Chapter 4

Biology, 9th ed,Sylvia Mader
Chapter 04
Cell Structure and Function
BIOLOGY
Chapter 4: pp. 59-84
10th Edition
Ribosome:
site of protein synthesis
Fimbriae:
hairlike bristles that
allow adhesion to
the surfaces
Inclusion body:
stored nutrients for
later use
Conjugation pilus:
elongated, hollow
appendage used for
DNA transfer to other
bacterial cells
Mesosome:
plasma membrane
that folds into the
cytoplasm and
increases surface area
Sylvia S. Mader
Cell Structure and

Function
Plasma membrane:
outer surface that
regulates entrance
and exit of molecules
Nucleus:
Cytoskeleton:
maintains cell
shape and assists
mov ement of
cell parts:
Nucleoid:
location of the bacterial
chromosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum:
Plasma membrane:
sheath around cytoplasm
that regulates entrance
Cell wall:
covering that supports,
shapes, and protects cell
Glycocalyx:
gel-like coating outside
cell wall; if compact, called
a capsule; if diffuse, called
a slime layer
Flagellum:
rotating filament present
in some bacteria that
pushes the cell forward
*not in plant cells
PowerPoint Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor
Copyright The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
Cell Theory
Detailed study of the cell began in the 1830s
A unifying concept in biology
Originated from the work of biologists Schleiden
and Schwann in 1838-9
Cell Theory states that:

All organisms are composed of cells

German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838

German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839
All cells come only from preexisting cells
Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit of

organisms
German physician Rudolph Virchow in the 1850s
Organisms and Cells

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a.
b.
c.
50
d.
140 m
a: Geoff Bryant/Photo Researchers, Inc.; b: Courtesy Ray F. Evert/University of Wisconsin Madison;

c: Barbara J. Miller/Biological Photo Service; d: Courtesy O. Sabatakou and E. Xylouri-Frangiadak
Chapter 04
Cell Size
Cells range in size from one millimeter down to
one micrometer
Cells need a large surface area of plasma
membrane to adequately exchange materials.
The surface-area-to-volume ratio requires that
cells be small

Large cells - surface area relative to volume decreases

Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands nutrients
and produces wastes
Cells specialized in absorption utilize membrane
modifications such as microvilli to greatly increase
surface area per unit volume
4
Sizes of Living Things

0.1 nm
1 nm
10 nm
100 nm
protein
amino
acid
10
100
m 1 mm
1 cm
0.1 m
chloroplast
plant and
animal
cells
10 m
100 m 1 km
rose
mouse
frog egg
1m
virus
most bacteria
human egg
ant
atom
ostrich
egg
blue whale
human
electron microscope
light microscope
human eye
Surface-area-to-Volume Ratio
One 4-cm cube
Eight 2-cm cubes
Sixty-four 1-cm cubes
Total surface area (height width number of sides number of cubes)

96 cm2
192 cm2
384 cm2
Total volume (height width length number of cubes)

64 cm3
64 cm3
64 cm3
Surface area: Volume per cube (surface area volume)

1.5:1
3:1
6:1
Chapter 04
Microscopy and Amoeba proteus

85 m
eye
ocular lens
light rays
500 m
200 nm
pseudopod segment, transmission electron
micrograph
amoeba, light micrograph
electron source
electron beam
electromagnetic
condenser lens
amoeba, scanning electron micrograph
electron gun
electron beam
electromagnetic
condenserl
enses
specimen
objective lens
electromagnetic
objective lens
scanning coil
specimen
condenser lens
electromagnetic
projector lens
observation screen
or
photographic plate
light source
a. Compound light microscope
b. Transmission electron microscope
final
Condenser
lens
secondary
electrons
specimen
electron
detector
TV
Viewing
screen
c. Scanning electron microscope
a: Robert Brons/Biological Photo Service; b: M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited; c: Kessel/Shih/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Prokaryotic Cells
Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
Structurally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic

cells (which have a nucleus).
Prokaryotic cells are placed in two taxonomic

domains:
Bacteria
Archaea
Prokaryotes in these two domains are structurally

similar but biochemically different
Live in extreme habitats
The Structure of Bacteria

Extremely small - 11.5 m wide and 26 m long

Occur in three basic shapes:

Spherical coccus,
Rod-shaped bacillus,
Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or spirochete (if flexible).
Cell Envelope includes:

Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer with embedded and peripheral

proteins
Cell wall - maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by

peptidoglycan
Glycocalyx - layer of polysaccharides on the outside of the cell
wall
Forms internal pouches (mesosomes)
Well organized and resistant to removal (capsule)
Chapter 04

spirillum
spirochete
bacillus
coccus
10
Plasma Membrane
protein
molecules
phospholipid
bilayer
11

Ribosome:
site of protein synthesis
Inclusion body:
stored nutrients for
later use
Mesosome:
plasma membrane
that folds into the
cytoplasm and
increases surface area
Fimbriae:
hairlike bristles that
allow adhesion to
the surfaces
Conjugation pilus:
elongated, hollow
appendage used for
DNA transfer to other
bacterial cells
Nucleoid:
location of the bacterial
chromosome
Plasma membrane:
sheath around cytoplasm
that regulates entrance
Cell wall:
covering that supports,
shapes, and protects cell
Glycocalyx:
gel-like coating outside
cell wall; if compact, called
a capsule; if diffuse, called
a slime layer
Flagellum:
rotating filament present
in some bacteria that
pushes the cell forward
Escherichia coli
Howard Sochurek/The Medical File/Peter Arnold, Inc.
12
Chapter 04
The Structure of Bacteria: Cytoplasm &

Appendages
Cytoplasm
Semifluid solution

Bounded by plasma membrane

Contains water, inorganic and organic molecules, and enzymes.
Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA

molecule.
Plasmids are small accessory (extrachromosomal) rings of DNA
Appendages

Flagella Provide motility

Fimbriae small, bristle-like fibers that sprout from the cell
surface
Conjugation pili rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA from
cell to cell
13
Eukaryotic Cells
Domain Eukarya includes:

Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals
Much larger than prokaryotic cells
Cells contain:
Membrane-bound nucleus that houses DNA
Specialized organelles
Plasma membrane
Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have a cell wall

14
Hypothesized Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

Original
prokaryotic cell
DNA
1. Cell gains a nucleus by the

plasma membrane invaginating
and surrounding the DNA
with a double membrane.
2. Cell gains an endomembrane

system by proliferation
of membrane.
3. Cell gains mitochondria.

aerobic
bacterium
mitochondrion
4. Cell gains chloroplasts.
Animal cell
has mitochondria,
but not chloroplasts.
photosynthetic
bacterium
chloroplast
Plant cell
has both mitochondria
and chloroplasts.
15
Chapter 04
Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles

Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized

They contain small structures called organelles

Perform specific functions

Isolate certain chemical reactions from others
Two classes of organelles:

Endomembrane system:
Organelles that communicate with one another

Via membrane channels

Via small vesicles
Energy-related organelles

Mitochondria & chloroplasts

Basically independent & self-sufficient
16
Animal Cell Anatomy

Plasma membrane:
outer surface that
regulates entrance and
exit of molecules
protein
phospholipid
Nucleus: command center of cell

Nuclear envelope: double
membrane with nuclear pores
that encloses nucleus
Chromatin: diffuse threads
containing DNA and protein
Cytoskeleton: maintains
cell shape and assists movement
of cell parts:
Microtubules: protein
cylinders that move
organelles
Nucleolus: region that produces

subunits of ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum:
protein and lipid metabolism
Intermediate filaments:
protein fibers that provide
stability of shape
Rough ER: studded with

ribosomes that synthesize
proteins
Actin filaments: protein

fibers that play a role in
change of shape
Smooth ER: lacks

ribosomes, synthesizes
lipid molecules
Centrioles*: short
cylinders of microtubules
of unknown function
Centrosome: microtubule
organizing center that
contains a pair of centrioles
Peroxisome: vesicle
that is involved in
fatty acid metabolism
Ribosomes:
particles that carry
out protein synthesis
Lysosome*: vesicle that

digests macromolecules
and even cell parts
Vesicle: small membranebounded sac that stores
and transports substances
Cytoplasm: semifluid
matrix outside nucleus
that contains organelles
Polyribosome: string of
ribosomes simultaneously
synthesizing same protein
Mitochondrion: organelle
that carries out cellular respiration,
producing ATP molecules
Golgi apparatus: processes, packages,
and secretes modified proteins
*not in plant cells
17
Plant Cell Anatomy

