A natural disaster is the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g.

volcanic eruption, earthquake, or

landslide), which affects human activities. Human vulnerability, exacerbated by the lack of
planning or appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, environmental or human
losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the
disaster, their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur
when hazards meet vulnerability". A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in
areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has
consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human
involvement.

Avalanche

An avalanche is an abrupt and rapid flow of snow, often mixed with air and water, down a
mountainside. Avalanches are among the biggest dangers in the mountains for both life and
property.

Avalanches may also comprise of rocks and boulders. Several types of snow avalanche may
occur. Loose snow avalanches occur when the weight of the snowpack exceeds the shear strength
within it, and are most common on steeper terrain. In fresh, loose snow the release is usually at a
point and the avalanche then gradually widens down the slope as more snow is entrained, usually
forming a teardrop appearance. This is in contrast to a slab avalanche. Slab avalanches account
for around 90% of avalanche-related fatalities, and occur when there is a strong, stiff layer of
snow known as a slab. These are usually formed when snow is deposited by the wind on a lee
slope. When the slab fails, the fracture, in a weak layer, very rapidly propagates so that a large
area, that can be hundreds of metres in extent and several metres thick, starts moving almost
instantaneously. The third starting type is a isothermal avalanche which occurs when the
snowpack becomes saturated by water. These tend to also start and spread out from a point.

As avalanches move down the slope they may entrain snow from the snowpack and grow in size.
The snow may also mix with the air and form a powder cloud. An avalanche with a powder cloud
is known as a powder snow avalanche. The powder cloud is a turbulent suspension of snow
particles that flows as a gravity current. Powder snow avalanches are the largest avalanches and
can exceed 300 km/h and 10,000,000 tonnes of snow; they can flow for long distance along flat
valley bottoms and even up hill for short distances.

Contributing factors

All avalanches are caused by an over-burden of material, typically snowpack, that is too massive
and unstable for the slope that supports it. Determining the critical load, the amount of over-
burden which is likely to cause an avalanche, is a complex task involving the evaluation of a
number of factors.

Terrain

Slopes flatter than 25 degrees or steeper than 60 degrees typically have a lower incidence of
avalanche involvement. Snow does not accumulate significantly on steep slopes, also, snow does
not flow easily on flat slopes. Human triggered avalanches have the greatest incidence when the
snow's angle of repose is between 35 and 45 degrees; the critical angle, the angle at which the
human incidence of avalanches is greatest, is 38 degrees. But when the incidence of human
triggered avalanches are normalized by the rates of recreational use hazard increases uniformly
with slope angle.[1] The rule of thumb is: A slope that is flat enough to hold snow but steep
enough to ski has the potential to generate an avalanche, regardless of the angle.

Slopes with windward and sunny exposure have a lower incidence of avalanche involvement. The
snow pack on slopes with sunny exposures are strongly influenced by sunshine. Daily cycles of
mild thawing and refreezing can stabilize the snow pack by promoting settlement, strong freeze
thaw cycles will result in the formation of surface crusts during the night, and the formation of
unstable isothermal snow during the day. Slopes in the lee of a ridge or other wind obstacle
accumulate more snow and are more likely to include pockets of abnormally deep snow, wind
slabs, and cornices, all of which, when disturbed, may trigger an avalanche. Conversely a
windward slope will be bare of snow. When the human triggered incidence of avalanches are
normalized by the rates of recreational use no significant difference in hazard for a given
exposure direction can be found.

Convex slopes are more dangerous than concave slopes. The primary factor contributing to the
increased avalanche danger on convex slopes is a disparity between the tensile strength of snow
layers and their compressive strength.

The composition and structure of the ground surface beneath the snow pack can influence the
incidence of avalanches, especially full depth and deeply releasing avalanches. Full-depth
avalanches (avalanches that sweep a slope virtually clean of snow cover) are more common on
slopes with smooth ground cover, such as grass or rock slabs. Vegetation, such as heavy timber,
can anchor a snowpack; however, boulders and sparsely distributed vegetation will create weak
areas deep within the snowpack, through the formation of strong temperature gradients.

