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X-ray computed tomography has advanced the field of medicine for more than 30 years.
For nearly as long, it has also been a valuable tool for geoscientists. Improvements in
the technology are helping geoscientists uncover greater detail in the internal pore
structure of reservoir rock and achieve a better understanding of conditions that
affect production.
Andreas Kayser
Cambridge, England
Mark Knackstedt
The Australian National University
Canberra, Australia
Murtaza Ziauddin
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to
Veronique Barlet-Goudard, Gabriel Marquette,
Olivier Porcherie and Gaetan Rimmel, Clamart, France;
Bruno Goff, Ecole Normale Suprieure, Paris; and
Rachel Wood, The University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
Inside Reality and iCenter are marks of Schlumberger.
Oilfield Review
Spring 2006
> Thoracic CAT scan. Manipulating color and opacity values of different
tissues provides physicians with an unobstructed view of a patients lungs
and skeletal system. (Image courtesy of Ajay Limaye, VizLab, The Australian
National University.)
> Pixel resolution. The sharpness and clarity of an image are affected by pixel count and the size
of the pixels. To increase the number of pixels within a fixed space, pixel size must be reduced.
As pixel size (in white) progressively decreases (left to right), more pixels can be used to provide
greater detail in the image.
Color bar
,z
ber
256
Vertical coordinates, y
800
color
600
x
400
200
Pixel
y
um
en
1,000
1,000
Vertical coordinates, y
Sli
800
600
z
400
Voxel
y
200
0
0
0
1,000
1,000
> Pixel to voxel. A flat pixel (left) takes on a new dimension when the slice on which it resides is
stacked with other slices to form a volume (right). Adding the z-coordinate of the slice number
essentially assigns a depth-value to the pixel, thus creating a voxel within the stack of slices.
Oilfield Review
Mineral
Density, g/cm3
Density, g/cm3
Quartz
2.64
Gypsum
2.35
Calcite
2.71
Dolomite
2.85
Anhydrite
2.98
Illite
2.52
Barite
4.09
Chlorite
2.76
Celestite
3.79
Hematite
5.18
> A different kind of patient. A section of whole core is placed on a sliding gurney prior to imaging at
a hospital CAT-scan facility.
Spring 2006
Barite cement: 1%
Pore space:16%
Sandstone grains and quartz cement: 78%
Calcite cement: 5%
page, top). Its source generates X-rays with a 2to 5-m focal spot. The X-ray beam expands from
the focal point, creating a cone-beam geometry.12
Because magnification of the sample increases
with proximity to the X-ray source, the rotating
stage and camera are designed to slide
separately on a rail, allowing researchers to
adjust distances between source, sample and
camera. The sample stage can rotate the sample
with millidegree accuracy and can support up
to 120 kg [265 lbm] of sample and associated
test equipment.13
At this facility, the X-ray camera consists of
a scintillator that fluoresces green in response to
X-rays, and a charge-coupled device (CCD) that
converts this green light into electric signals.14
The camera has a 70-mm2 active area, containing
4.1 megapixels (2,048 x 2,048 pixels). The
systems large field of view allows researchers to
Oilfield Review
Scintillator + CCD
Rotation stage
X-ray source
> A high-resolution X-ray tomography device at The Australian National University. The rotating
sample stage and charge-coupled device (CCD) camera slide on a track, enabling adjustment of the
distance between the camera, sample and X-ray source. With this device, a sample can be magnified
from 1.1 to more than 100 times its original size. The stage rotates with millidegree accuracy and can
be fitted with fluid pumps for imaging flow through porous media. (Figure courtesy of The Australian
National University.)
Spring 2006
1.0 mm
> Sandstone pores. An opacity filter is used to render different features in volume windows using
Inside Reality software. The left window above and behind the yellow arrow shows only quartz grains
(light green) in this eolian sandstone from the Rotliegendes formation in Germany. A volume showing
only pore space (blue) is in the background on the right. The smaller volume in the foreground on the
right shows late diagenetic barite cement (red). The slice making up the base image indicates quartz
(gray), pore space (blue), barite (red) and carbonate cement (orange). The yellow arrow for scale is
1 mm long.
1.0 m
> Sandstone tracking. An opacity filter has been used to highlight quartz grains in sandstone from a
Rotliegendes gas reservoir in Germany. In the volume (light gray), interconnected porosity (blue) is
imaged using the volume-grower tool provided by Inside Reality software. Fringe (red) along the edge
of the porosity indicates possible connections to neighboring pores detected automatically by the
software. Carbonate cement (orange) is also shown in the volume. The horizontal slice shows quartz
grains (dark gray), pore space (black), carbonate cement (medium gray), and barite cement (white).
> Visualization using Inside Reality technology. Bringing sample volumes into
an iCenter secure networked collaborative environment allows asset teams
to become immersed in their data. Stereo projection creates a perception of
depth, providing a different perspective on the 3D nature of the rock and its
microstructure. Inside Reality visualization software provides a detailed
image of a foraminifera fossil measuring 1.5 x 1.0 mm (inset). This 3D
visualization allows examination of the fossil from many different angles. The
animated avatar mirrors the pointing motions and actions of another viewer
who is interacting with these data from a remote site.
10
Oilfield Review
Grain Size
Very coarse
sand
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Silt
50
Frequency
40
30
20
10
0
-1
2
= -log2 (diameter)
> Statistics obtained from a single slice of a sample. More than 4,100 grains
were virtually disaggregated from a single slice, allowing researchers to
compile detailed statistical data used to characterize rock fabric and
texture. When compared with other samples, these statistical measures
can help geologists sort out the depositional environment of the rock.
(Adapted from Saadatfar et al, reference 15.)
Spring 2006
Opacity change
> A whole lot of nothing. By manipulating the opacity of a scanned sample image, it is easy to visually
examine either sand grains (green) or pore space (blue). In many evaluations, this detailed analysis of
pore space can reveal critical clues to future performance of a reservoir.
11
12
Sample Plug
CT Image
Alteration front
Carbonation front
Zone of very low porosity
Air bubble
(Diameter 0.5 mm)
Dissolution front
Zone of very high porosity
Filled microfracture
0
1
cm
> A sample plug of neat cement. Only a few centimeters in length, this sample revealed important
information concerning the behavior of supercritical CO2 on portland cement. The tomographic grayscale image of the cement sample (right), scanned with a resolution of 18.33 m, shows a high
concentration of aragonite along the edge of a carbonation front, accompanied by an alteration front.
An additional dissolution front of high porosity extends farther into the core. Circular holes with a
diameter of 500 m may represent air bubbles. Microfractures are filled with aragonite crystals.
Lighter features represent higher CT values, signifying different mineralogy in the case of the filled
microfracture, or different amounts of microporosity, in the case of the alteration front.
System Me
nu Main
Menu
To o l s
System Menu
Colormap
Fa u l t
Fe n c e
Growing
Reservoir
Ruler
Sketch
Slice
Su r f a c e
ume Estimation
do w
Vo lum e Win
We ll
Aragonite front
Save Scene
S n a p s h ot
Restore Scene
Stereo
AU T O S AV E
S C R _ 0 4 0 917 _ 17 3 6 _ 1
SCR _04 091 7_1
847 _1
Neat cement
Inside Reality
[90 ]
Ver sion 5.1
> Highlighting the extent of supercritical CO2 alteration. Color-coding enhances features that may not
be readily apparent in gray-scale imaging. Microfractures formed during the supercritical CO2 attack
served as conduits for further aragonite alteration. The concentration of aragonite along the fractures
and the edge of the alteration front can be visually distinguished using color-coding provided by
Inside Reality software. Materials imaged are unaltered neat cement (green), an alteration front
(yellow), and mineral-filled microfractures or carbonation front (red). Increased porosity (blue) marks
the extent of various dissolution patterns.
Oilfield Review
> Visualizing wormhole development. A sample of Winterset limestone was scanned by CT before (bottom) and after (top) acid injection. This data volume
is displayed using Inside Reality visualization technology, in which pore space is rendered opaque, while surrounding voxels are rendered transparent.
Initial distribution of pores (bottom) shows discrete clusters of pores (blue) along the long axis of the core. After acidizing (top), the core shows increased
porosity, with a dissolution pattern extending from right to left that further marks the flow of acid during injection.
19. Above its critical point at 31.1C and 73.8 bar, CO2
becomes a supercritical fluid. In this compressed state,
its properties lie between those of a gas and a liquid.
With a lower surface tension than its liquid form,
supercritical CO2 can easily penetrate cracks and
crevices. Unlike CO2 gas, however, it can dissolve
substances that are soluble in liquid CO2.
Spring 2006
allow a more rigorous and quantitative description of rock type and texture. These quantitative
descriptions can be integrated with classical
sedimentological descriptions. The technology
can also make a significant contribution to the
study of elastic behavior, porosity-permeability
trends and multiphase flow properties such as
capillary pressure, relative permeability and
residual saturations.
Future technological innovations will probably
include higher resolution to overcome problems
in predicting porosity when micropores fall
below the detection capability of the present
technique. With the improving resolution of their
samples, CT technology is helping todays
geoscientists to better see their world in a grain
of sand.
MV
13