetoprotect
information,andinformationsystems,fromunauthorizedaccess,use,disclosure,destruction,
modification,disruptionordistribution,throughalgorithmsandproceduresfocusedonmonitoringand
detection,aswellasincidentresponseandrepair.
InformationAnalysisistheprocessofinspecting,transforming,andmodellinginformation,by
convertingrawdataintoactionableknowledge,insupportofthedecisionmakingprocess.
InformationCommunicationrepresentstheconvergenceofinformatics,telecommunicationandaudio
visualmedia&content.

Technologicallymediatedinformation
Itisestimatedthattheworld'stechnologicalcapacitytostoreinformationgrewfrom2.6(optimally
compressed)exabytesin1986whichistheinformationalequivalenttolessthanone730MBCD
ROMperperson(539MBperperson)to295(optimallycompressed)exabytesin2007.[13]Thisisthe
informationalequivalentofalmost61CDROMperpersonin2007.[14]
Theworldscombinedtechnologicalcapacitytoreceiveinformationthroughonewaybroadcast
networkswastheinformationalequivalentof174newspapersperpersonperdayin2007.[13]
Theworld'scombinedeffectivecapacitytoexchangeinformationthroughtwowaytelecommunication
networkswastheinformationalequivalentof6newspapersperpersonperdayin2007.[14]

Asrecords

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Recordsarespecializedformsofinformation.Essentially,recordsareinformationproducedconsciously
orasbyproductsofbusinessactivitiesortransactionsandretainedbecauseoftheirvalue.Primarily,
theirvalueisasevidenceoftheactivitiesoftheorganizationbuttheymayalsoberetainedfortheir
informationalvalue.Soundrecordsmanagementensuresthattheintegrityofrecordsispreservedforas
longastheyarerequired.
Theinternationalstandardonrecordsmanagement,ISO15489,definesrecordsas"informationcreated,
received,andmaintainedasevidenceandinformationbyanorganizationorperson,inpursuanceof
legalobligationsorinthetransactionofbusiness".TheInternationalCommitteeonArchives(ICA)
Committeeonelectronicrecordsdefinedarecordas,"aspecificpieceofrecordedinformation
generated,collectedorreceivedintheinitiation,conductorcompletionofanactivityandthatcomprises
sufficientcontent,contextandstructuretoprovideprooforevidenceofthatactivity".
Recordsmaybemaintainedtoretaincorporatememoryoftheorganizationortomeetlegal,fiscalor
accountabilityrequirementsimposedontheorganization.Willis(2005)expressedtheviewthatsound
managementofbusinessrecordsandinformationdelivered"...sixkeyrequirementsforgoodcorporate
governance...transparencyaccountabilitydueprocesscompliancemeetingstatutoryandcommonlaw
requirementsandsecurityofpersonalandcorporateinformation."