Snow structure and characteristics

The structure of the snow pack is a strong predictor of snow stability. The snow pack is
composed of deposition layers of snow that are accumulated over time, during the course of a
winter season. The deposition layers are stratified parallel to the ground surface on which the
snow falls. Each deposition layer indicates a distinct meteorological condition during which the
snow was accumulated. Once deposited a snow layer will continue to evolve and develop under
the influence of the meteorological conditions that prevail after deposition.

For an avalanche to occur, it is necessary that a snow pack have a weak layer (or instability)
below a slab of cohesive snow. In practice the mechanical and structural determinants of snow
pack stability are not directly observable outside of laboratories, thus the more easily observed
properties of the snow layers (e.g. penetration resistance, grain size, grain type, temperature) are
used as proxy measurements of the mechanical properties of the snow (e.g. tensile strength,
friction, ductile strength). This results in two principle sources of uncertainty in determining snow
pack stability: First, both the factors influencing snow stability and the specific characteristics of
the snow pack vary widely within small areas and time scales, resulting in an inability to
extrapolate point observations of snow layers. Second, the understanding of the relationship
between the readily observable snow pack characteristics and the snow pack's critical mechanical
properties has not been completely developed. Consequently a conservative use of avalanche
terrain, well within the recommended guidelines of the local avalanche forecasts and bulletins, is
always recommended.

Various snow composition and deposition characteristics also influence the likelihood of an
avalanche. Newly-fallen snow requires time to bond with the snow layers beneath it, especially if
the new snow falls during very cold and dry conditions. Shallower snow, that can lay above or
around boulders, plants, and other discontinuities in the slope, will weaken from the presence of a
stronger temperature gradient. Larger and more angular snow crystals are an indicator of weaker
bonds within the snow pack, because the sintering process that forms bonds within the snow pack
will also cause the snow crystals to become smaller and rounder. Consolidated snow is less likely
to slough than either loose powdery layers or wet isothermal snow; however, consolidated snow
is a necessary condition for the occurrence of slab avalanches, and can also mask lingering deeper
instable layers within a snow pack.

Weather

The Weather strongly influences the evolution of the snow pack. The most important factors are
heating by the sun, radiational cooling, vertical temperature gradients in standing snow, snowfall
amounts, and snow types. Mild winter weather will promote the settlement and stabilization of
the snow pack; weather that is very cold, windy, or hot will weaken the snow pack.

If the temperature is high enough for gentle freeze-thaw cycles to take place, the melting and
refreezing of water in the snow strengthens the snowpack during the freezing phase and weakens
it during the thawing phase. A rapid rise in temperature, to a point significantly above the
freezing point, may cause a slope to avalanche, especially in spring. Persistent cold temperatures
prevent the snow from stabilizing; long cold spells may contribute to the formation of depth hoar,
a condition where there is a pronounced temperature gradient, from top to bottom, within the
snow. When the temperature gradient becomes sufficiently strong, thin layers of "faceted grains"
may form above or below embedded crusts, allowing slippage to occur.

Any wind stronger than a light breeze can contribute to a rapid accumulation of snow on
sheltered slopes downwind. Wind pressure at a favorable angle can stabilize other slopes. A
"wind slab" is a particularly fragile and brittle structure which is heavily-loaded and poorly-
bonded to its underlayment. Even on a clear day, wind can quickly shift the snow load on a slope.
This can occur in two ways: by top-loading and by cross-loading. Top-loading occurs when wind
deposits snow perpendicular to the fall-line on a slope; cross-loading occurs when wind deposits
snow parallel to the fall-line. When a wind blows over the top of a mountain, the leeward, or
downwind, side of the mountain experiences top-loading, from the top to the bottom of that lee
slope. When the wind blows across a ridge that leads up the mountain, the leeward side of the
ridge is subject to cross-loading. Cross-loaded wind-slabs are usually difficult to identify visually.

Snowstorms and rainstorms are important contributors to avalanche danger. Heavy snowfall may
cause instability in the existing snowpack, both because of the additional weight and because the
new snow has insufficient time to bond to underlying snow layers. Rain has a similar effect. In
the short-term, rain causes instability because, like a heavy snowfall, it imposes an additional load
on the snowpack; and, once rainwater seeps down through the snow, it acts as a lubricant,
reducing the natural friction between snow layers that holds the snowpack together. Most
avalanches happen during or soon after a storm.
Daytime exposure to sunlight can rapidly destabilize the upper layers of a snowpack. Sunlight
reduces the sintering, or necking, between snow grains. During clear nights, the snowpack can
strengthen, or tighten, through the process of long-wave radiative cooling. When the night air is
significantly cooler than the snowpack, the heat stored in the snow is re-radiated into the
atmosphere.

Avalanche avoidance

Due to the complexity of the subject, winter travelling in the backcountry (off-piste) is never
100% safe. Good avalanche safety is a continuous process, including route selection and
examination of the snowpack, weather conditions, and human factors. Several well-known good
habits can also minimize the risk. If local authorities issue avalanche risk reports, they should be
considered and all warnings heeded[11]. Never follow in the tracks of others without your own
evaluations; snow conditions are almost certain to have changed since they were made. Observe
the terrain and note obvious avalanche paths where vegetation is missing or damaged, where
there are few surface anchors, and below cornices or ice formations. Avoid traveling below others
who might trigger an avalanche

Prevention

There are several ways to prevent avalanches and lessen their power and destruction. They are
employed in areas where avalanches pose a significant threat to people, such as ski resorts and
mountain towns, roads and railways. Explosives are used extensively to prevent avalanches,
especially at ski resorts where other methods are often impractical. Explosive charges are used to
trigger small avalanches before enough snow can build up to cause a large avalanche. Snow
fences and light walls can be used to direct the placement of snow. Snow builds up around the
fence, especially the side that faces the prevailing winds. Downwind of the fence, snow buildup is
lessened. This is caused by the loss of snow at the fence that would have been deposited and the
pickup of the snow that is already there by the wind, which was depleted of snow at the fence.
When there is a sufficient density of trees, they can greatly reduce the strength of avalanches.
They hold snow in place and when there is an avalanche, the impact of the snow against the trees
slows it down. Trees can either be planted or they can be conserved, such as in the building of a
ski resort, to reduce the strength of avalanches.

Safety in avalanche terrain

• Terrain management - Terrain management involves reducing the exposure of an

individual to the risks of traveling in avalanche terrain by carefully selecting what areas
of slopes to travel on. Features to be cognizant of include not under cutting slopes
(removing the physical support of the snow pack), not traveling over convex rolls (areas
where the snow pack is under tension), staying away from weaknesses like exposed rock,
and avoiding areas of slopes that expose one to terrain traps (gulleys that can be filled in,
cliffs over which one can be swept, or heavy timber into which one can be carried).
 • Group management - Group management is the practice of reducing the risk of having a
member of a group, or a whole group involved in an avalanche. Minimize the number of
people on the slope, and maintain separation. Ideally one person should pass over the
slope into an area protected from the avalanche hazard before the next one leaves
protective cover. Route selection should also consider what dangers lay above and below
the route, and the consequences of an unexpected avalanche (i.e., unlikely to occur, but
deadly if it does). Stop or camp only in safe locations. Wear warm gear to delay
hypothermia if buried. Plan escape routes. In determining the size of the group balance
the hazard of not having enough people to effectively carry out a rescue with the risk of
having too many members of the group to safely manage the risks. It is generally
recommended not to travel alone, because there will be no-one to witness your burial and
start the rescue. Additionally, avalanche risk increases with use; that is, the more a slope
is disturbed by skiers, the more likely it is that an avalanche will occur. [12] Most
important of all practice good communication with in a group including clearly
communicating the decisions about safe locations, escape routes, and slope choices, and
having a clear understanding of every members skills in snow travel, avalanche rescue,
and route finding.

• Risk Factor Awareness - Risk factor awareness in avalanche safety requires gathering and
accounting for a wide range of information such as the meteorological history of the area,
the current weather and snow conditions, and equally important the social and physical
indicators of the group.

• Leadership - Leadership in avalanche terrain requires well defined decision making

protocols that use the observed risk factors. These decision making frameworks are
taught in a variety of courses provided by national avalanche resource centers in Europe
and North America. Fundamental to leadership in avalanche terrain is honestly assessing
and estimating the information that was ignored or overlooked. Recent research has
shown that there are strong psychological and group dynamic determinants that lead to
avalanche involvement

Human survival and avalanche rescue

Avalanche on the backside (east) of Mount Timpanogos, Utah at Aspen Grove trail

Even small avalanches are a serious danger to life, even with properly trained and equipped
companions who avoid the avalanche. Between 55 and 65 percent of victims buried in the open
are killed, and only 80 percent of the victims remaining on the surface survive. (McClung, p.177).

Research carried out in Italy[13] based on 422 buried skiers indicates how the chances of survival
drop:

• very rapidly from 92 percent within 15 minutes to only 30 percent after 35 minutes
(victims die of suffocation)
• near zero after two hours (victims die of injuries or hypothermia)

(Historically, the chances of survival were estimated at 85% within 15 minutes, 50%
within 30 minutes, 20% within one hour).
Consequently it is vital that everyone surviving an avalanche is used in an immediate search and
rescue operation, rather than waiting for help to arrive. Additional help can be called once it can
be determined if anyone is seriously injured or still remains unaccountable after the immediate
search (i.e., after at least 30 minutes of searching). Even in a well equipped country such as
France, it typically takes 45 minutes for a helicopter rescue team to arrive, by which time most of
the victims are likely to have died.

In some cases avalanche victims are not located until spring thaw melts the snow, or even years
later when objects emerge from a glacier.

Search and rescue equipment

A Blackhawk helicopter as the crew prepares to evacuate tourists stranded by an avalanche in

Galtür, Austria, on February 25, 1999.

Chances of a buried victim being found alive and rescued are increased when everyone in a group
is carrying and using standard avalanche equipment, and have trained in how to use it. However,
like a seat belt in a vehicle, using the right equipment does not justify exposing yourself to
unnecessary risks with the hope that the equipment might save your life when it is needed. A
beacon, shovel and probe is considered the minimum equipment to carry when exposing yourself
to avalanche danger.

EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake (also known as a tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy
in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also
known as a seismograph. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or
the related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being
mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of
shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale.

At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacing the
ground. When a large earthquake epicenter is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers
sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquakes can also trigger landslides
and occasionally volcanic activity.

In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether a
natural phenomenon or an event caused by humans—that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes
are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine
blasts, and nuclear experiments. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or
hypocenter. The term epicenter refers to the point at ground level directly above this.

Size and frequency of occurrence

Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like California and Alaska
in the U.S., as well as in Guatemala. Chile, Peru, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, the Azores in
Portugal, Turkey, New Zealand, Greece, Italy, and Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost
anywhere, including New York City, London, and Australia.[11] Larger earthquakes occur less
frequently, the relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many
earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than
magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the
average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3.7 - 4.6 every year, an earthquake of 4.7 - 5.5 every 10
years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years. [12] This is an example of the
Gutenberg-Richter law.

The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today.
As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast
improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The USGS
estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0-
7.9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been
relatively stable.[13] In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased,
although this is thought likely to be a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. More
detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the USGS.[14]

Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000-km-long,
horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, also known as the Pacific Ring of
Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate.[15][16] Massive earthquakes tend to occur
along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains. Humans can cause
earthquakes for example by constructing large dams and buildings, drilling and injecting liquid
into wells, and by coal mining and oil drilling.[17]

With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo or Tehran, in areas of high
seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3
million people.[18][19]

Effects/impacts of earthquakes

There are many effects of earthquakes including, but not limited to the following:

Shaking and ground rupture

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in
more or less severe damage to buildings or other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects
depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from epicenter,
and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave
propagation.[20] The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.

Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of
shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or
local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils
to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical
setting of the deposits.

Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the earth's surface along the trace of the
fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes. Ground
rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power
stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any likely to break the ground
surface within the life of the structure.[21]

Preparation for earthquakes

Today, there are ways to protect and prepare possible sites of earthquakes from severe damage,
through the following processes: Earthquake engineering, Earthquake preparedness, Household
seismic safety, Seismic retrofit (including special fasteners, materials, and techniques), Seismic
hazard, Mitigation of seismic motion, and Earthquake prediction.

FLOOD

A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land, a deluge.[1] In the sense of
"flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from
the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows, with the
result that some of the water escapes the normal boundaries of the body. While the size of a lake
or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a
flood unless such escapes of water endangers land areas used by man like a village, city or other
inhabited area. Overtopping of water into uninhabited areas may flood the land but is not a flood
because there is no impact to humans.

Floods can also occur in rivers, when the strength of the river is so high it flows out of the river
channel, particularly at bends or meanders and cause damage to homes and businesses along such
rivers. While flood damage can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other
bodies of water, since time out of mind, man has lived and worked by the water to seek
sustenance and capitalize on the gains of cheap and easy travel and commerce by being near
water. That humans continue to inhabit areas threatened by flood damage is only evidence that
the value of being near the water far exceeds the costs of repeated periodic flooding.

Principal types of flood

[edit] Riverine floods

• Slow kinds: Runoff from sustained rainfall or rapid snowmelt exceeding the capacity of
a river's channel. Causes include heavy rains from monsoons, hurricanes and tropical
depressions, foreign winds and warm rain affecting snow pack.
• Fast kinds: flash flood as a result of e.g. an intense thunderstorm.

[edit] Estuarine floods

• Commonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused by storm-force winds.

[edit] Coastal floods

• Caused by severe sea storms, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. tsunami or hurricane).

[edit] Catastrophic floods

floods are very rare to happen if u live in texas and by the ocean
[edit] Muddy floods

• A muddy flood is generated by runoff on cropland.

[edit] Other

• Floods can occur if water accumulates across an impermeable surface (e.g. from rainfall)
and cannot rapidly dissipate (i.e. gentle orientation or low evaporation).
• A series of storms moving over the same area.
• Dam-building beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, often causing
significant damage.

[edit] Typical effects

[edit] Primary effects

• Physical damage - Can range anywhere from bridges, cars, buildings, sewer systems,
roadways, canals and any other type of structure.
• Casualties - People and livestock die due to drowning. It can also lead to epidemics and
diseases.

[edit] Secondary effects

• Water supplies - Contamination of water. Clean drinking water becomes scarce.

• Diseases - Unhygienic conditions. Spread of water-borne diseases
• Crops and food supplies - Shortage of food crops can be caused due to loss of entire
harvest.[2]
• Trees - Non-tolerant species can die from suffocation.[3]

Flood clean-up safety

Clean-up activities following floods often pose hazards to workers and volunteers involved in the
effort. Potential dangers include electrical hazards, carbon monoxide exposure, musculoskeletal
hazards, heat or cold stress, motor vehicle-related dangers, fire, drowning, and exposure to
hazardous materials.[6] Because flooded disaster sites are unstable, clean-up workers might
encounter sharp jagged debris, biological hazards in the flood water, exposed electrical lines,
blood or other body fluids, and animal and human remains. In planning for and reacting to flood
disasters, managers provide workers with hard hats, goggles, heavy work gloves, life jackets, and
watertight boots with steel toes and insoles.[7]

[edit] Benefits of flooding

There are many disruptive effects of flooding on human settlements and economic activities.
However, flooding can bring benefits, such as making soil more fertile and providing nutrients in
which it is deficient. Periodic flooding was essential to the well-being of ancient communities
along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the Indus River, the Ganges and the Yellow
River, among others. The viability for hydrological based renewable sources of energy is higher
in flood prone regions.

A Himalayan avalanche near Mount Everest.

The toe of an avalanche in Alaska’s Kenai Fjords

The powder blast of an avalanche

United States Forest Service avalanche danger advisories

Avalanche blasting in French ski resort Tignes (3,600 m)

Snow fences in Switzerland

Avalanche on the backside (east) of Mount Timpanogos, Utah at Aspen Grove trail
A Blackhawk helicopter the crew prepares to evacuate tourists stranded by an avalanche in
Galtur, Austria, on February 25,1999.

Global plate tectonic movement

1755 copper engraving depicting Lisbon in ruins and in flames after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake
A tsunami overwhelms the ships in the harbor.

Flooding of a creek due to heavy monsoonal rain and high tide in Darwin, Northern Territory,
Australia

Flooding near Key West, Florida, United States from Hurricane Wilma's storm surge in October
2005