Materials Science

4/5/2016
MaterialsscienceWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Materialsscience
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Theinterdisciplinaryfieldof
materialsscience,alsocommonly
knownasmaterialsscienceand
engineering,involvesthediscovery
anddesignofnewmaterials,withan
emphasisonsolids.Theintellectual
originsofmaterialssciencestem
fromtheEnlightenment,when
researchersbegantouseanalytical
thinkingfromchemistry,physics,
andengineeringtounderstand
ancient,phenomenological
observationsinmetallurgyand
mineralogy.[1][2]Materialsscience
stillincorporateselementsof
physics,chemistry,andengineering.
Assuch,thefieldwaslongthought
ofasasubfieldoftheserelated
fields.Inrecentyears,materials
sciencehasbecomemorewidely
recognizedasaspecificanddistinct
Adiamondcuboctahedronshowinganumberofcrystallographic
fieldofscienceandengineering.
planes,imagedwithscanningelectronmicroscopy.
Manyofthemostpressingscientific
problemshumanscurrentlyfaceare
duetothelimitationsofthematerialsthatareavailableand,asaresult,breakthroughsinmaterials
sciencearelikelytohaveasignificantimpactonthefutureoftechnology.[3][4]
Materialsscientistsemphasizeunderstandinghowthehistoryofamaterial(itsprocessing)influencesits
structure,andthusthematerial'spropertiesandperformance.Theunderstandingofprocessingstructure
propertiesrelationshipsiscalledthematerialsparadigm.Thisparadigmisusedtoadvance
understandinginavarietyofresearchareas,includingnanotechnology,biomaterials,andmetallurgy.
Materialsscienceisalsoanimportantpartofforensicengineeringandfailureanalysisinvestigating
materials,products,structuresorcomponentswhichfailorwhichdonotoperateorfunctionasintended,
causingpersonalinjuryordamagetoproperty.Suchinvestigationsarekeytounderstanding,for
example,thecausesofvariousaviationaccidents.
Contents
1 History
2 Fundamentalsofmaterialsscience
2.1 Structure
2.1.1 Atomicstructure
2.1.2 Nanostructure
2.1.3 Microstructure
2.1.4 Macrostructure
2.2 Crystallography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science
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2.2 Crystallography
2.3 Bonding
2.4 Properties
2.5 Synthesisandprocessing
2.6 Thermodynamics
2.7 Kinetics
3 Materialsinresearch
3.1 Nanomaterials
3.2 Biomaterials
3.3 Electronic,opticalandmagneticmaterials
3.4 Computationalmaterialsscienceandmaterialstheory
4 Materialsinindustry
4.1 CeramicsandGlassesMaterials
4.2 Compositematerials
4.3 PolymersMaterials
4.4 Metalalloys
5 Relationtootherfields
6 Emergingtechnologiesinmaterialsscience
7 Seealso
8 References
8.1 Citations
8.2 Bibliography
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks
History
Thematerialofchoiceofagiveneraisoftenadefiningpoint.
PhrasessuchasStoneAge,BronzeAge,IronAge,andSteelAge
aregreatexamples.Originallyderivingfromthemanufactureof
ceramicsanditsputativederivativemetallurgy,materialsscienceis
oneoftheoldestformsofengineeringandappliedscience.Modern
materialsscienceevolveddirectlyfrommetallurgy,whichitself
evolvedfromminingand(likely)ceramicsandtheuseoffire.A
majorbreakthroughintheunderstandingofmaterialsoccurredin
thelate19thcentury,whentheAmericanscientistJosiahWillard
Gibbsdemonstratedthatthethermodynamicpropertiesrelatedto
atomicstructureinvariousphasesarerelatedtothephysical
propertiesofamaterial.Importantelementsofmodernmaterials
AlateBronzeAgeswordor
scienceareaproductofthespacerace:theunderstandingand
daggerblade.
engineeringofthemetallicalloys,andsilicaandcarbonmaterials,
usedintheconstructionofspacevehiclesenablingtheexploration
ofspace.Materialssciencehasdriven,andbeendrivenby,thedevelopmentofrevolutionary
technologiessuchasplastics,semiconductors,andbiomaterials.
Beforethe1960s(andinsomecasesdecadesafter),manymaterialssciencedepartmentswerenamed
metallurgydepartments,reflectingthe19thandearly20thcenturyemphasisonmetals.Thegrowthof
materialsscienceintheUnitedStateswascatalyzedinpartbytheAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency,
whichfundedaseriesofuniversityhostedlaboratoriesintheearly1960s"toexpandthenational
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programofbasicresearchandtraininginthematerialssciences."[5]Thefieldhassincebroadenedto
includeeveryclassofmaterials,includingceramics,polymers,semiconductors,magneticmaterials,
medicalimplantmaterials,biologicalmaterialsandnanomaterials.