Semiotics
BeynonDavies[15][16]explainsthemultifacetedconceptofinformationintermsofsignsandsignalsign
systems.Signsthemselvescanbeconsideredintermsoffourinterdependentlevels,layersorbranches
ofsemiotics:pragmatics,semantics,syntax,andempirics.Thesefourlayersservetoconnectthesocial
worldontheonehandwiththephysicalortechnicalworldontheother.
Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththepurposeofcommunication.Pragmaticslinkstheissueofsignswiththe
contextwithinwhichsignsareused.Thefocusofpragmaticsisontheintentionsoflivingagents
underlyingcommunicativebehaviour.Inotherwords,pragmaticslinklanguagetoaction.
Semanticsisconcernedwiththemeaningofamessageconveyedinacommunicativeact.Semantics
considersthecontentofcommunication.Semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningofsignstheassociation
betweensignsandbehaviour.Semanticscanbeconsideredasthestudyofthelinkbetweensymbolsand
theirreferentsorconceptsparticularlythewayinwhichsignsrelatetohumanbehavior.
Syntaxisconcernedwiththeformalismusedtorepresentamessage.Syntaxasanareastudiestheform
ofcommunicationintermsofthelogicandgrammarofsignsystems.Syntaxisdevotedtothestudyof
theformratherthanthecontentofsignsandsignsystems.
Empirics[17]isthestudyofthesignalsusedtocarryamessagethephysicalcharacteristicsofthe
mediumofcommunication.Empiricsisdevotedtothestudyofcommunicationchannelsandtheir
characteristics,e.g.,sound,light,electronictransmissionetc..
Nielsen(2008)discussestherelationshipbetweensemioticsandinformationinrelationtodictionaries.
Theconceptoflexicographicinformationcostsisintroducedandreferstotheeffortsusersof
dictionariesneedtomakeinorderto,first,findthedatasoughtand,secondly,understandthedatasothat
theycangenerateinformation.
Communicationnormallyexistswithinthecontextofsomesocialsituation.Thesocialsituationsetsthe
contextfortheintentionsconveyed(pragmatics)andtheforminwhichcommunicationtakesplace.Ina
communicativesituationintentionsareexpressedthroughmessageswhichcomprisecollectionsofinter
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relatedsignstakenfromalanguagewhichismutuallyunderstoodbytheagentsinvolvedinthe
communication.Mutualunderstandingimpliesthatagentsinvolvedunderstandthechosenlanguagein
termsofitsagreedsyntax(syntactics)andsemantics.Thesendercodesthemessageinthelanguageand
sendsthemessageassignalsalongsomecommunicationchannel(empirics).Thechosencommunication
channelwillhaveinherentpropertieswhichdetermineoutcomessuchasthespeedwithwhich
communicationcantakeplaceandoverwhatdistance.

Seealso
Abstraction
Accuracyandprecision
Classifiedinformation
Complexity
Complexadaptivesystem
Complexsystem
Cybernetics
Datastoragedevice#Recordingmedium
Exformation
FreeInformationInfrastructure
Freedomofinformation
GregoryBateson
Informationandcommunicationtechnologies
Informationarchitecture
Informationbroker
Informationcontinuum
Informationentropy
Informatics
Informationgeometry
Informationinequity
Informationinfrastructure
Informationmanagement
Informationmapping
Informationoverload
Informationprocessing
Informationprocessor
Informationsensitivity
Informationsuperhighway
Informationsystems
Informationtheory
Infosphere
Lexicographicinformationcost
Libraryscience
Philosophyofinformation
Prediction
Propagandamodel
Quantuminformation
Receiveroperatingcharacteristic
Relevance
Satisficing
ShannonHartleytheorem

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References
1.http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/information
2.Ashortoverviewisfoundin:LucianoFloridi(2010).InformationAVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford
UniversityPress.ISBN0191609544."Thegoalofthisvolumeistoprovideanoutlineofwhatinformation
is..."
3.StephenB.Wicker,SaejoonKim(2003).FundamentalsofCodes,Graphs,andIterativeDecoding.Springer.
pp.1ff.ISBN1402072643.
4.Dusenbery,DavidB.(1992).SensoryEcology.W.H.Freeman.,NewYork.ISBN0716723336.
5.Vigo,R.(2011)."Representationalinformation:anewgeneralnotionandmeasureofinformation".
InformationSciences,181(2011),48474859.
6.Vigo,R.(2013).ComplexityoverUncertaintyinGeneralizedRepresentationalInformationTheory(GRIT):A
StructureSensitiveGeneralTheoryofInformation.Information,4(1),130doi:10.3390/info4010001
7.Vigo,R.(2014).MathematicalPrinciplesofHumanConceptualBehavior:TheStructuralNatureof
ConceptualRepresentationandProcessing.ScientificPsychologySeries,Routledge,NewYorkandLondon
ISBN0415714362.
8.Shannon,ClaudeE.(1949).TheMathematicalTheoryofCommunication.
9.Casagrande,David(1999)."Informationasverb:Reconceptualizinginformationforcognitiveandecological
models"(PDF).JournalofEcologicalAnthropology3(1):413.
10.Bateson,Gregory(1972).^Form,Substance,andDifference,inStepstoanEcologyofMind.Universityof
ChicagoPress.pp.448466.
11.Informationsordbogen.dk(http://www.informationsordbogen.dk/concept.php?cid=902)
12.http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101114/full/news.2010.606.html
13."TheWorldsTechnologicalCapacitytoStore,Communicate,andComputeInformation"
(http://www.sciencemag.org/content/332/6025/60),MartinHilbertandPriscilaLpez(2011),Science
(journal),332(6025),6065freeaccesstothearticlethroughhere:martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html
14."videoanimationonTheWorldsTechnologicalCapacitytoStore,Communicate,andComputeInformation
from1986to2010(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIKPjOuwqHo)
15.BeynonDaviesP.(2002).InformationSystems:anintroductiontoinformaticsinOrganisations.Palgrave,
Basingstoke,UK.ISBN0333963903
16.BeynonDaviesP.(2009).BusinessInformationSystems.Palgrave,Basingstoke.ISBN9780230203686
17.en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Semiotics

Furtherreading
AlanLiu(2004).TheLawsofCool:KnowledgeWorkandtheCultureofInformation,University
ofChicagoPress
Bekenstein,JacobD.(2003,August).Informationintheholographicuniverse.Scientific
American.
Gleick,James(2011).TheInformation:AHistory,aTheory,aFlood.Pantheon,NewYork,NY.
ShuKunLin(2008).'GibbsParadoxandtheConceptsofInformation,Symmetry,Similarityand
TheirRelationship',Entropy,10(1),15.AvailableonlineatEntropyjournalwebsite
(http://www.mdpi.com/10994300/10/1/1).
LucianoFloridi,(2005).'IsInformationMeaningfulData?',PhilosophyandPhenomenological
Research,70(2),pp.351370.AvailableonlineatPhilSciArchive(http://philsci
archive.pitt.edu/archive/00002536/01/iimd.pdf)
LucianoFloridi,(2005).'SemanticConceptionsofInformation',TheStanfordEncyclopediaof
Philosophy(Winter2005Edition),EdwardN.Zalta(ed.).AvailableonlineatStanfordUniversity
(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/informationsemantic/)
LucianoFloridi,(2010).Information:AVeryShortIntroduction,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.
SandroNielsen:'TheEffectofLexicographicalInformationCostsonDictionaryMakingandUse',
Lexikos18/2008,170189.
Stewart,Thomas,(2001).WealthofKnowledge.Doubleday,NewYork,NY,379p.
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Young,Paul.TheNatureofInformation(1987).GreenwoodPublishingGroup,Westport,Ct.
ISBN0275926982.

Externallinks
SemanticConceptionsofInformation
(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/informationsemantic/)
ReviewbyLucianoFloridifortheStanfordEncyclopedia
ofPhilosophy
PrincipiaCyberneticaentryonnegentropy
(http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html)
FisherInformation,aNewParadigmforScience:
Introduction,Uncertaintyprinciples,Waveequations,Ideas
ofEscher,Kant,PlatoandWheeler.

Lookupinformationin
Wiktionary,thefree
dictionary.
Wikiquotehasquotations
relatedto:Information
technology
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedto
Information.

(http://www.optics.arizona.edu/Frieden/Fisher_Information.htm)Thisessayiscontinuallyrevised
inthelightofongoingresearch.
HowMuchInformation?2003(http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/howmuchinfo
2003/index.htm)anattempttoestimatehowmuchnewinformationiscreatedeachyear(study
wasproducedbyfacultyandstudentsattheSchoolofInformationManagementandSystemsat
theUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley)
(Danish)Informationsordbogen.dk(http://www.informationsordbogen.dk)TheDanishDictionary
ofInformationTerms/Informationsordbogen
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information&oldid=713564787"
Categories: Conceptsinmetaphysics Information Information,knowledge,anduncertainty
Informationscience
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon4April2016,at19:41.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionalterms
mayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

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