Nucleus: command center of cell

Nuclear envelope: double membrane with
nuclear pores that encloses nucleus
Nucleolus: produces subunits of ribosomes
Chromatin: diffuse threads containing
DNA and protein
Nuclear pore: permits passage of
proteins into nucleus and ribosomal
subunits out of nucleus
Ribosomes: carry
out protein synthesis
Central vacuole*: large, fluid-filled

sac that stores metabolites and
helps maintain turgor pressure
Cell wall of adjacent cell
Middle lamella:
cements together the
primary cell walls of
adjacent plant cells
Chloroplast*: carries
out photosynthesis,
producing sugars
Centrosome:
microtubule organizing
center (lacks centrioles)
Endoplasmic
reticulum: protein
and lipid metabolism
Granum*: a stack
of chlorophyll-containing
thylakoids
in a chloroplast
Rough ER: studded

with ribosomes that
synthesize proteins
Mitochondrion: organelle
that carries out cellular
respiration, producing
ATP molecules
Smooth ER: lacks

ribosomes, synthesizes
lipid molecules
Peroxisome: vesicle that
is involved in fatty acid
metabolism
Golgi apparatus: processes,
packages, and secretes
modified proteins
Cytoplasm: semifluid matrix outside
nucleus that contains organelles
Microtubules: protein cylinders

that aid movement of organelles
Actin filaments: protein fibers
that play a role in movement of
cell and organelles
Plasma membrane: surrounds
cytoplasm, and regulates entrance
Cell wall*: outer surface that shapes,
supports, and protects cell
*not in animal cells
18
Chapter 04
Nucleus

Command center of cell, usually near the center

Separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
envelope

Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm

Consists of double layer of membrane

Nuclear pores permit exchange between the
nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm
Chromatin contains DNA and proteins
Condenses to form chromosomes during cell division
Dark nucleolus contains rRNA and proteins

Site of assembly of ribosome subunits

19
Anatomy of the Nucleus

nuclear
envelope
nucleolus
Nuclear envelope:
inner membrane
nuclear
pore
chromatin
nucleoplasm
outer membrane
nuclear pore
phospholipid
(Bottom): Courtesy Ron Milligan/Scripps Research Institute; (Top right): Courtesy E.G. Pollock
20
Ribosomes
Are the site of protein synthesis in the cell
Consists of a large subunit and a small subunit
Each subunit is composed of rRNA and proteins
Subunits are assembled in the nucleolus
May be located:
On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby making it

rough), or
Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups, called

polyribosomes
21
Chapter 04
Nucleus, Ribosomes, & ER

Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
ER membrane
protein
4. An enzyme removes
the signal peptide.
5. Ribosomal subunits and
mRNA break away. The
protein remains in the ER
and folds into its final shape.
Lumen of ER
enzyme
receptor
mRNA
SRP
signal recognition
particle (SRP)
2. Signal recognition
particle (SRP) binds
to signal peptide.
3. SRP attaches to receptor (purple);

a channel opens; and the
polypeptide enters ER..
signal peptide
ribosomal
subunits
nuclear pore
ribosome
mRNA
mRNA
1. mRNA is leaving the
nucleus and is attached
to the ribosome; protein
synthesis is occurring.
DNA
Nucleus
22
The Endomembrane System

Series of intracellular membranes that

compartmentalize the cell
Restricts certain enzymatic reactions to specific

compartments within the cell
Consists of:

Nuclear envelope
Membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles
Several types
Transport materials between organelles of system

23
Endomembrane System:
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
A system of membrane channels and saccules (flattened vesicles)
Continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope
Rough ER

Studded with ribosomes on the cytoplasmic side

Synthesizes proteins
Modifies and processes proteins

Smooth ER

Adds sugar to protein

Results in glycoproteins
No ribosomes
Site of lipid synthesis and certain detoxification reactions
Both rough and smooth ER forms transport vesicles to transport

molecules to other parts of the cell
24
Chapter 04
Endoplasmic Reticulum
ribosomes
nuclear envelope
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
0.08 m
R. Bolender & D. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited
25
Endomembrane System:
The Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus
Consists of a stack of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules
Resembles a stack of hollow pancakes
Modifies proteins and lipids

Receives vesicles from ER on the cis (inner) face
Prepares proteins for shipment in vesicles
Packages proteins into vesicles at the trans (outer)
Vesicles have several destinations

Within cell (lysosomes, ER)
Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis)
26
Golgi Apparatus
secretion
transport
vesicle
saccules
transport
vesicle
trans face
cis face
Golgi apparatus
Nucleus
0.1
Courtesy Charles Flickinger, from Journal of Cell Biology 49: 221-226, 1971, Fig. 1 page 224
27
Chapter 04
Endomembrane System: Lysosomes