Fundamentalsofmaterialsscience
Amaterialisdefinedasasubstance
(mostoftenasolid,butother
condensedphasescanbeincluded)
thatisintendedtobeusedforcertain
applications.[6]Thereareamyriadof
materialsaroundustheycanbe
foundinanythingfrombuildingsto
spacecraft.Materialscangenerally
bedividedintotwoclasses:
crystallineandnoncrystalline.The
traditionalexamplesofmaterialsare
metals,semiconductors,ceramics
andpolymers.[7]Newandadvanced
materialsthatarebeingdeveloped
includenanomaterialsand
biomaterials,[8]etc.
Thematerialsparadigmrepresentedintheformofatetrahedron.
Thebasisofmaterialsscienceinvolvesstudyingthestructureofmaterials,andrelatingthemtotheir
properties.Onceamaterialsscientistknowsaboutthisstructurepropertycorrelation,he/shecanthengo
ontostudytherelativeperformanceofamaterialinacertainapplication.Themajordeterminantsofthe
structureofamaterialandthusofitspropertiesareitsconstituentchemicalelementsandthewayin
whichithasbeenprocessedintoitsfinalform.Thesecharacteristics,takentogetherandrelatedthrough
thelawsofthermodynamicsandkinetics,governamaterialsmicrostructure,andthusitsproperties.
Structure
Asmentionedabove,structureisoneofthemostimportantcomponentsofthefieldofmaterialsscience.
Materialsscienceexaminesthestructureofmaterialsfromtheatomicscale,allthewayuptothemacro
scale.Characterizationisthewaymaterialsscientistsexaminethestructureofamaterial.Thisinvolves
techniquessuchasdiffractionwithxrays,electrons,orneutrons,andvariousformsofspectroscopyand
chemicalanalysissuchasRamanspectroscopy,energydispersivespectroscopy(EDS),chromatography,
thermalanalysis,electronmicroscopeanalysis,etc.Structureisstudiedatvariouslevels,asdetailed
below.
Atomicstructure
Thisdealswiththeatomsofthematerials,andhowtheyarearrangedtogivemolecules,crystals,etc.
Muchoftheelectrical,magneticandchemicalpropertiesofmaterialsarisefromthislevelofstructure.
Thelengthscalesinvolvedareinangstroms.Thewayinwhichtheatomsandmoleculesarebondedand
arrangedisfundamentaltostudyingthepropertiesandbehaviorofanymaterial.
Nanostructure
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Nanostructuredealswithobjectsandstructuresthatareinthe1100nm
range.[9]Inmanymaterials,atomsormoleculesagglomeratetogetherto
formobjectsatthenanoscale.Thisleadstomanyinterestingelectrical,
magnetic,opticalandmechanicalproperties.
Indescribingnanostructuresitisnecessarytodifferentiatebetweenthe
numberofdimensionsonthenanoscale.Nanotexturedsurfaceshaveone
dimensiononthenanoscale,i.e.,onlythethicknessofthesurfaceofan
objectisbetween0.1and100nm.Nanotubeshavetwodimensionsonthe
Buckminsterfullerene
nanoscale,i.e.,thediameterofthetubeisbetween0.1and100nmits
nanostructure.
lengthcouldbemuchgreater.Finally,sphericalnanoparticleshavethree
dimensionsonthenanoscale,i.e.,theparticleisbetween0.1and100nmin
eachspatialdimension.Thetermsnanoparticlesandultrafineparticles
(UFP)oftenareusedsynonymouslyalthoughUFPcanreachintothemicrometrerange.Theterm
'nanostructure'isoftenusedwhenreferringtomagnetictechnology.Nanoscalestructureinbiologyis
oftencalledultrastructure.
Materialswhoseatoms/moleculesformconstituentsinthenanoscale(i.e.,theyformnanostructure)are
callednanomaterials.Nanomaterialsaresubjectofintenseresearchinthematerialssciencecommunity
duetotheuniquepropertiesthattheyexhibit.
Microstructure
Microstructureisdefinedasthestructureofapreparedsurfaceor
thinfoilofmaterialasrevealedbyamicroscopeabove25
magnification.Itdealswithobjectsfrom100nmtoafewcm.
Themicrostructureofamaterial(whichcanbebroadlyclassified
intometallic,polymeric,ceramicandcomposite)canstrongly
influencephysicalpropertiessuchasstrength,toughness,
ductility,hardness,corrosionresistance,high/lowtemperature
behavior,wearresistance,andsoon.Mostofthetraditional
materials(suchasmetalsandceramics)aremicrostructured.
Themanufactureofaperfectcrystalofamaterialisphysically
Microstructureofpearlite.
impossible.Forexample,acrystallinematerialwillcontain
defectssuchasprecipitates,grainboundaries(HallPetch
relationship),interstitialatoms,vacanciesorsubstitutionalatoms.Themicrostructureofmaterials
revealsthesedefects,sothattheycanbestudied.
Macrostructure
Macrostructureistheappearanceofamaterialinthescalemillimeterstometersitisthestructureof
thematerialasseenwiththenakedeye.
Crystallography
Crystallographyisthesciencethatexaminesthearrangementofatomsincrystallinesolids.
Crystallographyisausefultoolformaterialsscientists.Insinglecrystals,theeffectsofthecrystalline
arrangementofatomsisofteneasytoseemacroscopically,becausethenaturalshapesofcrystalsreflect
theatomicstructure.Inaddition,physicalpropertiesareoftencontrolledbycrystallinedefects.The
understandingofcrystalstructuresisanimportantprerequisiteforunderstandingcrystallographic
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defects.Mostly,materialsdonotoccurasasinglecrystal,butin
polycrystallineform(i.e.,asanaggregateofsmallcrystalswith
differentorientations).Becauseofthis,thepowderdiffraction
method,whichusesdiffractionpatternsofpolycrystalline
sampleswithalargenumberofcrystals,playsanimportantrole
instructuraldetermination.Mostmaterialshaveacrystalline
structure.But,therearesomeimportantmaterialsthatdonot
exhibitregularcrystalstructure.Polymersdisplayvarying
degreesofcrystallinity,andmanyarecompletelynoncrystalline.
Glass,someceramics,andmanynaturalmaterialsare
amorphous,notpossessinganylongrangeorderintheiratomic
arrangements.Thestudyofpolymerscombineselementsof
chemicalandstatisticalthermodynamicstogivethermodynamic,
aswellasmechanical,descriptionsofphysicalproperties.
Crystalstructureofaperovskitewith
achemicalformulaABX3. [10]
Bonding
Toobtainafullunderstandingofthematerialstructureandhowitrelatestoitsproperties,thematerials
scientistmuststudyhowthedifferentatoms,ionsandmoleculesarearrangedandbondedtoeachother.
Thisinvolvesthestudyanduseofquantumchemistryorquantumphysics.Solidstatephysics,solid
statechemistryandphysicalchemistryarealsoinvolvedinthestudyofbondingandstructure.
Properties
Materialsexhibitmyriadproperties,includingthefollowing.
Mechanicalproperties
Chemicalproperties
Electricalproperties
Thermalproperties
Opticalproperties
Magneticproperties
Thepropertiesofamaterialdetermineitsusabilityandhenceitsengineeringapplication.
Synthesisandprocessing
Synthesisandprocessinginvolvesthecreationofamaterialwiththedesiredmicro/nanostructure.From
anengineeringstandpoint,amaterialcannotbeusedinindustryifnoeconomicalmanufacturingmethod
forithasbeendeveloped.Thus,theprocessingofmaterialsisveryimportanttothefieldofmaterials
science.
Differentmaterialsrequiredifferentprocessing/synthesistechniques.Forexample,theprocessingof
metalshashistoricallybeenveryimportantandisstudiedunderthebranchofmaterialsscienceknown
asphysicalmetallurgy.Also,chemicalandphysicaltechniquesarealsousedtosynthesizeother
materialssuchaspolymers,ceramics,thinfilms,etc.Currently,newtechniquesarebeingdevelopedto
synthesizenanomaterialssuchasgraphene.
Thermodynamics
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Aphasediagramforabinarysystem
displayingaeutecticpoint.
Thermodynamicsisconcernedwithheatandtemperature
andtheirrelationtoenergyandwork.Itdefinesmacroscopic
variables,suchasinternalenergy,entropy,andpressure,that
partlydescribeabodyofmatterorradiation.Itstatesthat
thebehaviorofthosevariablesissubjecttogeneral
constraints,thatarecommontoallmaterials,notthe
peculiarpropertiesofparticularmaterials.Thesegeneral
constraintsareexpressedinthefourlawsof
thermodynamics.Thermodynamicsdescribesthebulk
behaviorofthebody,notthemicroscopicbehaviorsofthe
verylargenumbersofitsmicroscopicconstituents,suchas
molecules.Thebehaviorofthesemicroscopicparticlesis
describedby,andthelawsofthermodynamicsarederived
from,statisticalmechanics.
Thestudyofthermodynamicsisfundamentaltomaterialsscience.Itformsthefoundationtotreat
generalphenomenainmaterialsscienceandengineering,includingchemicalreactions,magnetism,
polarizability,andelasticity.Italsohelpsintheunderstandingofphasediagramsandphaseequilibrium.
Kinetics
Kineticsisthestudyoftheratesatwhichsystemsthatareoutofequilibriumchangeundertheinfluence
ofvariousforces.Whenappliedtomaterialsscience,itdealswithhowamaterialchangeswithtime
(movesfromnonequilibriumtoequilibriumstate)duetoapplicationofacertainfielditdetailsthe
rateofvariousprocessesevolvinginmaterialsincludingshape,size,compositionandstructure.
Diffusionisimportantinthestudyofkineticsasthisisthemostcommonmechanismbywhichmaterials
undergochange.
Kineticsisessentialinprocessingofmaterialsbecause,amongotherthings,itdetailshowthe
microstructurechangeswithapplicationofheat.
Materialsinresearch
Materialssciencehasreceivedmuchattentionfromresearchers.Inmostuniversities,manydepartments
rangingfromphysicstochemistrytochemicalengineeringinadditiontomaterialsscience
departmentsareinvolvedinmaterialsresearch.Researchinmaterialsscienceisvibrantandconsistsof
manyavenues.Thefollowinglistisinnowayexhaustive,itjustservestohighlightcertainimportant
researchareas.
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterialsdescribe,inprinciple,materialsofwhichasingleunitissized(inatleastonedimension)
between1and1000nanometers(109meter)butisusually1100nm.
Nanomaterialsresearchtakesamaterialssciencebasedapproachtonanotechnology,leveraging
advancesinmaterialsmetrologyandsynthesiswhichhavebeendevelopedinsupportof
microfabricationresearch.Materialswithstructureatthenanoscaleoftenhaveuniqueoptical,electronic,
ormechanicalproperties.
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Thefieldofnanomaterialsislooselyorganized,likethetraditional
fieldofchemistry,intoorganic(carbonbased)nanomaterialssuch
asfullerenes,andinorganicnanomaterialsbasedonotherelements,
suchassilicon.Examplesofnanomaterialsincludefullerenes,
carbonnanotubes,nanocrystals,etc.
Biomaterials
Theiridescentnacreinsidea
nautilusshell.
Abiomaterialisanymatter,
surface,orconstructthat
Ascanningelectronmicroscopy
interactswithbiological
imageofcarbonnanotubes
systems.Asascience,bio
bundles
materialsisaboutfiftyyears
old.Thestudyofbiomaterialsis
calledbiomaterialsscience.Ithasexperiencedsteadyandstrong
growthoveritshistory,withmanycompaniesinvestinglarge
amountsofmoneyintothedevelopmentofnewproducts.
Biomaterialsscienceencompasseselementsofmedicine,biology,
chemistry,tissueengineeringandmaterialsscience.
Biomaterialscanbederivedeitherfromnatureorsynthesizedinthe
laboratoryusingavarietyofchemicalapproachesutilizingmetalliccomponents,polymers,ceramicsor
compositematerials.Theyareoftenusedand/oradaptedforamedicalapplication,andthuscomprises
wholeorpartofalivingstructureorbiomedicaldevicewhichperforms,augments,orreplacesanatural
function.Suchfunctionsmaybebenign,likebeingusedforaheartvalve,ormaybebioactivewitha
moreinteractivefunctionalitysuchashydroxyapatitecoatedhipimplants.Biomaterialsarealsoused
everydayindentalapplications,surgery,anddrugdelivery.Forexample,aconstructwithimpregnated
pharmaceuticalproductscanbeplacedintothebody,whichpermitstheprolongedreleaseofadrugover
anextendedperiodoftime.Abiomaterialmayalsobeanautograft,allograftorxenograftusedasa
transplantmaterial.
Electronic,opticalandmagneticmaterials
Semiconductors,metals,andceramicsareusedtodaytoformhighly
complexsystems,suchasintegratedelectroniccircuits,optoelectronic
devices,andmagneticandopticalmassstoragemedia.Thesematerials
formthebasisofourmoderncomputingworld,andhenceresearchinto
thesematerialsisofvitalimportance.
Semiconductorsareatraditionalexampleofthesetypesofmaterials.
Theyarematerialsthathavepropertiesthatareintermediatebetween
conductorsandinsulators.Theirelectricalconductivitiesarevery
sensitivetoimpurityconcentrations,andthisallowsfortheuseof
dopingtoachievedesirableelectronicproperties.Hence,
semiconductorsformthebasisofthetraditionalcomputer.
Negativeindex
metamaterial. [11][12]
Thisfieldalsoincludesnewareasofresearchsuchassuperconductingmaterials,spintronics,
metamaterials,etc.Thestudyofthesematerialsinvolvesknowledgeofmaterialsscienceandsolidstate
physicsorcondensedmatterphysics.
Computationalmaterialsscienceandmaterialstheory
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Withtheincreaseincomputingpower,simulatingthebehaviorofmaterialshasbecomepossible.This
enablesmaterialsscientiststodiscoverpropertiesofmaterialspreviouslyunknown,aswellastodesign
newmaterials.Upuntilnow,newmaterialswerefoundbyatimeconsumingtrialanderrorprocess.But,
nowitishopedthatcomputationaltechniquescoulddrasticallyreducethattime,andallowustotailor
materialsproperties.Thisinvolvessimulatingmaterialsatalllengthscales,usingmethodssuchas
densityfunctionaltheory,moleculardynamics,etc.
Materialsinindustry
Radicalmaterialsadvancescandrivethecreationofnewproductsorevennewindustries,butstable
industriesalsoemploymaterialsscientiststomakeincrementalimprovementsandtroubleshootissues
withcurrentlyusedmaterials.Industrialapplicationsofmaterialsscienceincludematerialsdesign,cost
benefittradeoffsinindustrialproductionofmaterials,processingtechniques(casting,rolling,welding,
ionimplantation,crystalgrowth,thinfilmdeposition,sintering,glassblowing,etc.),andanalytical
techniques(characterizationtechniquessuchaselectronmicroscopy,xraydiffraction,calorimetry,
nuclearmicroscopy(HEFIB),Rutherfordbackscattering,neutrondiffraction,smallangleXray
scattering(SAXS),etc.).
Besidesmaterialcharacterization,thematerialscientist/engineeralsodealswiththeextractionof
materialsandtheirconversionintousefulforms.Thusingotcasting,foundrytechniques,blastfurnace
extraction,andelectrolyticextractionareallpartoftherequiredknowledgeofamaterialsengineer.
Oftenthepresence,absenceorvariationofminutequantitiesofsecondaryelementsandcompoundsina
bulkmaterialwillhaveagreatimpactonthefinalpropertiesofthematerialsproduced,forinstance,
steelsareclassifiedbasedon1/10and1/100weightpercentagesofthecarbonandotheralloying
elementstheycontain.Thus,theextractionandpurificationtechniquesemployedintheextractionof
ironintheblastfurnacewillhaveanimpactonthequalityofsteelthatmaybeproduced.
CeramicsandGlassesMaterials
Anotherapplicationofmaterialscienceisthestructuresofglassand
ceramics,typicallyassociatedwiththemostbrittlematerials.
Bondinginceramicsandglassesusescovalentandioniccovalent
typeswithSiO2(silicaorsand)asafundamentalbuildingblock.
Ceramicsareassoftasclayorashardasstoneandconcrete.
Usually,theyarecrystallineinform.Mostglassescontainametal
oxidefusedwithsilica.Athightemperaturesusedtoprepareglass,
thematerialisaviscousliquid.Thestructureofglassformsintoan
amorphousstateuponcooling.Windowpanesandeyeglassesare
importantexamples.Fibersofglassarealsoavailable.Scratch
Si3N4ceramicbearingparts
resistantCorningGorillaGlassisawellknownexampleofthe
applicationofmaterialssciencetodrasticallyimprovetheproperties
ofcommoncomponents.Diamondandcarboninitsgraphiteformareconsideredtobeceramics.
Engineeringceramicsareknownfortheirstiffnessandstabilityunderhightemperatures,compression
andelectricalstress.Alumina,siliconcarbide,andtungstencarbidearemadefromafinepowderoftheir
constituentsinaprocessofsinteringwithabinder.Hotpressingprovideshigherdensitymaterial.
Chemicalvapordepositioncanplaceafilmofaceramiconanothermaterial.Cermetsareceramic
particlescontainingsomemetals.Thewearresistanceoftoolsisderivedfromcementedcarbideswith
themetalphaseofcobaltandnickeltypicallyaddedtomodifyproperties.
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Compositematerials
Filamentsarecommonlyusedforreinforcementincomposite
materials.
Anotherapplicationofmaterialsscienceinindustryisthemakingof
compositematerials.Compositematerialsarestructuredmaterials
composedoftwoormoremacroscopicphases.Applicationsrange
fromstructuralelementssuchassteelreinforcedconcrete,tothe
thermallyinsulativetileswhichplayakeyandintegralrolein
A6mdiametercarbonfilament
NASA'sSpaceShuttlethermalprotectionsystemwhichisusedto
(runningfrombottomlefttotop
protectthesurfaceoftheshuttlefromtheheatofreentryintothe
right)sitingatopthemuchlarger
Earth'satmosphere.OneexampleisreinforcedCarbonCarbon
humanhair.
(RCC),thelightgraymaterialwhichwithstandsreentry
temperaturesupto1510C(2750F)andprotectstheSpace
Shuttle'swingleadingedgesandnosecap.RCCisalaminatedcompositematerialmadefromgraphite
rayonclothandimpregnatedwithaphenolicresin.Aftercuringathightemperatureinanautoclave,the
laminateispyrolizedtoconverttheresintocarbon,impregnatedwithfurfuralalcoholinavacuum
chamber,andcured/pyrolizedtoconvertthefurfuralalcoholtocarbon.Inordertoprovideoxidation
resistanceforreusecapability,theouterlayersoftheRCCareconvertedtosiliconcarbide.
Otherexamplescanbeseeninthe"plastic"casingsoftelevisionsets,cellphonesandsoon.These
plasticcasingsareusuallyacompositematerialmadeupofathermoplasticmatrixsuchasacrylonitrile
butadienestyrene(ABS)inwhichcalciumcarbonatechalk,talc,glassfibersorcarbonfibershavebeen
addedforaddedstrength,bulk,orelectrostaticdispersion.Theseadditionsmaybereferredtoas
reinforcingfibers,ordispersants,dependingontheirpurpose.
PolymersMaterials
Polymersarealsoan
importantpartofmaterials
science.Polymersarethe
rawmaterials(theresins)
usedtomakewhatwe
commonlycallplastics.
Plasticsarereallythefinal
product,createdafteroneor
Therepeatingunitofthepolymer
morepolymersoradditives
polypropylene
havebeenaddedtoaresin
duringprocessing,whichis
thenshapedintoafinalform.Polymerswhichhavebeenaround,
andwhichareincurrentwidespreaduse,includepolyethylene,
polypropylene,PVC,polystyrene,nylons,polyesters,acrylics,
polyurethanes,andpolycarbonates.Plasticsaregenerally
classifiedas"commodity","specialty"and"engineering"plastics.
Expandedpolystyrenepolymer
packaging.
PVC(polyvinylchloride)iswidelyused,inexpensive,andannualproductionquantitiesarelarge.It
lendsitselftoanincrediblearrayofapplications,fromartificialleathertoelectricalinsulationand
cabling,packagingandcontainers.Itsfabricationandprocessingaresimpleandwellestablished.The
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versatilityofPVCisduetothewiderangeofplasticisersandotheradditivesthatitaccepts.Theterm
"additives"inpolymersciencereferstothechemicalsandcompoundsaddedtothepolymerbaseto
modifyitsmaterialproperties.
Polycarbonatewouldbenormallyconsideredanengineeringplastic(otherexamplesincludePEEK,
ABS).Engineeringplasticsarevaluedfortheirsuperiorstrengthsandotherspecialmaterialproperties.
Theyareusuallynotusedfordisposableapplications,unlikecommodityplastics.
Specialtyplasticsarematerialswithuniquecharacteristics,suchasultrahighstrength,electrical
conductivity,electrofluorescence,highthermalstability,etc.
Thedividinglinesbetweenthevarioustypesofplasticsisnotbasedonmaterialbutratherontheir
propertiesandapplications.Forinstance,polyethylene(PE)isacheap,lowfrictionpolymercommonly
usedtomakedisposableshoppingbagsandtrashbags,andisconsideredacommodityplastic,whereas
mediumdensitypolyethylene(MDPE)isusedforundergroundgasandwaterpipes,andanothervariety
calledUltrahighMolecularWeightPolyethyleneUHMWPEisanengineeringplasticwhichisused
extensivelyasthegliderailsforindustrialequipmentandthelowfrictionsocketinimplantedhipjoints.
Metalalloys
Thestudyofmetalalloysisasignificantpartofmaterialsscience.
Ofallthemetallicalloysinusetoday,thealloysofiron(steel,
stainlesssteel,castiron,toolsteel,alloysteels)makeupthelargest
proportionbothbyquantityandcommercialvalue.Ironalloyedwith
variousproportionsofcarbongiveslow,midandhighcarbonsteels.
Anironcarbonalloyisonlyconsideredsteelifthecarbonlevelis
between0.01%and2.00%.Forthesteels,thehardnessandtensile
strengthofthesteelisrelatedtotheamountofcarbonpresent,with
increasingcarbonlevelsalsoleadingtolowerductilityand
toughness.Heattreatmentprocessessuchasquenchingand
temperingcansignificantlychangethesepropertieshowever.Cast
Ironisdefinedasanironcarbonalloywithmorethan2.00%but
lessthan6.67%carbon.Stainlesssteelisdefinedasaregularsteel
alloywithgreaterthan10%byweightalloyingcontentof
Chromium.NickelandMolybdenumaretypicallyalsofoundin
stainlesssteels.
Wireropemadefromsteelalloy.
Othersignificantmetallicalloysarethoseofaluminium,titanium,copperandmagnesium.Copperalloys
havebeenknownforalongtime(sincetheBronzeAge),whilethealloysoftheotherthreemetalshave
beenrelativelyrecentlydeveloped.Duetothechemicalreactivityofthesemetals,theelectrolytic
extractionprocessesrequiredwereonlydevelopedrelativelyrecently.Thealloysofaluminium,titanium
andmagnesiumarealsoknownandvaluedfortheirhighstrengthtoweightratiosand,inthecaseof
magnesium,theirabilitytoprovideelectromagneticshielding.Thesematerialsareidealforsituations
wherehighstrengthtoweightratiosaremoreimportantthanbulkcost,suchasintheaerospaceindustry
andcertainautomotiveengineeringapplications.
Relationtootherfields
Materialsscienceevolvedstartingfromthe1960sbecauseitwasrecognizedthattocreate,discover
anddesignnewmaterials,onehadtoapproachitinaunifiedmanner.Thus,materialsscienceand
engineeringemergedattheintersectionofvariousfieldssuchasmetallurgy,solidstatephysics,
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chemistry,chemicalengineering,mechanicalengineeringandelectricalengineering.
Thefieldisinherentlyinterdisciplinary,andthematerialsscientists/engineersmustbeawareandmake
useofthemethodsofthephysicist,chemistandengineer.Thefieldthus,maintainscloserelationships
withthesefields.Also,manyphysicists,chemistsandengineersalsofindthemselvesworkingin
materialsscience.
Theoverlapbetweenphysicsandmaterialssciencehasledtotheoffshootfieldofmaterialsphysics,
whichisconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofmaterials.Theapproachisgenerallymore
macroscopicandappliedthanincondensedmatterphysics.Seeimportantpublicationsinmaterials
physicsformoredetailsonthisfieldofstudy.
Thefieldofmaterialsscienceandengineeringisimportantbothfromascientificperspective,aswellas
fromanengineeringone.Whendiscoveringnewmaterials,oneencountersnewphenomenathatmaynot
havebeenobservebefore.Hence,thereislotofsciencetobediscoveredwhenworkingwithmaterials.
Materialssciencealsoprovidestestfortheoriesincondensedmatterphysics.
Materialforanengineerisofutmostimportance.Theusageoftheappropriatematerialsiscrucialwhen
designingsystems,andhence,engineersarealwaysinvolvedinmaterials.Thus,materialsscienceis
becomingincreasinglyimportantinanengineer'seducation.
Emergingtechnologiesinmaterialsscience
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Emerging
technology
Aerogel
Status
Graphene
Kevlar
Research,experiments,
Conductors
prototypes
Femtotechnology,
Hypothetical
Picotechnology
Fullerene
Potentialapplications
Related
articles
Improvedinsulation,
insulativeglassifitcanbe
Hypothetical,
madeclear,sleevesforoil
experiments,diffusion, Traditional
Insulation,Glass
pipelines,aerospace,high
earlyuses[13]
heat&extremecold
applications
Amorphousmetal Experiments
Conductive
Polymers
Potentially
marginalized
technologies
Presentnuclear
Armor
Lighterandcheaperwires,
antistaticmaterials,organic
solarcells
Newmaterialsnuclear
weapons,power
Synthetic
diamondand
Experiments,diffusion carbon
nanotubes(e.g.
Buckypaper)
Programmablematter
Hypothetical,
siliconbased
experiments,diffusion, integrated
circuit
earlyuses[14][15]
Componentswithhigher
strengthtoweightratios,
transistorsthatoperateat
higherfrequency,lower
costofdisplayscreensin
Potential
mobiledevices,storing
Applications
hydrogenforfuelcell
ofGraphene
poweredcars,filtration
systems,longerlastingand
fasterchargingbatteries,
sensorstodiagnose
diseases[16]
Cryogenicreceiver
frontend(CRFE)RF
andmicrowavefilter
systemsformobile
Copperwire,
Hightemperature phonebasestations
semiconductor
superconductivity
prototypesindryice integralcircuits
Hypotheticaland
experimentsforhigher
temperatures[17]
Nolossconductors,
frictionlessbearings,
magneticlevitation,lossless
highcapacity
accumulators,electriccars,
heatfreeintegralcircuits
andprocessors
LiTraCon
Experiments,already
usedtomakeEurope
Gate
Glass
Constructionof
skyscrapers,towers,and
sculptureslikeEuropeGate
Metamaterials
Hypothetical,
experiments,
diffusion[18]
Microscopes,cameras,
Classicaloptics metamaterialcloaking,
cloakingdevices
Metalfoam
Research,
commercialization
Hulls
Hypothetical,
Spacecolonies,floating
cities
12/16
4/5/2016
Multifunction
structures[19]
Hypothetical,
experiments,some
prototypes,few
commercial
Widerange,e.g.,selfhealth
Composite
monitoring,selfhealing
materialsmostly
material,morphing...
Hypothetical,
Nanomaterials:
Structuralsteel
carbonnanotubes experiments,diffusion, andaluminium
earlyuses[20][21]
Programmable
matter
Hypothetical,
experiments[22][23]
Coatings,
catalysts
Stronger,lightermaterials,
spaceelevator
Potential
applications
ofcarbon
nanotubes,
carbonfiber
Widerange,e.g.,
claytronics,synthetic
biology
Quantumdotlaser,future
useasprogrammable
matterindisplay
technologies(TV,
projection),opticaldata
communications(high
speeddatatransmission),
medicine(laserscalpel)
Quantumdots
Research,experiments,
LCD,LED
prototypes[24]
Silicene
Hypothetical,research
Fieldeffect
transistors
Superalloy
Research,diffusion
Aluminum,
titanium,
composite
materials
AircraftJetengines
Synthetic
diamond
earlyuses(drillbits,
jewelry)
Silicon
transistors
Electronics
Seealso
Amalgam(chemistry)
Atomicpackingfactor
Biobasedmaterials
Biomaterial
Bioplastic
Carbonnanotube
Ceramicformingtechniques
Ceramicengineering
Colloidalcrystal
Compositematerial
Crystallography
Electroncrystallography
Electrondiffraction
Energeticallymodifiedcement
Forensicengineering
Importantmaterialssciencejournals
Importantpublicationsinmaterialsscience
Liquidcrystal
Listofemergingmaterialscience
technologies
ListofpublicationsinphysicsMaterials
physics
ListofRussianmaterialscientists
ListofscientificjournalsMaterialsscience
Listofsoftwareformolecularmechanics
modeling
Listofsoftwarefornanostructuresmodeling
Listofsurfaceanalysismethods
Listofthermalanalysismethods
Materialsscienceinsciencefiction
Metallurgy
Mineralogy
Moleculardesignsoftware
Molecularmodelling
Nanomaterials
Nanotechnology
Neutroncrystallography
13/16
4/5/2016
Neutrondiffraction
Polymerengineering
Quenching
Stereochemistry
Singlecrystal
Sintering
Solgel
Solidstatechemistry
SupramolecularEngineering
Timelineofmaterialstechnology
Transparentmaterials
Tribology
Xraycrystallography
Xraydiffraction
References
Citations
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MedicalSchool17501800.Ashgate.
2.Smith,CyrilStanley(1981).ASearchforStructure.MITPress.ISBN0262191911.
3.Hemminger,JohnC.(August2010).ScienceforEnergyTechnology:StrengtheningtheLinkbetweenBasic
ResearchandIndustry(Report).UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy,BasicEnergySciencesAdvisory
Committee.RetrievedAugust2015.
4.Alivisatos,PaulBuchanan,Michelle(March2010).BASICRESEARCHNEEDSFORCARBON
CAPTURE:BEYOND2020(Report).UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy,BasicEnergySciencesAdvisory
Committee.RetrievedAugust2015.
5.Martin,JosephD.(2015)."What'sinaNameChange?SolidStatePhysics,CondensedMatterPhysics,and
MaterialsScience".PhysicsinPerspective.17(1):332.doi:10.1007/s0001601401517.Retrieved20April
2015.
6."ForAuthors:NatureMaterials"(http://www.nature.com/nmat/authors/index.html)
7.Callister,Jr.,Rethwisch."MaterialsScienceandEngineeringAnIntroduction"(8thed.).JohnWileyand
Sons,2009p.56
8.Callister,Jr.,Rethwisch.MaterialsScienceandEngineeringAnIntroduction(8thed.).JohnWileyand
Sons,2009p.1012
9.CristinaBuzeaIvanPacheco&KevinRobbie(2007)."NanomaterialsandNanoparticles:Sourcesand
Toxicity".Biointerphases2(4):MR17MR71.doi:10.1116/1.2815690.PMID20419892.
10.A.Navrotsky(1998)."EnergeticsandCrystalChemicalSystematicsamongIlmenite,LithiumNiobate,and
PerovskiteStructures".Chem.Mater.10(10):27872793.doi:10.1021/cm9801901.
11.Shelby,R.A.SmithD.R.ShultzS.NematNasserS.C.(2001)."Microwavetransmissionthroughatwo
dimensional,isotropic,lefthandedmetamaterial"(PDF).AppliedPhysicsLetters78(4):489.
Bibcode:2001ApPhL..78..489S.doi:10.1063/1.1343489.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJune18,2010.
12.Smith,D.R.Padilla,WJVier,DCNematNasser,SCSchultz,S(2000)."CompositeMediumwith
SimultaneouslyNegativePermeabilityandPermittivity"(PDF).PhysicalReviewLetters84(18):41847.
Bibcode:2000PhRvL..84.4184S.doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.4184.PMID10990641.
13."StoAG,CabotCreateAerogelInsulation".ConstructionDigital.15November2011.Retrieved18November
2011.
14."Isgrapheneamiraclematerial?".BBCClick.21May2011.Retrieved18November2011.
15."Couldgraphenebethenewsilicon?".TheGuardian.13November2011.Retrieved18November2011.
16."ApplicationsofGrapheneunderDevelopment".understandingnano.com.
17."The'newage'ofsupermaterials".BBCNews.5March2007.Retrieved27April2011.
18."StridesinMaterials,butNoInvisibilityCloak".TheNewYorkTimes.8November2010.Retrieved21April
2011.
19.NAEWebsite:FrontiersofEngineering(http://www.nae.edu/?ID=8683).Nae.edu.Retrieved22February
2011.
20."Carbonnanotubesusedtomakebatteriesfromfabrics".BBCNews.21January2010.Retrieved27April
2011.
21."ResearchersOneStepClosertoBuildingSyntheticBrain".DailyTech.25April2011.Retrieved27April
2011.
22."PentagonDevelopingShapeShifting'Transformers'forBattlefield".FoxNews.10June2009.Retrieved
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4/5/2016
26April2011.
23."Intel:Programmablemattertakesshape".ZDNet.22August2008.Retrieved2January2012.
24." 'Quantumdots'toboostperformanceofmobilecameras".BBCNews.22March2010.Retrieved16April
2011.
Bibliography
Ashby,MichaelHughShercliffDavidCebon(2007).Materials:engineering,science,processing
anddesign(1sted.).ButterworthHeinemann.ISBN9780750683913.
Askeland,DonaldR.PradeepP.Phul(2005).TheScience&EngineeringofMaterials(5thed.).
ThomsonEngineering.ISBN0534553966.
Callister,Jr.,WilliamD.(2000).MaterialsScienceandEngineeringAnIntroduction(5thed.).
JohnWileyandSons.ISBN0471320137.
Eberhart,Mark(2003).WhyThingsBreak:UnderstandingtheWorldbytheWayItComesApart.
Harmony.ISBN1400047609.
Gaskell,DavidR.(1995).IntroductiontotheThermodynamicsofMaterials(4thed.).Taylorand
FrancisPublishing.ISBN1560329920.
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TimelineofMaterialsScience(http://www.materialmoments.org/top100.html)atTheMinerals,
Metals&MaterialsSociety(TMS)AccessedMarch2007
Burns,G.Glazer,A.M.(1990).SpaceGroupsforScientistsandEngineers(2nded.).Boston:
AcademicPress,Inc.ISBN0121457613.
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WesleyPublishingCompany.ISBN0534553966.
Giacovazzo,CMonacoHLViterboDScordariFGilliGZanottiGCattiM(1992).
FundamentalsofCrystallography.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0198555784.
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CondensedMatter.Oxford:ClarendonPress.ISBN0198520174.
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UnionofCrystallography.ISBN0198555776.
15/16
4/5/2016
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