SNC2D1

Exam Notes

UNIT 1 - CHEMISTRY (Chemical Reactions)

COVALENT BONDING
- Sharing e- between two NON-METALS -
- Sharing of electron(s) from two non-metals (SHOWN BY CIRCLES)


IONIC BONDING
- Occurs between a METAL + NON-METAL
- Transfer of electron(s) from the metals to the non-metals (SHOWN BY USING ARROWS
INDICATING THE TRANSFER OF e-)


>Naming ionic compound<
- To name put name of CATION/METALS Sirst then the ANION/NON-METAL root name and
replace ending with ide

e.g. Oxygen -> Oxide, Sulfur -> Sulphide/SulSide, Chlorine -> Chloride, Fluorine, Fluoride


>Writing Formulas<
- Write chemical symbol for both metals and non-metals
- Write atom charge
- CRISS-CROSS METHOD

MULTIVALENT METALS
- Elements that have MORE THAN ONE POSSIBLE CHARGE

e.g.

Fe +2, +3 Co +2, +3 Mg +2, +3, +4, +6

- To distinguish use ROMAN NUMERALS (1:I, 2:II, 3:III, 4:IV, 5:V, 6:VI, 7:VII, 8:VIII)

e.g.

Au2O3 Gold(III)Oxide

MOLECULAR COMPOUND
- Compound containing two non-metals
- Must use preSix naming system (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca)
e.g Co - monocarbon dioxide
>Special molecular compounds<
- NH3 - Ammonia, O3 - Ozone, CH4 - Methane, H2O2 - Hydrogen Peroxide, NH4 - Ammonia
POLYATOMIC IONS
- Two different atoms combined together to make an ion
- Treat as anions or cations
- Combining cations with polyatomic ions
- keep Polyatomic ions in BRACKETS
e.g.

K+(SO4)2- Potassium Sulphate

K2(SO4)1 - DO NOT KEEP BRACKETS if subscript outside is 1
K2SO4

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

COUNTING ATOMS
- Subscript indicates # of atoms its beside
- Subscript outside of brackets on the right is multiplies (EXPANSION/DISTRIBUTIVE LAW)
- CoefSicients in the front of a compound is multiplied through last of each type of atom

e.g. Copper(II)Chloride

Cu2+Cl-

CuCl2

Cu:1

Cl:2
BALENCING EQUATIONS
- Law of conservation of mass
- THE AMOUNT INPUT = AMOUNT OUTPUT
e.g

2NA + MgCo3
Na : 1 2
Mg : 1
C : 1
O : 3

->

Na3Co3 + Mg
Na : 2
C : 1
O : 3
Mg : 1

e.g

ammonium sulSite + Calcium hydroxide

(NH4)2 SO3 + Ca(OH)2 ->
CaSO3 + 2NH4OH
NH4 : 2


Ca :1
SO3 : 1


SO3 : 1
Ca : 1


NH4 : 1 2
OH : 2


OH: 1 2
(REACTANT)

(PRODUCTS)
=Things put into a reaction =Things made in a reaction

CHEMICAL REACTION
- A process in which some REACTANTS(S) undergo a change to become NEW PRODUCTS
STATES OF MATTER
(s) = Solid
(l) = Liquid
(aq) = Aqueous (substance dissolved in water)
(g) = Gas
DIATOMIC GAS
HOFBrINCL
H2, O2, F2, Br2, I2, N2, Cl2
TYPES OF REACTION
A. SYNTHESIS
- Two or more reactants reacted to give ONE product

GENERAL FORMULA: A + B -> AB

e.g. Carbon + Oxygen gas -> Carbon Dioxide

C(s) + O2 -> CO2(g)
B. DECOMPOSITION
- One REACTANT breaks down into two or more PRODUCTS
GENERAL FORMULA: XY -> X +Y

e.g. ammonium nitrate -> dinitrogen monoxide + water

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

NH4NO3 -> N2O + H20

C. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION

- A single reactant added to some ionic compound where the CATION(METAL) switches
place or the ANION(METAL) switches place
GENERAL FORMULA: A + BC -> B +AC
<- First two switches



D + BC -> C + BD
<- First and Last switches (HALOGEN ONLY)

e.g. Sluorine gas + sodium iodine

F2(g) + 2NaI -> I2(g) + 2NaF

F : 2
I : 2

Na : 2
Na : 2

I : 2
F : 2
e.g. potassium solid + aqueous copper(II) acetate

2K(s) + Cu(CH3COO)2(aq) -> Cu(s) + 2KCH3COO

K : 1 2


K : 1 2

Cu : 1


Cu : 1

Ch3C00 : 2


Ch3COO : 1 2
D. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION
- An ionic compound reacted with another ionic compound
- The CATIONS Switches place
GENERAL FORMULA: AB + XY -> AY+ AB

e.g beryllium nitride + rubidium carbonate

Be3N2 + 3Rb2Co3 -> 3BeCo3 +2Rb3N

Be : 3

Be: 1 3

N : 2

N : 1 2

Rb : 2 6

Rb : 3 6

Co3 : 1 3

Co3 : 1 3

COMBUSTION REACTION
- Reaction between a hydrogen (something containing carbon and hydrogen) and oxygen gas
- will release energy as product

COMPLETE COMBUSTION
- When there is MORE than enough OXYGEN
- Only CARBON DIOXIDE and WATER are produced
GENERAL FORMULA:

Cx Hy + O2(g) -> H2O +O2(g) <- Must put the STATE OF MATTER

(x, y are possible coefSicients)

e.g. C5H12 + 8O2 -> 5CO2 + 6H2O

C : 5
C : 1 5

1. Balance Carbons

H : 12
H : 2 12

2. Balance Hydrogen

O : 2 16
O : 3 8 16

3. Balance Oxygen
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
- Combustion reaction that takes place with insufSicient ( not enough) oxygen
- Will produce CO2, Co, C(s) [soot] and/or H2O
- In an incomplete combustion, can have up to all four products or any combinations of
them

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

GENERAL FORMULA:

Cx Hx + O2 -> CO2 + Co + C(s) + H20

PH SCALE
- pH stands for Power of Hydrogen
- Measures the acidity of solutions using a numerical scale
More acidic - more H+ ions, few OH- ions
More basic - few H+ ions, more OH- ions
Comparing Acidity

e.g. Hydrogen acid has pH of 2.0 and sodium hydroxide has pH of 10


- Hydrogen acid is more acidic by a factor of 1010-2 = 108 = 100000000 more



ACIDS
- An acid is deSined as any compound that dissolves in aqueous solution to form H+ ions

>Properties of acid<
- Sour
- Litmus = Red
- Reacts with carbonate to produce bubbles of CO2(g)
- Reacts with metals to produce H2(g)

BASES
- An base is deSined as any compound that dissociates in aqueous solution to form H+ ions

>Properties of base<
- Bitter
- Litmus = Blue
- Slippery
- React with oils and grease

NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
- Neutralization reactions are called acid/base reactions
- The reactants of neut. are acids and bases
- The product of neut. are H2O and Salt (ionic)
GENERAL EQUATIONS:

AB + CD -> AD + CB

acid + base -> water + salt

NAMING BINARY ACIDS

Rules:
1. If you have a BINARY (two element) compound with at least one HYDROGEN and is in
AQUEOUS(aq) state then it is binary acid
2. Use hydro preSix
3. Add root of the anion
4. add ic acid sufSix
e.g. HI(aq) - Hydroiodic acid
NAMING OXYACIDS
- Oxyacids are acids that contain a polyatomic with OXYGEN

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- Oxyacids contain AT LEAST 3 different elements with Hydrogen, Oxygen and in (aq) state
Rules:
1. If you have an Oxyacid, containing HYDROGEN, OXYGEN containing polyatomic ions, and in
aqueous state, its an oxyacid
2. Keep root of element in polyatomic ion
3. Add ic acid sufSix
e.g. HCH3COO(aq) - Acetic acid
PHYSICAL PROPERTY
- Characteristics of a substance that can be determined without changing the composition of the
substance
CHEMICAL PROPERTY
- Describes the ability for a substance to undergo changes in composition that would result in new
substance

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

UNIT 2 - BIOLOGY ( Tissues, Organs, and systems of living things)

ORGANELLES IN A CELL (BOTH)



CYTOPLASM
- Suspends all the organelles in a cell, in a jelly like substance

CELL MEMBRANE
- A Slexible double-layered, semi-permeable membrane, which supports the cell and acts as
a gate keeper

NUCLEUS
- The brain of the cell, a spherical structure where genetic information (DNA) is stored
on chromosomes

MITOCHONDRIA
- Also called power plants, convert stored energy into a usable form

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- A 3-D network, transports materials, such as proteins through cell, attach directly to
nucleus and extends to the cell membrane

GOLGI BODIES
- Collects & process materials to be removed from the cell, makes secrete mucus

VACULOES
- A single layered membrane enclosing Sluid in a sac, removes unwanted substance,
maintains internal Sluid to keep shape, stores water, fat and food

(PLANTS ONLY)

CELL WALL
- Made of a rigid strong material called cellulose, provides support and protection from
physical injury

LARGE VACUOLES
- Plants have one large vacuole but functions are same as animal cells

CHLOROPLAST
- Contains chlorophyll that helps photosynthesis, gives leaves their green colour, similar
functions as mitochondria

REASONS FOR CELL DIVISION

- To GROW
- To REPRODUCE
- To REPAIR


CELL DIVISION FOR REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction - produce off springs from one parent, genetically identical to parents
Sexual reproduction - produce off springs by fusion of two gametes, have genetic info from both


parents

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

CELL DIVISION FOR GROWTH

- CELLS need to divide
- Absorbs nutrients quicker (distance)
- Energy efSiciency
- Amount used > amount gained is bad
- Cell chemical function
- Releases waste quicker
Movement of substance
Diffusion
- A transport mechanism for moving chemical into and out of the cell, from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
- i.e. when air freshener is sprayed into the air, it diffuses throughout the room
Osmosis
- The movement of a Sluid, USALLY WATER, across a membrane towards an area of
high solute concentration
- i.e Apple juice solute with water

CELL CYCLE

INTERPHASE
- Carries out usual functions, but make copy of its DNA & chromosomes for the next step
in cell division
Chromosomes - structure in nucleus containing DNA
- Creates sister chromatids after duplication (Identical copy - sister chromatids)

Centromere holds the sister chromatids together

MITOSIS - (FOUR PHASES - PMAT) FIRST STAGE OF CELL DIVISION

1. PROPHASE (PROACTIVE) (meatball and spaghetti with fries combo)
- DNA condenses, turns visible
- Centrioles (organelles that help duplicate CANDY) move to opposite ends
- Nuclear membrane weakens/breaks
- Spindle Sibres grows from centrioles
2. METAPHASE (MIDDLE) (Ghostbusters)
- Sister Chromatids move to the MIDDLE of the cell
- Centrioles pull spindle Siber in opposite direction
3. ANAPHASE (APART) (Snake of war)
- Sister chromatids are pulled, splitting centromere
- Centroids pull spindle Siber in opposite direction

4. TELOPHASE (TWO) (Tea time with 2)

- Chromatids divide into two opposite ends of the cell
- Two new nuclear membrane forms around chromatids
- Spindle Siber disappears
- Chromosomes thins
CYTOKINESIS - SECOND STAGE OF CELL DIVISION
- Cells get cut in half dividing the cytoplasm
- For plant cells: A cell wall grows inwards to cut the cell

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

CANCER
- A broad group of diseases that result in uncontrolled cell division



TUMOUR - A mass of cell that continue to grow and divide without any function in the body


BENIGN TUMOUR
- Tumour that does NOT affect surrounding tissues execept for physically
crowding

MALIGANT TUMOUR
- Tumour that INTERFERES with functioning of surrounding cells; a cancerous
tumour
METASTASIS
- Cancer cells BREAKING AWAY from original tumour elsewhere in the body
MUTATION
- A random change in the DNA
CARCINOGEN
- Any environmental factor that causes cancer

STRUCTURE OF A CANCER CELL
- Cancer cells grow and divide in the mitosis stage quicker than normal cells
- less time for cancer cells to duplicate its DNA
- Prophase and telophase seems quicker in Cancer cells

NORMAL CELL
- Large cytoplasm
- Single nucleus
- Singe nucleolus
- Fine chromatin

CANCER CELL
- Small cytoplasm
- Multiple Nucleus
- Multiple and large nucleolus
- Coarse chromatin

SPECIALIZED CELLS
- A cell that can perform a speciSic function

8 IMPORTANT SPECIALIZED CELL

BONE CELLS
- Grows and repairs bones, collects calcium from digest. system, builds up
bones around themselves, creates skeleton

WHITE B CELLS
- Moves like an amoeba, engulf bacteria and [ights infections



FAT CELLS
- Have larger vacuoles, stores fat molecules, stores cells chemical energy

RED B CELLS
- Contains hemoglobin that carries O2 in blood, smooth cells allowing passage
through B cells

NERVE CELLS

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- Long, thin and have many branches, conduct electrical impulses to move body

SKIN CELLS
- Layers of S.C Sit tightly, covers outside of body to protect cell inside and
reduce water lost

MUSCLE CELLS
- Arranged in bundles called muscle Sibres, can contract to make Sibre shorter
and move bone

SPERM CELLS
- Move independently, carries DNA from male parent to join egg in the female
parent

HIERARCHY OF CELLS
- An organizational structure with more complex or important things on Top of the pyramid



TISSUE
- Collection of similar cells that have a particular, BUT not limited functions (i.e. Heart
tissues)

ORGAN
- A structure of different tissues working to perform a complex bodily function (i.e.
lungs)

ORGAN SYSTEM
- Consist of one or more organs working together to perform a major VITAL function (i.e.
digest system)

ORGAN SYSTEM

TISSUES (4 MAIN TISSUES) (CENM)
TISSUE

EXAMPLE

DESCRIPTION

EPITHELIAL

skin, lining of nose The sheet of tightly packed cells covering

and digestive
the surface of internal organs
system

FUNCTION

- Protects from
dehydration

- Decreases friction on
surface

- Support
- Insulation
- Structure

CONNECTIVE Bones, tendons

and blood

Various cells held together by liquid, solid

or gel (KNOWN AS MATRIX)

MUSCLE

Striated, smooth,
cardiac muscles

Bundles of long cell called muscle Sibre that Movement

contains proteins allowing contracting and
elongating

NERVOUS

Brain, spinal cord, Long cell of Sine branches at end that

sensory nerves
conduct electrical impulses

- Sensory
- Communicating
- Bodily functions

CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION: Process which cells become specialized to perform speciSic

functions

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

STEM CELL AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION

- An undifferentiated cell that can be divided to form specialized cells
- The umbilical cord contains the most/rich sources of stem cells

TWO TYPES OF STEM CELLS

EMBRYONIC - Can differentiate into any kind of cell

TISSUES - Adult stem cells exist within specialized cells i.e. Bone marrow -> blood

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Where food energy and nutrient move from being outside of the body to inside of the body
- It takes in food, digest food and excretes the remaining waste.

DIGESTIVE TRACT
Epithelial cells - Goblets cells producing mucus, protects from digestive enzymes and acids
Mucus tissues
Nerves
Villi - Located in epithelial cells (Sigure like projection) that increase absorption of nutrients

MOUTH
- Mechanically breaks down food by chewing and chemically with saliva
containing enzymes (such as amylase that breaks down starch)
- Food is then passed on to esophagus

ACESSORY ORGANS
- Organs producing digestive enzymes that help break down food faster

LIVER
- Produces enzymes and bile for small intes.
- Bile help break down fat

GALL BLADDER

ESOPHAGUS
- Muscular tube connects mouth to stomach and muscle move food down which
is controlled by nerves
- Passed on to stomach
Peristalsis - the process of moving food through the esophagus into the stomach with the help of
muscles

STOMACH
- The stomach holds food, churns it
- Lines with cells that produce digestive enzymes and acids
- Muscles contract to mix with food
SMALL INTESTINE
- 6m long
- Most digestion occurs here
- Smooth muscles
- Nutrient diffuse through wall and into blood vessels
LARGE INTESTING
- 1.5m long
- Larger diameter
- Primarily water absorption
- Waste material passed on to rectum
RECTUM
- Storage feces and water absorption
- Waste excreted through anus

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- Produces enzymes
- Stores bile between meals

PANCREASE
- Produces insulin to regulate glucose in blood

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- Carries nutrients to cell from intestine, O2 from lungs and CO2, waste away from cell to the lung
and kidney respectively
- Regulates body temperature
- Carries chemical message between parts of the body

HEART
- Pumps blood through arteries and branch into smaller vessels
Cardiac Muscle Tissues

Nerve Tissues

Connective Tissues

- Only found in heart

- All tissues contracted at the

- Controls the rate of heart beat

- Protects the heart

same time

- No required though to move

- Bumps blood

BLOOD
- Connective tissue that circulates through the body and made of 4 parts
Red Blood Cells
(erythrocytes)

White Blood Cells

(leukocytes)

- Contains hemoglobin

- Makes up 1% of blood - Makes up less than 1% - Protein rich Sluid that

-
-

(transports O2
throughout the body
Produced in bone
marrow
No nucleus

volume

- Have a nucleus
- Fights infection by

Platlets

Plasma

of blood volume

- Helps clots blood

carries blood cells

- Makes up 1/2 of blood

volume

- Clear

recognizing and
destroy bacterias and
viruses

BLOOD VESSELS (three types)

Arteries (away)

Viens

Capillaries (connects)

- Carries blood away from the

heart

- Carries blood into the heart

- have valves to prevent Slowing

- Connects arteries and viens

- THIN WALLS allow O2 and

pressure

- low pressure, thinner walls

- THICKER WALLS to withstand

back

than arteries

nutrient to diffuse from

capillary into body tissues
CO2 and other waste diffuse out

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- Provides O2 needed by the body and removes CO2
- Works together with the circulatory system
Process

- Air goes through the nose and mouth and Siltered/trapped by tiny hairs and mucus
- Air then passes through the pharynx into the trachea(hold by rings of CARTILAGE that
are strong and Slexible)

- epithelial cells in trachea produces mucus and have cilia to remove any left over bad
material

- After gets separated into two branches [Bronchus (one) bronchi (two)

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- Then divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles

Gas exchange
- Each bronchioles become tiny sacs called alveoli and also where gas exchange occurs
- Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries where O2 and CO2 diffuse through (the
capillary and alveolus walls
- The main purpose of the respiratory system
- Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The organ system consisting the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves in which senses the
environment and coordinates appropriate response



CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The part of the nervous system consisting the brain and spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

- The part that consist of the nerves that connect the body to the central nervous system

THREE TYPES OF NERVES FOUND
- Nerves that control the voluntary muscles
- Nerves that carry information form the sensory organs, such as the eyes, ears, tastebuds,
and touch receptors to brain
- Nerves that regulate involuntary functions (breathing, heartbeat, and digestion)

NERVES ARE PROTECTED BY
- Central N.S are shielded by bones
- Skull protects the brain
- Spine guards the spinal cord
- Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)

NERVE CELL

MYELIN SHEALTH: Increases signal transfer through the nerves
- Neurons are cells that make up a nervous tissue
- Nerves allow two way Slow of info
- Neruons TRANSMIT info only in ONE DIRECTION
- Nerves cells dont easily regenerate, only a small gap 1 millimetre
- Nerves are a bundle of neutrons surrounded by connective tissues
SENSORY RECEPTORS
- Special cells that receive input from out external environment, signalling the nerves to
transmit a message
- eyes, ears, mouth, nose, muscles and skin are sensory receptors

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
- Organ system made of bones and skeletal muscle

ROLES OF THE SKELETON

- Provides supports and place for muscles to attach to
- Protects internal organs
- Contains BONE MARROW and produces RBC and WBC
- Three connective tissues (bone, ligament and cartilage)
BONES
- Bones are made of bone cells, Ca and P and collagen Sibres

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- Bones contain nerves and blood vessels and most tissues are not living
LIGAMENTS
- Tough and elastic
- Joints and holds bones together
- Made of long collagen Sibre

CARTILAGE
- Cartilage cells contain collagen
- Prevents damage to the end of bones (friction)
- Strong and Slexible to support the bone

MUSCLE STRUCTURE
- Contain long muscle cells that make muscle Sibres
- special protein that allows muscles to contract (becomes shorter and thicker)
- Muscle types - skeletal - voluntary, smooth muscle - involuntary, Cardiac - involuntary

PLANT SYSTEM

ROOT SYSTEM
- grows below ground, anchors the plant and absorbs water and minerals from the soil and
stores food

SHOOT SYSTEM
- made of the stem, leaves and Slower
- conducts photosynthesis
- produces Slowers for reproduction

LEAVES
- main area of photosynthesis, used for support, protection and reproduce
- leaves can be used as food (lettuce, tea) wax and medicine and livestock food

FLOWER
- Contains male or female structure, or both
- Male produces pollen grain, female produce eggs
- Eggs are fertilized by pollen, producing seeds which would become plants
- Flowers are used as food (rice, wheat, corn, vanilla, chocolate) and different
medicines

STEM
- Supports the branch, leaves and Slower and transports materials like water and
nutrients through the plant
- Stems are used as food (sugar cane, potatoes), paper products, cork, linens and
medicines

SYSTEM AND TISSUES IN PLANT

CHARACTERISTIC OF A PLANT
- generally green, caused by chlorophyll in chemical called chloroplast
- cannot move, has a root that anchors them in place

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- plants make their food through photosynthesis in which tissues in leaves use carbon
dioxide, water and light energy to produce glucose and oxygen
- glucose helps plant grow

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

EQUATION: CO2 + H20 + (light energy) -> C6H12O6 + O2 + energy (ATP)

FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS VS ANIMALS (SIMILARITY)
- Exchange gases with their surroundings
- More water and nutrients around within their bodies
- Have a way of reproducing

TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES - THREE TYPES (D.V.G)
DERMAL - Forms the outer part of the plant
- Includes both epidermal and periderm tissues
- Epidermal tissues - Cells covering all non-woody surface of a plant
- Periderm tissues - tissues on a surface of a plant which produces bark on stem and root
VASCULAR - Forms the area that transports water, minerals and nutrients in the plant
- Similar to a network of tubes that reaches from the roots up the stalk, and thought the leaves
- Two types of vascular tissues
- Xylem - Vascular tissues in a plant that transports water and dissolved minerals form the roots
to the leaves and stem. Prokaryote (NO NUCLEUS ORGANELLES) just a rigid hollow tube,
DEAD
- Phloem - Vascular tissues in plant that transports dissolved food and minerals and hormones
throughout the plant. Eukaryote (are alive when mature and functioning)
GROUND - Makes the other structure of the plant
- Filters between the dermal and the vascular tissues
- Manufactures nutrients by the process of photosynthesis
- Store carbohydrate in roots, provide storage and support in stem
MERISTEMATIC CELLS - an undifferentiated plant cell that can divide and differentiate to form
specialized cells
SPECIALIZED TISSUES AND CELLS IN A LEAF

PALLSADE LAYER
- A layer of tall, closely packed cells containing chloroplast, just below the upper surface of
a leaf; a type of ground tissue

SPONGY MESOPHYLL
- A region of loosely packed cells containing chloroplast in the middle of a leaf; a type of
ground tissue

CUTICLE
- Layer of wax on the upper and lower surfaces of a lead blocking diffusion of water an gas

STOMATE (Plural: Stomata)

- An opening in surface of leaf allowing the exchange of gas

GUARD CELLS
- One pair of special cells in the epidermis that control opening and closing of each stomate

PLANT GROWTH

Apical Meristems - Undifferentiated cells at the tips of plant roots and shoots; cells that
divide, enabling the plant to grow longer and develop specialized tissues

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

Lateral Meristems - undifferentiated cells under the bark in the stems and roots of woody
plants; cells that divide, enabling the plant to grow wider and develop specialized tissues in the
stem
UNIT 3 - PHYSICS (Optics)
THE PRODUCTION AND REFLECTION OF LIGHT

INTRODUCTION OF LIGHT
- Light travels at 3.00 x 108 m/s in vacuum, 2.26 x 108 m/s in water
- Speed of light travels at an equivalent to 7.5 rotations around earth in 1 second



PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
- Travels in a STRAIGHT LINE
- Travels at the SPEED OF LIGHT
- Light energy transmitted through RADIATION
- Is any ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES a human can detect
- Appears as a BEAM

MEDIUM
- any physical substance through which energy can be transformed

RADIATION
- a method of energy transfer that does NOT require a MEDIUM; the energy travels at SL

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
- a wave that has both electric and magnetic parts, does not require a medium and travels
at the SL
- Spectrum (RMIVXG) - Radio, Microwave, Infrared, Visible, X-Ray, Gamma Ray
LUMINOUS OBJECT
- Produces its own light

NON-LUMINOUS OBJECT
- Does not produce its own light

TYPES OF LIGHT PRODUCTION

Incandescence - Production of light from high temperature
- i.e. incandescence light bulb, candle, sparks
Electric Discharge - Production of light from electricity passing through gas
- i.e. neon sign, Geissler tube, Lighting
Phosphorescence - production of light from absorption of UV light resulting in visible light
- i.e. glow-in-dark-stickers
Fluorescence - Immediate light emission from absorption of UV light
- i.e. highlighter, clothing, Slorescence light
Chemiluminescence - Direct light production from chemical reaction, no heat
- i.e. glow-sticks
Bioluminescence - Chemical light procession within an organism
- i.e. glow worms, SireSly
Triboluminescence - Production of light from friction of scratching, crushing, rubbing certain
crystal
- i.e. quartz
TERM OF REFLECTIONS
Light ray - line representing the direction and path the light travels
Geometric optics - uses of light rays to determine the behaviour of light when strikes object

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

Incident light - light emitted from a source that strikes an object

Transparent - when material transmits ALL or ALMOST ALL incident light, CLEAR
Translucent - when material transmits SOME incident light
Opaque - when material transmits NO incident light at all, absorbed or reSlected
Image - REPRODUCTION of an object thought the uses of light
Mirror - Any POLISHED surface reSlecting images
Re[lection - The bouncing back of light from a surface
Plane mirror - or Slat mirror, illustrates how predictable the path of light when hits the mirror
Incident ray - INCOMING rays that strikes a surface
Re[lected ray - the ray that bounces off a reSlective surface
Normal - the perpendicular line to a mirror surface
Angle of incidence - the angle between the incident ray and normal
Angle of re[lection - the angle between the reSlected ray and normal

LAW OF REFLECTION
- The angle of incidence equals the angle of reSlection
- The incident ray, the reSlected ray, and the normal all lie in the same space

SPECTACUALR REFLECTION
- reSlection of light off a smooth surface
- i.e A mirror, dico ball, water reSlection, metallic surfaces

DIFFUSE REFLECTION
- ReSlection of light off an irregular or dull surface
- i.e ripples in water, curved mirror, crumpled Al foil
IMAGES IN PLANE MIRROR
Rules/Steps
1. Draw exact image on the other end
2. Find 2 points on the object
3. Draw lines (dotted/solid) through the eye to the points
4. Draw lines from the real image to the other line interacting the mirror
CURVED MIRROR

CONCAVE/CONVERGING
- Used in real applications like make up mirror, satellite dish

CONVEX/DIVERGING
- Used in real applications like security mirrors

S.A.L.T


Size - the size of the image compared to the object (small, large, medium)


Altitude - the image position from the PA (upside down/inverted, upright)


Location - The location in which the image is formed (in front, behind mirror)


Type - Real or Virtual



Real - Image formed in front of mirror and reSlected rays converge



Virtual - Image formed (usually) behind the mirror where extensions of




reSlection ray meet NOT ACTUALLY REFLECTED RAY (dotted lines
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
- The bonding of light when the light passes from one medium to another
- Bends because light travels at different speed depending on the medium it travelling through
RULES OF REFRACTION
- FAST -> SLOW, refracted ray TOWARDS normal
- SLOW -> Fast, refracted ray AWAY normal

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

INDEX OF REFRACTION
n = c/v
n = INDEX OF REFRACTION
C = SPEED OF LIGHT IN AIR (3.00 x 108 m/s)
V= SPEED OF LIGHT IN MEDIUM
CRITICAL ANGLE & TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

CRITICAL ANGLE - (SLOW -> FAST) angle of incidence will cause the angle of refraction to


be 90

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION - when incident angle > the CRITICAL ANGLE, the ray


reSlects instead of refract
- light must be traveling from slow -> fast
- angle of incidence must be large enough that the light reSlects instead of refracts
- examples of TNR are how diamond sparkles and how Sibre optics works
REFRACTION - SNELLS LAW
- Equation used to determine how a light ray refracts or the index of reSlection from angles of
incidence & refraction

EQUATION : n1sin1 = n2sin2

n1 = Index of refraction of medium #1


n2 = medium 2

1 = (incident angle) light ray to normal

2 = (angle of refraction) light ray - normal

LENS

CONVERGING LENS
- lens thats thickest in the middle
- RAYS CONVERGE at a single point after lens when incident ray are parallel to (PA)
- Focal point, opposite side for converging lens

DIVERGING LENS
- lens that is thinnest in the middle
- rays DIVERGE/SPRAY after passing through lens when incident ray parallel to (PA)
- Focal point, on same side as the incident ray

IMAGES IN LENS


Lateral displacement/sideway displacement
- the thicker the rectangular prism the light is refracted through the larger material
displacement it has


Converging lens images
1. Parallel incident ray, refract F
2. Incident ray, through F (secondary focus)
3. Incident Ray through O


Diverging lens images
1. Parallel incident ray, reSlect as if it cam from F
2. Incident ray aimed at F, reSlected light ray parallel to PA
3. Incident ray aimed at C, reSlections on same path

LENS EQUATIONS

THIN LENS EQUATION :
MAGNIFACTION EQUATION:


F = 1/di + 1/do
M = hi/ho = - di/do

do = distance from OBJECT to OPTICAL CENTRE (ALWAYS POSITIVE)

di = distance form OPTICAL CENTRE to IMAGE (+ when REAL, - When VIRTUAL)

ho = heigh of OBJECT from P.A to top (coordinates x, y)

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

hi = height of IMAGE from P.A to top

f = OPTICAL CENTRE to F FOCAL LENGTH (+ Converging)(- Diverging)
M = magniSication (+ Upright)(- Inverted)
Variable

Positive

Negative

do (object distance)

ALWAYS

di (image distance)

REAL IMAGE FORMED

VIRTUAL IMAGE FORMED

ho (object height)

Above P.A

Below P.A

hi (image height)

Above P.A

Below P.A

(focal length)

CONVERGING

DIVERGING

M (magniSication)

UPRIGHT

INVERTED

FOCUS PROBLEMS

Accommodations - changing shape of the lens by eye muscle to focus image on retina

FARSIGHTEDNESS - (HYPEROPIA)
- able to see objects far away clearly
- eyeball is compressed
- focuses BEHIND RETINA

NEAR-SIGHTED - (MYOPIA)
- able to see object close up clearly
- far objects are blurry
- eyeball is elongated
- IMAGES focuses in front of the retina

FIXING with POSITIVE MENISCUS

FIXING with NEGATIVE MENISCUS

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

UNIT 4 - ENVIRONMENT (Climate Change)

WEATHER CLIMATE

WEATHER
- Atmospheric conditions, including temperature precipitation, wind, and humidity in a
particular location over a short period of time, such as a day or a week (water, air, energy
from sun)

CLIMATE
- The average of the weather in a region over a long period of time
METEOROLOGIST
- Meteorologist gather information on weathers around the world and uses this
information to forecast the weather

THE SUNS AND EARTHS CLIMATE SYSTEM

- Almost all energy comes from the sun
- FACTORS that affect earth's climate are AIR, LAND, LIQUID WATER, ICE AND LIVING
THINGS

Sun emits
- INFRARED LIGHT (IR) (low energy, long wavelengths)
- ULTRA VIOLET (UV) ( high energy, short wavelengths)
- VISIBLE LIGHT
- RADIATION can be absorbed, transmitted and reSlected off particles



Where light goes on earth
- 30% reSlects back to space from
- Clouds (20%)
- Atmosphere (6%)
- Surface of earth (4%)
- 70% absorbed by atmosphere, clouds, oceans and lands
- 1% used for photosynthesis m rest are absorbed and cause rocks to gain
thermal energy
- After suns energy is absorbed, IR radiation are emitted back out

Effects of latitude
- Earth is tiled by 23.5 brings us different temperature (seasons) yearly
- Latitude measured from the distance of the equator
- Tilt means warmer climate at lower latitude

COMPONENTS OF EARTHS CLIMATE

ATMOSPHERE
- The atmosphere is made of layer of gases surrounding earth
- 3 main gases that make up air are 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% O3, Ar, CO2, H, He

Different layers of atmosphere (ETMST)

Exosphere - satellites orbit (10,000 km)

Thermosphere - spaceshuttle orbits (500 to 1000 km)

Karman Line - aurora (100 km)

Mesosphere - meteors burn up (80 to 85 km)

Stratosphere - ozone gas in higher concentrations (50 km)

Troposphere - weather occurs, ozone (7 to 17 km)

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

HYDROSPHERE
- The part of the climate system that includes all water on and around earth
- Water cycle - where energy absorbed when evaporates, condenses into clouds and
warms surroundings
- Water absorbs and stores more thermal energy that land and heats up and cools
down more slowly than land. Regions near a body of water tend to have cooler
summer and warmer winters

LITHOSPHERE
- The part of the climate system made up of the rocks, soil and minerals of the
earths crust
- Higher altitude = lower pressure = more air moves up causing cooler air that
lower altitude

LIVING THINGS
- All living things
- Releases CO2 and some releases methane and absorbs infrared radiation affecting
climate
ENERGY TRANSFER WITHIN THE CLIMATE SYSTEM

HEAT SINKS
- A reservoir, such as the ocean, that absorbs and stores thermal energy
- water can absorb much more thermal energy that air

CONVECTION CURRENT
- Movement of warm air and cold air creates a circular pattern called a convection
current
- these current helps move energy from the equator towards the north & south
poles

PREVALLING WINDS

- Wind that tend to move in the same direction almost all the time

JET STREAM
- High altitude winds that travel log distances at very high speeds
- affect precipitation
- may carry warm, moist air producing precipitation or dry, cool air dry weather


ENERGY TRANSFER IN THE OCEAN
- As water travels towards the poles, it gets colder, making it dense and sinks to the
ocean Sloor


THERMALHALINE CIRUCLATION
- Driven by the differences in water temp and salinity
- Currents move energy from equator to poles creating the ocean conveyor
belt
EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS
- warm ocean currents heats air above and vice versa
- produces rain when warm, moist air reaches land and vice versa


Tetonic Plates - earths outer layer composed of massive prices of solid rock
- earth has about 12 major plates moving few cm each year
- affects patterns of air and water circulation and the transfer of thermal energy

Volcanic Eruption - when plates move they cause eruptions
- spew ash and other particles called aerosols into atmosphere (sulphate aerosols)
- particles reSlect solar radiation, cooling global climate
- which can last few yearsbefowre its removed (percip, settling)
- rise in GHG

ALBEDO (EFFECT)

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- is a measure of how much of suns radiation is reSlected back by a surface (%)

- light coloured surfaces reSlect energy, dark surfaces absorbs it
- snow and ice reSlect solar radiation
- greatly affect global temperature
- the positive feedback loop in which an increase in earth;s temperature causes ice
to melt, more radiation is absorbed by earths surface, increased temp

GREEN HOUSE GASES

- Any gas in the atmosphere that absorbs lower energy infrared radiation
- NITROGEN (N2) OXYGEN (O2) found most in atmosphere (DOES NOT ABSORB IR)





Examples of GHG
Water vapour
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Troposphere Ozone (O3)
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
- A natural process whereby gases and clouds absorbs IR emitted from earths surface and
radiates it, heating the atmosphere and earths surface


Anthropogenic: Resulting from a human inSluence



Anthropogenic GHG: CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCS

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) (385 ppm)

- Second most common greenhouse gas, causes about 1/4 (25%)
- produced by
- vehicle and factory emissions
- plant respiration
- animal respiration
- burning tree and fossil fuel


Carbon sinks
- CO2 dissolves in the ocean and forms solid calcium carbonate
- recently increased in carbon due to global temperature
- disruption of the soil and loving, forming speeds carbon release
- photosynthesis process of forest requires carbon to grow, absorbing/storing CO2
- Part of plant respiration and the decomposition of trees, they release CO2

WATER VAPOUR (H2O)

- Most common GHG (green house gas), about 2/3 (66.6%) of natural gas effects
- the vapours when temperature rises, creates clouds trapping heat close to earth

METHANE (CH4) (1.785 ppm)

- Third most common GHG
- Natural gas a fossil fuel often used to heat homes and run vehicle, formed by decay of
organic matter (plants & animals) but these plants decompose thousands of years ago
- found 3000-15000 feet below surface
- Animals such as cows, sheeps, bisons multiple digestive system have microbes that
release methane when breaking down

OZONE (O3)
- Found naturally in the stratosphere, caused 1/3 of direct GHG since industrial revolution
- Protects earths surface from suns higher energy UV radiation

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- Ozone found in the troposphere are harmful (smog from UV, exhaust, causes toxic
corrosive effect)

- InSlux from stratosphere ands photo chemical reaction with higher levels of air pollution
(UV radiation combined with exhaust from cars producing toxic chemical and O3)

NITROUS OXIDE (N20) (0.321 ppm)

- farmers uses of chemical fertilizers that are nitrogen based can be released, as fertilizers
breakdown when farmers prepare lands for crops

CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCS)
- commonly found in refrigeration agents and air conditioners
- CFCs broken down by UV radiation near ozone layer, freeing chlorine, which has the
potential to destroy large amounts of ozone
- therefore, depletion in ozone in Antarctica & increased in genetically harmful UV rays
to earth

STUDY CLUES TO PAST CLIMATE

PROXY RECORDS
- Preserved characteristics of the past that can be measured, which allows scientist to
reconstruct the climate conditions that occurred during much of earths history



TREE RINGS - Inside of a tree core containing tree rings
- the thickness of the rings tell wet and dry years in a certain region, thin = dry year
- a larger/thicker ring means a good growth year




ICE CORES - slices of a long rod of ice drilled in ice
- the bubbles Silled with air help determine climate of past by preserving ancient
air
- the preserved air can help analyze the climate of the past, see temperatures and
supports GW theory
- scientist found out that CO2 decrease in ice age and CO2 increase after the ice age



FOSSILS
- researchers found/estimated from the scallops and diatoms that anoretic use to
be warm climates
- Suggest air wasnt always cold because these creatures cant survive in this temp.



SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- dark sediments of the face of a cliff represent lava formations
- sedimentary rocks are obtained by drilling the rock
- cores that combine algae tells the researcher that temperature was warmer than
when sediments where with pebbles and stones
- Researchers use geothermal techniques under a microscope to determine dates of
rock layer
- Coralizer takes hi-res photos of the core samples

EVIDENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE (CC)

EFFECTS OF CC IN ATMOSPHERE
- changes in severe weather
- more frequent intense, severe weathers than the past
- Heatwave
- Drought

SNC2D1 Exam Notes

- WildSires
- Storms
- Floods

- Changes in precipitation pattern

- Changes in season

EFFECTS OF CC IN HYDROSPHERE
- Melting glacier
- Ocean warming & rising sea levels
- Over the past century, average ocean temp has increased by about 0.6c
- warmer waters = less CO2 absorption, less effective carbon sink = increase in GHG
- Ocean currents - change in Slow

EFFECTS OF CC IN WILDLIFE
- Change in ecosystem (shifting in ecosystems)
- Threat species
- force organisms to adapt and migrate, or they will become extinct
- If global avg. temp increases by 3.3c between 40 and 70% of all species are risk of
extinction