Membrane-bound
vesicles
Produced by the Golgi apparatus

Contain powerful digestive enzymes and are
highly acidic
Digestion of large molecules and nonfunctional

organelles
Recycling of cellular resources
Some
genetic diseases are caused defects

in lysosomal enzymes
Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs)

28
Lysosomes
lysosome
mitochondrion
peroxisome fragment
a. Mitochondrion and a peroxisome in a lysosome
b. Storage bodies in a cell with defective lysosomes

a: Courtesy Daniel S. Friend; b: Courtesy Robert D. Terry/Univ. of San Diego School of Medicine
29
Endomembrane System: Summary

Proteins produced in rough ER and lipids from
smooth ER are carried in vesicles to the Golgi
apparatus.
The Golgi apparatus modifies these products and
then sorts and packages them into vesicles that
go to various cell destinations.
Secretory vesicles carry products to the
membrane where exocytosis produces
secretions.
Lysosomes fuse with incoming vesicles and
digest macromolecules.
30
10
Chapter 04
Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary

secretion
plasma
membrane
incoming vesicle
brings substances into the
cell that are digested when
the vesicle fuses with a
lysosome
secretory vesicle
fuses with the plasma
membrane as secretion
occurs
enzyme
Golgi apparatus
modifies lipids and proteins
from the ER; sorts them
and packages them in
vesicles
lysosome
contains digestive enzymes
that break down worn-out
cell parts or substances
entering the cell at the
plasma membrane
protein
transport vesicle
shuttles proteins to
various locations such as
the Golgi apparatus
transport vesicle
shuttles lipids to various
locations such as the
Golgi apparatus
lipid
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
synthesizes proteins and
packages them in vesicles;
vesicles commonly go to
the Golgi apparatus
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
synthesizes lipids and
also performs various
other functions
ribosome
Nucleus
31
Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes

Membrane-bounded vesicles
Enclose enzymes
However

Enzymes in peroxisomes are synthesized by free

ribosomes in the cytoplasm (instead of rough ER)
Active in lipid metabolism
Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide
H2O2
Toxic
Broken down to water & O2 by catalase

32
Peroxisomes
100 nm
S.E. Frederick & E.H. Newcomb/Biological Photo Service
33
11
Chapter 04
Vacuoles
Membranous sacs that are larger than vesicles

Store materials that occur in excess

May be very specialized (contractile vacuole)
Plants cells typically have a central vacuole

Up to 90% of the volume of some cells

Functions in:

Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and waste products

Development of turgor pressure
Some functions performed by lysosomes in animal cells
34
Vacuoles
100 nm
Newcomb/Wergin/Biological Photo Service
35
Energy-Related Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure
Bounded by double membrane
Inner membrane (third chloroplast membrane) is

infolded
Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are stacked to form

grana
Suspended in semi-fluid stroma
Green due to chlorophyll

Green photosynthetic pigment
Found ONLY in the thylakoid membranes of

chloroplast
36
12
Chapter 04
Energy-Related Organelles: Chloroplasts

Membranous organelles (a type of plastid) that serve as the site of

photosynthesis
Chlorophyll and other pigments capture light energy to drive cellular

work
Photosynthesis
Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O
Makes organic molecules using CO2 as the only carbon source
Energy-poor compounds are converted to energy-rich compounds
solar energy + carbon dioxide + water carbohydrate + oxygen

Only plants, algae, and certain bacteria are capable of conducting

photosynthesis
37
Chloroplast Structure
500 nm
a.
double
membrane
outer
membrane
inner
membrane
grana
thylakoid
space stroma
thylakoid membrane
b.
a: Courtesy Herbert W. Israel, Cornell University
38
Energy-Related Organelles: Mitochondria

Smaller than chloroplasts
Contain ribosomes and their own DNA
Surrounded by a double membrane

Inner membrane surrounds the matrix and is convoluted (folds) to form

cristae.
Matrix Inner semifluid medium containing respiratory enzymes

Breakdown of carbohydrates
Involved in cellular respiration
Produce most of the ATP utilized by the cell
39
13
Chapter 04
Mitochondrial Structure
200 nm
a.
double
membrane
outer
membrane
inner
membrane
cristae
matrix
b.
a: Courtesy Dr. Keith Porter
40
The Cytoskeleton
Maintains cell shape
Assists in movement of the cell and organelles
Three types of macromolecular fibers
Actin Filaments
Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules
Assembled and disassembled as needed

41
Microtubular Arrays: Centrioles

Short, hollow cylinders

Composed of 27 microtubules
Microtubules are arranged into 9 overlapping triplets
One pair per animal cell

Located in the centrosome of animal cells
Oriented at right angles to each other
Separate during mitosis to determine the plane of

division
May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and flagella

in certain cells
42
14
Chapter 04
Cytoskeleton: Centrioles
empty center
of centriole
one microtubule
triplet
one centrosome: one pair of centrioles
200 nm
two centrosomes: two pairs of centrioles
(Middle): Courtesy Kent McDonald, University of Colorado Boulder; (Bottom): Journal of Structural Biology, Online by Manley McGill et al. Copyright 1976 by Elsevier
Science & Technology Journals. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier Science & Technology Journals in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center
43
Microtubular Arrays: Cilia and Flagella

Hair-like projections from the cell surface that aid in cell

movement
Very different from prokaryotic flagella

Outer covering of plasma membrane

Inside this is a cylinder of 18 microtubules arranged in 9 pairs
In the center of the 9 doublets are two single microtubules
This 9 + 2 pattern is used by all eukaryotic cilia &nd flagella
Cilia are much shorter than flagella

Cilia move in coordinated waves like oars

Flagella move like a propeller or cork screw
44
Structure of a Flagellum
outer
microtubule
doublet
Flagellum
radial
spoke
central
microtubules
The shaft of the

flagellum has a ring
of nine microtubule
doublets anchored
to a central pair of
microtubules.
shaft
dynein
side arm
Flagellum cross section
Sperm
plasma
membrane
triplets
25 nm
The side arms

of each doublet
are composed
of dynein, a
motor molecule.
dynein
side arms
Basal body
ATP
Basal body cross section 100 nm
The basal body of a flagellum has

a ring of nine microtubule triplets
with no central microtubules.
In the presence of
ATP, the dynein side
arms reach out to
their neighbors,
and bending occurs.
(Flagellum, Basal body): William L. Dentler/Biological Photo Service
45
15
Chapter 04
Comparison of Prokaryotic and

Eukaryotic Cells
46
16

Chapter 4

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Biology, 9th ed,Sylvia Mader

Cell Structure and Function

Chapter 4: pp. 59-84

Cell Structure and

*not in plant cells

All organisms are composed of cells

German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838

All cells come only from preexisting cells

Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit of

German physician Rudolph Virchow in the 1850s

Organisms and Cells

a: Geoff Bryant/Photo Researchers, Inc.; b: Courtesy Ray F. Evert/University of Wisconsin Madison;

Biology, 9th ed,Sylvia Mader

Cell Structure and Function

Large cells - surface area relative to volume decreases

Sizes of Living Things

One 4-cm cube

Eight 2-cm cubes

Sixty-four 1-cm cubes

Total surface area (height width number of sides number of cubes)

Total volume (height width length number of cubes)

Surface area: Volume per cube (surface area volume)

Biology, 9th ed,Sylvia Mader

Cell Structure and Function

Microscopy and Amoeba proteus

amoeba, light micrograph

amoeba, scanning electron micrograph

b. Transmission electron microscope

c. Scanning electron microscope

a: Robert Brons/Biological Photo Service; b: M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited; c: Kessel/Shih/Peter Arnold, Inc.

Lack a membrane-bound nucleus

Structurally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic

Prokaryotic cells are placed in two taxonomic

Prokaryotes in these two domains are structurally

Live in extreme habitats

The Structure of Bacteria

Extremely small - 11.5 m wide and 26 m long

Cell Envelope includes:

Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer with embedded and peripheral

Cell wall - maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by

Forms internal pouches (mesosomes)

Well organized and resistant to removal (capsule)

Biology, 9th ed,Sylvia Mader

Cell Structure and Function

The Structure of Bacteria

The Structure of Bacteria

Howard Sochurek/The Medical File/Peter Arnold, Inc.

Biology, 9th ed,Sylvia Mader

Cell Structure and Function

The Structure of Bacteria: Cytoplasm &

Bounded by plasma membrane

Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA

Flagella Provide motility

Domain Eukarya includes:

Much larger than prokaryotic cells

Membrane-bound nucleus that houses DNA

Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have a cell wall

Hypothesized Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

1. Cell gains a nucleus by the

2. Cell gains an endomembrane

3. Cell gains mitochondria.

Biology, 9th ed,Sylvia Mader

Cell Structure and Function

Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles