Student Study Guide For Understanding Earth

Student Study Guide
for
Grotzinger, Jordan, Press, and Siever'

UNDERSTANDING EARTH
Fifth Edition
Peter L. Kresan
University of Arizona, Tucson (retired)
Reed Mencke, Ph.D.

University of Arizona, Tucson (retired)
IS
W. H. Freeman and Company
New York
CHAPTER
Brief Preview of the Study Guide

for Understanding Earth
e k n o w from personal e x p e r i e n c e that studying g e o l o g y can be very r e w a r d i n g .

G e o l o g y allows you to look at the Earth a r o u n d you and u n d e r s t a n d h o w it c a m e
to look the w a y it d o e s . G e o l o g y offers scientifically s o u n d e x p l a n a t i o n s for g e o logic disasters such as e a r t h q u a k e s and v o l c a n o e s . We also k n o w that m a s t e r i n g the ideas of
g e o l o g y can be challenging. T h e m a i n goal of this Study G u i d e is to h e l p you m e e t that challenge. We think you will find the organization of this g u i d e b o t h practical a n d helpful. S u c c e s s
in g e o l o g y revolves a r o u n d lecture, as do the study aids in this g u i d e . Specific g e o l o g y study
strategies are w o v e n t h r o u g h o u t the g u i d e , i n c l u d i n g h o w to take great notes a n d h o w to prep a r e for e x a m s . Study aids are laid out step by step (see the flow chart on p a g e 3) so y o u k n o w
w h a t to do before lecture, during lecture, after lecture, and d u r i n g e x a m p r e p a r a t i o n . A final
a p p e n d i x , H o w to S t u d y G e o l o g y , brings all these aids together into a short c o u r s e on effective study strategies. H e r e ' s h o w to use these materials.
Before Lecture: Preview

T h e key to taking g o o d notes is to arrive in class with an o v e r v i e w of w h a t will be c o v e r e d
a l r e a d y i n m i n d . T h a t w a y y o u will a l r e a d y k n o w w h a t g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s will b e
e x p l a i n e d a n d w h a t key q u e s t i o n s t h e l e c t u r e will a n s w e r . In l e c t u r e y o u c a n actively listen for a n s w e r s to those questions. Listening actively with specific q u e s t i o n s in m i n d is guaranteed to result in u n d e r s t a n d i n g m o r e of w h a t is said and including m o r e of the key points
in y o u r n o t e s .
T h e m e t h o d you use to gain an overview is called C h a p t e r Preview. To m a k e p r e v i e w ing easier for you, we begin e a c h c h a p t e r of the S t u d y G u i d e with the three or four key q u e s tions the c h a p t e r (and its c o r r e s p o n d i n g lecture) will cover. Brief a n s w e r s d e s i g n e d to help
you start thinking about the material are supplied as well. Working with these questions and
a n s w e r s ahead of t i m e will bring you to lecture ready to listen and take g o o d notes.
1
Contents
Part I: How to Study Geology
1 Brief Preview of the Study G u i d e
2 Meet the A u t h o r s
3 How to Be Successful in G e o l o g y
Part II: Chapter-by-Chapter Study Resources

1 The Earth S y s t e m
19
2 Plate Tectonics: T h e Unifying T h e o r y

3 Earth Materials: M i n e r a l s and R o c k s
4 Igneous R o c k s : Solids from M e l t s
26
35
50
5 Sedimentation: R o c k s F o r m e d by Surface P r o c e s s e s
64
6 Metamorphism: Modification of R o c k s by T e m p e r a t u r e and P r e s s u r e

7 Deformation: Modification of R o c k s by Folding and Fracturing
8 Clocks in R o c k s : T i m i n g the G e o l o g i c R e c o r d
9 Early History of the Terrestrial Planets
10 Evolution of the C o n t i n e n t s
12 Volcanoes
94
106
113
11 Geobiology: Life Interacts with the Earth
13 Earthquakes
74
84
124
133
144
14 Exploring Earth's Interior

15 T h e Climate S y s t e m
155
166
16 Weathering, E r o s i o n , and M a s s Wasting: Interface B e t w e e n C l i m a t e and Tectonics

17 T h e H y d r o l o g i c C y c l e and G r o u n d w a t e r
191
18 Stream Transport from M o u n t a i n s to O c e a n s

19 W i n d s and Deserts
201
211
2 0 Coastlines and O c e a n B a s i n s
21 Glaciers: T h e W o r k of Ice
217
226
2 2 L a n d s c a p e s : Tectonic and C l i m a t e Interaction

23 The H u m a n Impact on Earth's Environment
Appendix A: Eight-Day Study Plan

Appendix B: Final Exam Prep
234
244
253
255
Answers to Practice Exercises and Review Questions
257
During Lecture: Take an Excellent Set of Notes

W i t h the basic q u e s t i o n s in m i n d , you have a h e a d start on taking g o o d notes. But note taking is a skill, and as is true with j u s t a b o u t everything else in life, y o u get better with practice.
We p r o v i d e a N o t e - T a k i n g Checklist: specific actions y o u can take to get m o r e of the content
into y o u r n o t e s in a u s a b l e form. For m a n y chapters we p r o v i d e additional note-taking tips
that are specific to the chapter, for e x a m p l e , s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t w h a t to listen for or figures
y o u n e e d to review carefully before a particular lecture.
After Lecture
After e a c h lecture we suggest that y o u s c h e d u l e t w o separate sessions: a brief note review and
i m p r o v e m e n t session and an Intensive S t u d y S e s s i o n (lasting at least an h o u r ) d u r i n g w h i c h
y o u a c h i e v e m a s t e r y of the l e c t u r e ' s content.
Have you checked your notes?
N o t e taking i s not confined j u s t t o lecture. N o t e s can almost
a l w a y s be i m p r o v e d after lecture. G o o d students k n o w this and take the time after lecture to
revise their n o t e s . T h e s e s t u d e n t s also pull additional p o i n t s o n every m i d t e r m a s t h e i r " p a y check." Specific suggestions in every chapter of the Study G u i d e will help you i m p r o v e y o u r
lecture notes. Often these suggestions focus on a d d i n g visual material from the text or s u m m a r i z i n g w h a t w a s covered in a form that will be easy to r e m e m b e r .
Intensive S t u d y S e s s i o n .
T h e p u r p o s e o f the intensive study session i s t o m a s t e r the
m a t e r i a l t a u g h t i n l e c t u r e . L e a r n i n g and c o g n i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y t e a c h e s u s that r e a d i n g p a s sively is an inefficient w a y to learn. You learn best if you spend y o u r study time a n s w e r i n g
q u e s t i o n s . W i t h this m e t h o d y o u read portions of the text as y o u n e e d t h e m to find a n s w e r s
to q u e s t i o n s . I t ' s a lot like t h e w a y we l e a r n a n e w software p a c k a g e on t h e c o m p u t e r . We
m a y not r e a d the software m a n u a l first. Instead we load a p r o g r a m a n d start u s i n g it. T h e n
w e g o t o t h e m a n u a l (or o n l i n e h e l p ) w h e n w e n e e d t o f i n d out i f w e c a n d o s o m e t h i n g w i t h
t h e p r o g r a m , o r t o see h o w t o d o it. A p p l y i n g this t o the t e x t b o o k , y o u will l e a r n g e o l o g y
m o s t efficiently b y w o r k i n g b a c k w a r d from q u e s t i o n s , a n d for e a c h c h a p t e r w e s u g g e s t
q u e s t i o n s y o u c a n u s e this way. A n d often w e s u g g e s t o t h e r g u i d i n g q u e s t i o n s f r o m
Understanding Earth or the W e b site.
S i m p l y stated:
Do a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s , d o n ' t " j u s t
r e a d . " You will learn a n d r e m e m b e r m o r e s c i e n c e m u c h faster.
Exam Prep
D o i n g well on college e x a m s is mostly about organization. Effective study r e q u i r e s a s y s t e m a t i c , orderly review. M o s t of y o u r review time (about 70 p e r c e n t ) should be spent a n s w e r ing review q u e s t i o n s . F o r e a c h c h a p t e r of the text the Study G u i d e i n c l u d e s a C h a p t e r
S u m m a r y , Practice Exercises, R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s , and W e b activities. U s i n g t h e s e features
is the fastest w a y to learn and the best w a y to r e m e m b e r the information y o u h a v e learned.
S t u d y tips for preparing for m i d t e r m and final e x a m s , helpful hints that will i m p r o v e y o u r testtaking skills on m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e tests, and information on h o w to use y o u r p e r s o n a l l e a r n i n g
style to y o u r a d v a n t a g e d u r i n g e x a m s m a y also be found in this section.
CHAPTER
Meet the Authors of Understanding

Earth: How to Use Your
Geology Textbook
s you begin y o u r study of geology, first take a m i n u t e or t w o to get a c q u a i n t e d with

y o u r text. First of all, w h y do you think it w a s w r i t t e n ? H e r e is w h a t y o u r text a u t h o r s
h a v e to say about w h y they w r o t e the b o o k :
Geology fascinates and excites us. We wrote U n d e r s t a n d i n g Earth to help you discover for yourselves how interesting geology is in its own right and how important
an understanding of geology has become for making decisions of public policy. What
can we do to protect people and property from natural disasters such as volcanoes,
earthquakes, and landslides? How can we use the resources of Earthcoal and oil,
minerals, water, and airin ways that minimize damage to the environment? In the
end, understanding Earth helps us understand how to preserve life on Earth.
T h e y add that p e o p l e t e n d to enjoy w h a t they do well. T h e y d e s i g n e d their text to h e l p y o u do
well in y o u r g e o l o g y c o u r s e . M a n y aids to learning are built into the text. L e t ' s s p e n d a m i n u t e
or t w o talking about these aids and h o w you can use t h e m .
Clues and Tools: "What's Important?"

O n e of the t o u g h e s t things about taking an introductory course is that y o u typically h a v e very
little k n o w l e d g e of the subject matter. N o t only do you have a lot to learn, but you h a v e a lot
to learn about how to learn it. W h e r e should you focus y o u r attention? W h a t skills and c o n cepts should receive the bulk of y o u r study e n e r g y ? A i d s to h e l p y o u see w h a t material is
i m p o r t a n t are built into every p a g e of Understanding Earth. But you h a v e to k n o w w h e r e to
look for these aids and how to use them. H e r e is a short list of learning aids in y o u r text and
a few preliminary t h o u g h t s about h o w to m a x i m i z e their usefulness.
4
Meet the Authors of Understanding Earth: How to Use Your Geology Textbook
/ Chapter Outline
T h e a u t h o r s begin e a c h c h a p t e r with an outline of w h a t will be
c o v e r e d . To use this tool you n e e d to l o o k actively for clues. L o o k at the outline for
C h a p t e r 1. E a c h item in the outline is a clue to w h a t will be covered in the chapter. Try
t u r n i n g e a c h item in the outline into a q u e s t i o n . E x a m p l e : A s k yourself, " W h a t is the
scientific m e t h o d ? " as you r e a d that section. Pay particular attention to material in
the outline y o u find intriguing, surprising, or p u z z l i n g in any way. U s e y o u r surprise
o r p u z z l e m e n t t o motivate y o u r s e l f w h e n y o u read that section. E x a m p l e : C o n s i d e r
the item " E a r t h as a S y s t e m of Interacting C o m p o n e n t s . " H e r e there are t w o p o s s i b i l ities. You m a y be p u z z l e d a b o u t w h a t c o m p o n e n t s the a u t h o r s are referring to. In that
case, activate y o u r curiosity. F r a m e y o u r surprise in a q u e s t i o n such as " W h a t in t h e
w o r l d are t h e a u t h o r s talking a b o u t ? " o r " W h a t are E a r t h ' s interacting c o m p o n e n t s ? "
R e a d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n in m i n d .
/ Chapter Summary
At the e n d of each c h a p t e r a brief s u m m a r y e m p h a s i z e s the m o s t
important ideas of the chapter. T h i s is a very useful r e s o u r c e w h e n you are studying for
an e x a m .
Time Saver Tip

Before r e a d i n g a c h a p t e r of the text, read t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y first, referring as
you do so to the C h a p t e r O u t l i n e . T h e outline and s u m m a r y will provide an overview,
or organizer, that will greatly accelerate your reading and understanding of material.
Hint: Also use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions in this Study G u i d e . T h e s e questions are
specially devised to h e l p you focus on the m o s t important material.
/ Key Terms within the text are printed in bold. You can speed up your reading time by being
vigilant for key terms. W h e n you see a boldfaced t e r m you k n o w it is the most important
concept in that paragraph. Focus on understanding the concept.
/ Photographs
G e o l o g y is a very visual science. Pictures in the text are essential. U s e
t h e m as a "virtual field t r i p " to h e l p you learn w h a t particular r o c k s and formations l o o k
like. P e r h a p s you h a v e h e a r d of or even visited s o m e of the p h o t o sites. E x a m p l e : See
Figure 1.4 in C h a p t e r 1. P a y particular attention to the p h o t o g r a p h s that are paired with
s c h e m a t i c figures or d i a g r a m s and refer to t h e m as you read.
Study Tip
H a v i n g a t o u g h t i m e g e t t i n g y o u r s e l f started in a study s e s s i o n ? U s e the art to
motivate y o u . Start a c h a p t e r s t u d y session by s c a n n i n g t h e i m a g e s a n d c a p t i o n s
t o f i n d m a t e r i a l that interests y o u . B e g i n y o u r r e a d i n g with this m a t e r i a l . T h i s
a p p r o a c h w o r k s like starting a fire. You g e n e r a t e a small s p a r k of interest and t h e n
fan it by b r i n g i n g in n e w m a t e r i a l .
/ Figures (Flowcharts)
F i g u r e s are even m o r e important than p h o t o g r a p h s . F l o w c h a r t s
such as the r o c k cycle in F i g u r e 3.26 present key c o n c e p t s . Pay careful attention to the
a r r o w s in flow m o d e l s and ask yourself w h a t drives the p r o c e s s and w h a t p r o d u c t s are
formed. If you are a visual learner, you m a y even want to study the figures a n d sketches
before y o u start to read. T h e n read text on an a s - n e e d e d basis, to clarify the figure.
/ Figure Stories
In g e o l o g y the story of a particular feature or area is often instructive.
In e a c h c h a p t e r of Understanding Earth, you will find a "figure story," an illustrated
vignette that explains an i m p o r t a n t g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s or principle. F i g u r e stories contain
/ Chapter Outline
T h e a u t h o r s b e g i n e a c h c h a p t e r w i t h an outline of w h a t will be
c o v e r e d . To u s e this tool you n e e d to look actively for clues. L o o k at the outline for
C h a p t e r 1. E a c h item in the outline is a clue to w h a t will be c o v e r e d in the chapter. Try
turning e a c h i t e m in the outline into a q u e s t i o n . E x a m p l e : A s k yourself, " W h a t is the
scientific m e t h o d ? " as y o u r e a d that section. P a y particular attention to material in
the o u t l i n e you find intriguing, surprising, or p u z z l i n g in any way. U s e y o u r surprise
o r p u z z l e m e n t t o m o t i v a t e yourself w h e n you r e a d that section. E x a m p l e : C o n s i d e r
the item " E a r t h as a S y s t e m of Interacting C o m p o n e n t s . " H e r e there are t w o p o s s i b i l ities. You m a y be p u z z l e d a b o u t w h a t c o m p o n e n t s the a u t h o r s are referring to. In that
c a s e , activate y o u r curiosity. F r a m e y o u r surprise in a q u e s t i o n such as " W h a t in the
w o r l d are t h e a u t h o r s talking a b o u t ? " o r " W h a t are E a r t h ' s interacting c o m p o n e n t s ? "
R e a d w i t h the q u e s t i o n in m i n d .
/ Chapter Summary
At the end of e a c h c h a p t e r a brief s u m m a r y e m p h a s i z e s the m o s t
i m p o r t a n t ideas of the chapter. T h i s is a very useful r e s o u r c e w h e n you are studying for
an e x a m .
Time Saver Tip

Before r e a d i n g a c h a p t e r of the text, read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y first, referring as
you do so to the C h a p t e r O u t l i n e . T h e outline and s u m m a r y will p r o v i d e an overview,
or organizer, that will greatly accelerate your reading and understanding of material.
Hint: Also use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in this Study G u i d e . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s are
specially d e v i s e d to h e l p you focus on the m o s t important material.
/ Key Terms within the text are printed in bold. You can speed up your reading time by being
vigilant for key terms. W h e n you see a boldfaced t e r m you know it is the most important
concept in that paragraph. Focus on understanding the concept.
/ Photographs
G e o l o g y is a very visual science. Pictures in the text are essential. U s e
t h e m as a "virtual field t r i p " to h e l p you learn what particular r o c k s and formations l o o k
like. P e r h a p s you h a v e heard of or even visited s o m e of the p h o t o sites. E x a m p l e : See
F i g u r e 1.4 in C h a p t e r 1. Pay particular attention to the p h o t o g r a p h s that are paired with
s c h e m a t i c figures or d i a g r a m s a n d refer to t h e m as you read.
Study Tip
H a v i n g a t o u g h t i m e g e t t i n g y o u r s e l f started in a study s e s s i o n ? U s e the art to
m o t i v a t e y o u . Start a c h a p t e r s t u d y s e s s i o n by s c a n n i n g t h e i m a g e s a n d c a p t i o n s
t o f i n d m a t e r i a l that interests y o u . B e g i n y o u r r e a d i n g with this m a t e r i a l . T h i s
a p p r o a c h w o r k s like starting a fire. You g e n e r a t e a small s p a r k of interest a n d t h e n
fan it by b r i n g i n g in n e w m a t e r i a l .
/ Figures (Flowcharts)
Figures are even m o r e important than p h o t o g r a p h s . F l o w c h a r t s
such as the r o c k cycle in F i g u r e 3.26 present key c o n c e p t s . Pay careful attention to the
a r r o w s in flow m o d e l s and ask yourself w h a t drives the p r o c e s s and w h a t p r o d u c t s are
formed. If you are a visual learner, you m a y even want to study the figures and sketches
before you start to read. T h e n read text on an a s - n e e d e d basis, to clarify the figure.
Figure Stories
In g e o l o g y the story of a particular feature or area is often instructive.
In e a c h c h a p t e r of Understanding Earth, you will find a "figure story," an illustrated
vignette that e x p l a i n s an i m p o r t a n t g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s or principle. Figure stories contain
s o m e data, affording you the opportunity to see h o w g e o l o g i s t s interpreted the d a t a a n d

the kind of thinking they did to reach a conclusion.
W h e n r e a d i n g figure stories ask yourself how t h e story illustrates and d e v e l o p s
w h a t w a s said in the text. Try to understand the story, then test yourself by s u m m a r i z ing (out loud if you are an auditory learner) w h a t y o u learned. Kinesthetic learners m a y
find the figure stories particularly helpful b e c a u s e e a c h p r o v i d e s a real-life e x a m p l e ,
similar to a lab or field experience. Visual learners will a p p r e c i a t e h o w the carefully
c h o s e n illustrations clarify the text.
/ C o l o r is u s e d in the figures to provide you with clues about h o w e a c h p r o c e s s w o r k s
and w h a t is involved. L o o k at Key Figure 1.11 in C h a p t e r 1. W h a t color is used to
describe p r o c e s s e s that utilize heat? W h a t color depicts w a t e r ? C o o l i n g ? S u c h c u e s can
support learning at a subliminal level of a w a r e n e s s , particularly if you are a visual
l e a r n e r s o be sure to pay close attention to the colors in the figures!
/ C l u e s to rock texture are also cleverly built into the text. L o o k at F i g u r e 3.23 on p a g e
6 4 . T h e i g n e o u s r o c k is s h o w n in s h a d e s of black with lots of d o t s and s p e c k s of varying size. T h i s m a k e s sense given that igneous rock is classified on the basis of the size
of its crystals.
W h y are s e d i m e n t s and s e d i m e n t a r y rock depicted a s horizontal stripes? B e c a u s e
s e d i m e n t s are f o r m e d of earthy materials like sand and m u d , and they are originally laid
d o w n in horizontal sheets and layers. W h y is m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k d e p i c t e d with a series
of distorted and folded b a r s ? B e c a u s e m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k is created w h e n other k i n d s of
r o c k are subjected to high pressures and t e m p e r a t u r e s that m a y distort the r o c k into
folds and its crystals into wavy, foliated b a n d s . T h u s the figure s p e a k s to us about w h a t
the r o c k l o o k s like as well as the p r o c e s s e s that p r o d u c e it. Pay close attention to these
and other visual learning clues.
Questions and Exercises to Help You Learn

/
E x e r c i s e s (end of chapter)
T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s (end of chapter)
P s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f actively l e a r n i n g b y a s k i n g ourselves q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n w e are a t t e m p t i n g t o learn and t h e n s e e k i n g t h e

a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . W h e n w e f o r m u l a t e i n q u i r i e s before w e start r e a d i n g n e w m a t e rial, we t e n d to r e a d in a m o r e active m a n n e r s i n c e we are r e a d i n g in s e a r c h of specific
a n s w e r s . T h i s is far m o r e efficient than t r y i n g to r e a d a b o u t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n y o u a r e
a t t e m p t i n g to learn in a p a s s i v e m a n n e r (passive r e a d i n g is o k a y for m a g a z i n e s s u c h as
Sports Illustrated b u t not for a c o l l e g e s c i e n c e t e x t b o o k ) . T h i n k of t h e e n d - o f - c h a p t e r s u m m a r i e s a n d r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s a s y o u r o w n p e r s o n a l tutor. W h a t d o e s a g o o d tutor d o ? S h e o r
he a s k s y o u q u e s t i o n s to get y o u t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e m a t e r i a l . L i k e a g o o d tutor, t h e q u e s t i o n s at t h e e n d of e a c h c h a p t e r clue y o u in to w h a t is i m p o r t a n t and e n c o u r a g e y o u to r e a l l y
master the material.
You can use both the E x e r c i s e s and T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s at the end of e a c h c h a p t e r of
Understanding Earth in three different w a y s . First, use t h e m to preview the chapter. S k i m
quickly to get an overview of w h a t you will be expected to k n o w after you have r e a d the c h a p ter. S e c o n d , seek out a n s w e r s . Active learning w o r k s better than passively r e a d i n g the text. So
organize y o u r study t i m e a r o u n d finding an a n s w e r to o n e or m o r e exercises or q u e s t i o n s
using y o u r text as you w o u l d a reference b o o k . Third, use the questions to r e v i e w for e x a m s .
Q u i z yourself by trying to a n s w e r the questions w i t h o u t using the text as y o u r r e f e r e n c e . Go
b a c k to y o u r annotated text to c h e c k the accuracy of y o u r a n s w e r s . T h e best w a y to learn from
a text is to u s e it as a reference to a n s w e r questions.
Text-Marking Strategy for Understanding Earth

You can m a k e the 30 p e r c e n t of y o u r study t i m e you spend r e a d i n g the text even m o r e efficient by skillful text m a r k i n g . M a r k i n g y o u r text as y o u r e a d is a vital part of learning the
material and m a y be particularly i m p o r t a n t if you are a kinesthetic learner. T h e action of
m a r k i n g will aid y o u r k i n e s t h e t i c m e m o r y . If y o u are a visual learner, you will t e n d to
r e m e m b e r m a r k e d sections d u r i n g e x a m s . G o o d m a r k i n g involves both t h i n k i n g a n d p l a n ning. First, y o u think a b o u t w h a t is i m p o r t a n t . T h e n you plan for e x a m review, d e c i d i n g
which of the m a r k i n g t e c h n i q u e s in the following table will best h e l p you w h e n you return
t o the c h a p t e r d u r i n g e x a m review. O n l y then s h o u l d you m a r k . T h e a u t h o r s h a v e a l r e a d y
m a r k e d k e y t e r m s in b o l d letters. You will w a n t to add u n d e r l i n e s , n u m b e r s , a n d a n n o t a t i o n s
in the m a r g i n . H e r e are s o m e brief s u g g e s t i o n s for h o w and w h e n to use e a c h k i n d of m a r k .
Useful markings for geology
Text-marking tips
Underlining
Underline i m p o r t a n t points.
Underline to highlight t h e k e y i d e a s .
Do pay attention to the k e y t e r m s that
are in boldfaced t y p e in the text.
1. Read before you mark. To avoid overusing underlining, set y o u r

pencil d o w n on the table as you begin to read a p a r a g r a p h .
D o n ' t let yourself pick up t h e pencil until y o u have read the
entire p a r a g r a p h . S t o p and think. T h e n underline w h a t y o u
c o n s i d e r to be the key point(s).
2. Be selective. U n d e r l i n e brief but meaningful p h r a s e s or
key w o r d s that will trigger y o u r m e m o r y . M a r k j u s t e n o u g h
so that you can review w i t h o u t rereading the p a r a g r a p h .
3. U s e different color m a r k i n g s if it helps you r e m e m b e r .
Summarizing
Write a brief s u m m a r y statement of k e y g e o l o g y
processes in y o u r o w n w o r d s in the text margin.
U s e these a n n o t a t i o n s to facilitate e x a m review.
1. U s e y o u r o w n w o r d s . Putting ideas into y o u r o w n w o r d s is a

powerful learning strategy.
Be neat. T h i s takes t i m e . But it will pay off later w h e n
you review b e c a u s e y o u r annotation will be legible and easily
read.
3. Organize y o u r annotations into categories. G r o u p i n g ideas into
categories or bulleted lists m a k e s t h e m easier to r e m e m b e r .
4. U s e a n n o t a t i o n s during e x a m review. Avoid r e r e a d i n g the text
word for word. T h i s will save y o u a lot of t i m e .
Annotating
Circled n u m b e r s in the margin indicate s e q u e n c e s , such as t h e

p r o c e s s e s of the rock cycle.
Question m a r k ?
Put a question mark in the margin to remind
yourself to ask your instructor about a point you do not understand.
Asterisks ***
U s e asterisks to m a r k ideas of special importance.
U s e asterisks sparingly. Save t h e m for the t w o or three m o s t vital
ideas in the entire chapter.
T Q (test q u e s t i o n )
U s e T Q t o m a r k material i n the c h a p t e r that
you k n o w will be covered on the e x a m . T h i s will r e m i n d y o u to
pay particular attention to these i t e m s .
M a r k i n g the text will aid kinesthetic learning. G o o d text m a r k i n g will aid visual m e m o r y
so use caution w h e n m a r k i n g up y o u r text. Mark carefully and selectively. If you m e s s up the
text with excessive and illegible m a r k i n g s , you m a y interfere with s o m e of the g o o d m e m o r y
aids that are built into the careful design of the text. R e m e m b e r , a w e l l - m a r k e d text will m a k e
e x a m r e v i e w far m o r e efficient b e c a u s e the m a r k s will focus y o u r a t t e n t i o n o n the key m a t e rial you need to find and review. If you are worried about the i m p a c t of m a r k i n g on y o u r textb o o k ' s resale value, be sure to ask y o u r b o o k s t o r e . M a n y b o o k s t o r e s h a v e policies that
e n c o u r a g e effective text m a r k i n g .
TRY T H I S NOW!
1. Try underlining. C h o o s e a section you c o n s i d e r to be important, key material. R e a d
the p a s s a g e several t i m e s until you are sure you u n d e r s t a n d it. T h e n m a r k the p a s s a g e
following the directions in the table.
2. S u m m a r i z e
that you think
p r o c e s s in the
in the table as
a geological p r o c e s s . C h o o s e a section that c o n t a i n s a g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s

is i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h to be covered on the next e x a m . A n n o t a t e the
m a r g i n in a m a n n e r that will help you r e m e m b e r it. U s e the directions
a guideline.
3. Try s o m e a n n o t a t i n g . W h e r e w o u l d circled n u m b e r s be helpful in this c h a p t e r ?

Put t h e m in. W h a t material do y o u n e e d to discuss with y o u r instructor? M a r k w i t h a
q u e s t i o n mark.
4. F i g u r e out w h a t is the most important idea in the entire chapter. Put three asterisks
(***) and a TQ beside that section to insure you m a s t e r it before the e x a m .
CHAPTER
How to Be Successful in Geology

(and Just About Any Other
Challenging Course)
c a d e m i c success is largely a matter of strategy. If you m a n a g e y o u r t i m e well a n d

study strategically (rather than h a p h a z a r d l y ) , y o u will be successful. In this c h a p t e r we
d i s c u s s successful studying strategies for y o u r g e o l o g y c o u r s e . T h e best w a y to u s e
this c h a p t e r is to read each strategy and then try it out. We r e c o m m e n d r e a d i n g o n e section of
this chapter each day at the beginning of a new semester. Try the strategy in that section before
r e a d i n g further. F o l l o w i n g are the success strategies that will be c o v e r e d in this introduction:
L e a r n i n g style
Chapter preview
N o t e taking
N o t e review
E x a m preparation
M a n y other learning strategies and hints about learning specific material are p r o v i d e d
t h r o u g h o u t this Study G u i d e . L o o k for t h e m and try out as m a n y of the strategies as p o s s i b l e .
L e a r n i n g strategically initially takes an investment of t i m e , but y o u will find that it is an
investment that p a y s off. S t u d y i n g strategies m a k e y o u m o r e efficient so that y o u can learn
m o r e in less t i m e . M o r e important, y o u get m o r e e n j o y m e n t out of y o u r learning b e c a u s e y o u
k n o w exactly w h a t you are doing.
Customize Each Strategy to Your Learning Style

E a c h of us learns differently. Successful p e o p l e in any activity tend to be t h o s e w h o find a
w a y to e x p r e s s their o w n u n i q u e talents in the activity. M o s t of us w o r r y t o o m u c h a b o u t
9
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PARTI
CHAPTER 3
c o m p e t i n g . We w o u l d do better to seek a w a y of u s i n g o u r best skills and talents. It is o u r

individuality that m a k e s us stand out from the p a c k a n d b e c o m e a leader. It is o u r i n d i v i d u ality that leads u s t o b e successful academically. W e r e c o m m e n d that y o u s p e n d s o m e t i m e
t h i n k i n g a b o u t y o u r individual style, y o u r strengths as a learner, a n d h o w y o u prefer to learn.
H e r e ' s a s i m p l e b e g i n n i n g . W h i c h m o d e o f l e a r n i n g d o y o u prefer t o u s e a n d u s e b e s t ?
Visual Learning
Visual learners learn by seeing. T h e y often h a v e a g o o d m e m o r y for
pictures and even w o r d s of text.
Auditory Learning
A u d i t o r y learners learn by listening. T h e y are g o o d listeners a n d
r e m e m b e r best b y j u s t listening.
Kinesthetic L e a r n i n g
Kinesthetic learners learn by m o v i n g . T h e y learn and r e m e m b e r
best w h e n they get to practice an activity.
T R Y T H I S NOW!
Put a 1 in the b o x next to the m o d e of learning y o u prefer m o s t strongly, a 2 for y o u r next
strongest m o d e , and a 3 beside the m o d e you think you use least well and least prefer to
use. H i n t : Usually, the m o d e we prefer is the o n e we use best. If y o u are not sure w h i c h
m o d e you prefer, try taking the Learning Style Inventory online at the University of A r i z o n a
L e a r n i n g C e n t e r W e b site: www.ulc.arizona.edu (click on Self-Assessment).
T h r o u g h o u t the Study G u i d e w e will m a k e s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t h o w particular strategies m i g h t

w o r k best for those w h o prefer o n e of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d learning styles.
Make Geology Lecture a High-Priority Activity

T h i s is step 1 in any strategic a p p r o a c h to c o u r s e s u c c e s s . Your g e o l o g y c o u r s e c e n t e r s on lecture. G e o l o g y is a very content-intensive subject. T h e r e ' s so m u c h to learn that instructors
have to m a k e s o m e difficult decisions a b o u t w h a t to cover. S o m e t i m e s the faculty in a g e o l o g y department try to address this p r o b l e m by m a p p i n g out required content, perhaps even creating a core syllabus for instructors to follow. E v e n then instructors c a n and do m a n a g e to c r e ate very different courses. In our conversations with other instructors we have b e e n quite
i m p r e s s e d with the d e g r e e to w h i c h t e a c h i n g a p p r o a c h e s differ. T w o g e o l o g y instructors m a y
use the s a m e text and p e r h a p s even the s a m e basic lecture outline yet still teach t w o very different c o u r s e s with very different exam questions. T h e r e f o r e , a t t e n d i n g lecture is f u n d a m e n t a l
to s u c c e s s . M o s t students w h o fail g e o l o g y do so b e c a u s e they fail to attend lecture. Just
attending will put y o u far ahead of t h o s e w h o fail.
H o w e v e r , j u s t attending is not e n o u g h to e n s u r e that you get an A in geology. R e s e a r c h
s h o w s that few of us have the attention span to listen actively and take g o o d notes for an entire
hour. T h e average note taker gets m o s t of the m a i n points during the first 10 m i n u t e s of the
lecture. T h e n attention w a n d e r s , confusion sets in, and less and less of w h a t is said gets into
the n o t e s . I n d e e d , m o s t students a b s o r b less than 15 p e r c e n t of the p o i n t s that are c o v e r e d in
the final 10 m i n u t e s of the lecture. T h i s is d o u b l y unfortunate since, inevitably, the lecture
gets to the heart of the topic and the material you will certainly be tested on t o w a r d the end.
W h a t y o u a c t u a l l y do in l e c t u r e is f u n d a m e n t a l to s u c c e s s in g e o l o g y . You n e e d to be a
strategist. You n e e d t o target y o u r a p p r o a c h t o y o u r g e o l o g y c o u r s e o n g e t t i n g t h e m o s t p o s sible out of lecture. That is our best advice and we have adhered to it rigorously in
How to Be Successful in Geology (and Just About Any Other Challenging Course)
c o n s t r u c t i n g this g u i d e . T h e entire S t u d y G u i d e i s o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d lecture. E v e r y c h a p t e r

b e g i n s w i t h w h a t y o u do before lecture for that p a r t i c u l a r c h a p t e r t o p i c . N e x t c o m e s a s e c tion w i t h tips on w h a t to do during lecture; after that, a c h e c k l i s t to h e l p y o u i m p r o v e y o u r
notes after lecture; a n d finally, lots of e x e r c i s e s and r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s to h e l p y o u w i t h exam
prep b e f o r e y o u r m i d t e r m .
In this c h a p t e r we present general strategies you can use every day of y o u r c o u r s e to
ensure s u c c e s s a l l o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d lecture.
Before Lecture
Strategy: Preview the chapter before going
to the lecture
To preview a chapter, use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions. T h e s e questions are provided at the
beginning of each chapter of the Study G u i d e . R e a d each question, then skim the chapter to
find the relevant material. Feel free to annotate the brief a n s w e r s provided for each question.
T h e idea is to go to lecture with a general idea of the a n s w e r s to the questions in mind.
Why preview?
Introductory courses can be difficult. T h e r e are lots of new terms, new ideas,
and new skills during a first-semester geology course. But which ideas are " i m p o r t a n t " ? H o w
do you focus y o u r effort in this new and seemingly strange terrain?
Picture a house under construction. Imagine that the contractor was very careless
and neglected to construct whole sections of the frame. Finishing the areas lacking a frame would be impossible. You can't tack siding onto thin air! This
metaphor describes your geology lecture. You are the contractor. You need to
arrive at class with an overview of the lecture already in mind. You have already
identified what geological processes will be explained and what key questions the
lecture will answer. Going to class without a frame of key questions is like building a house with no supporting structure. You will have nothing on which to hang
the lecturer's main points (information). Without the main points, the details are
meaningless. As the lecture progresses you are likely to feel increasingly confused
and bored. By the time the lecturer gets to the most important material, you may
be completely lost.
W h e r e do y o u get the o v e r v i e w ? T h e a n s w e r is surprisingly simple. Just spend a few m i n u t e s

before lecture p r e v i e w i n g the c h a p t e r that will be covered. P r e v i e w i n g is the m e t h o d by w h i c h
you g e n e r a t e and m a s t e r a f r a m e w o r k for listening. H e r e ' s h o w to do it.
S t e p 1. R e a d t h e p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s . You will find C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s
at the b e g i n n i n g of e a c h c h a p t e r of the Study G u i d e .
Step 2. S k i m the text c h a p t e r for a n s w e r s . Quickly find and read only the material in Understanding Earth you need to understand and answer the questions.
D o n ' t b o g down in details. D o n ' t try for complete understanding. D o n ' t read the
w h o l e chapter. Your goal is to a gain just a general understanding of each q u e s tion. Do use the brief a n s w e r s provided in the Study G u i d e to cue y o u r reading.
S t e p 3 . M e m o r i z e t h e q u e s t i o n s a n d brief a n s w e r s . You m a y f i n d that you
need to add a few notes to the brief answer. A n n o t a t e the a n s w e r s j u s t e n o u g h
to e n s u r e that t h e a n s w e r s m a k e sense to you. A n n o t a t e in a w a y that will e n s u r e
that y o u m e m o r i z e the questions.
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PART I C H A P T E R 3
Before you go to lecture, be sure to spend some time previewing. You will find that as little
as 10 to 15 minutes of time spent previewing can m a k e a big difference in h o w m u c h you understand of the lecture. With the key points already in mind, y o u can focus in lecture on understanding the details. This, in turn, will help ensure you get an excellent set of notes.
TRY T H I S NOW!
M o v e i m m e d i a t e l y to the c h a p t e r that will be covered in y o u r next lecture. P r e v i e w the
chapter. T h e n return here to read the next strategy.
During Lecture
Strategy: Note-Taking Checklist
Your basic g o a l d u r i n g lecture is to take g o o d notes. T h e notes should a n s w e r the C h a p t e r
P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in depth. To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d .
H a v e a c o p y of the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in front of y o u . Better yet, d e v e l o p p r e l i m i nary a n s w e r s t o the q u e s t i o n s and c o m m i t t h e m t o m e m o r y before t h e lecture.
A n o t h e r w a y to k e e p t h e b i g p i c t u r e in m i n d is to b r i n g a c o p y of t h e k e y figure or
f l o w c h a r t t o l e c t u r e t o refer t o . I n m a n y c h a p t e r s w e s u g g e s t w h i c h f i g u r e y o u s h o u l d h a v e
handy.
D u r i n g s o m e classes the lecturer m a y show r o c k formations a n d m a y pass a r o u n d s p e c i m e n r o c k s . You will get m o r e out of t h e s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s if y o u sit c l o s e to the front of the
r o o m w h e r e y o u c a n see the s a m p l e r o c k s a s the lecturer d i s c u s s e s t h e m . R e m e m b e r t o focus
on clues the lecturer p r o v i d e s for r e c o g n i z i n g a particular s a m p l e in the field. F o c u s in particular on the texture of s a m p l e s and learn to r e c o g n i z e d i f f e r e n c e s , for e x a m p l e , t h e fine
t e x t u r e of a volcanic r o c k and the c o a r s e texture of a p l u t o n i c rock.
As y o u listen to lecture, identify q u e s t i o n s y o u need to ask to u n d e r s t a n d the m a t e r i a l .
Try to formulate at least o n e g o o d question y o u can ask d u r i n g every lecture.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t task d u r i n g lecture is, of c o u r s e , taking a g o o d set of n o t e s . N o t e taking is not easy. It is a skill that i m p r o v e s with practice. H e r e are a few tips that will h e l p y o u .
Note-Taking Checklist
O r g a n i z e y o u r notes in a three-ring b i n d e r so that y o u c a n easily r e o r g a n i z e t h e m .

L e a v e space in y o u r n o t e s for i m p o r t a n t visual material (flowcharts, s i m p l e s k e t c h e s ,
c o m p a r i s o n charts). To m a k e this easy, e m p l o y a d o u b l e - c o l u m n or d o u b l e - p a g e
note-taking format. Take notes on the r i g h t - h a n d p a g e or c o l u m n . S a v e the facing
left p a g e as a " s k e t c h p a g e . "
Sit n e a r the front of the r o o m n o t to be a t e a c h e r ' s pet but s i m p l y so that y o u c a n

h e a r and see better!
D a t e e a c h d a y ' s notes so that y o u c a n find material later.
Take notes in a format that m a k e s the m a i n topics and c o n c e p t s easy to identify.

S o m e students a c c o m p l i s h this b y t a k i n g notes i n outline format. B u t m a n y other
a p p r o a c h e s are p o s s i b l e . Visual learners m a y find it helpful to highlight m a i n points
(after class) in color. A n o t h e r g o o d a p p r o a c h w o u l d be to u s e the questions we
p r o v i d e in the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w as h e a d s . You can add t h e m d u r i n g class or d u r i n g
y o u r after-class review session.
K e e p the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in front of y o u during lecture. Be sure to leave class

w i t h a g o o d a n s w e r to e a c h of the p r e v i e w questions.
M a r k areas w h e r e y o u n e e d to do follow-up w o r k w i t h y o u r text, instructor, or tutor

w i t h a q u e s t i o n m a r k in the m a r g i n .
I n d i c a t e p o s s i b l e test q u e s t i o n s by writing TQ (test question) in the left margin

w h e r e y o u can easily see it.
W r i t e a s s i g n m e n t s in the left c o l u m n w h e r e you can easily find t h e m . After class

e n t e r the d u e date in y o u r p e r s o n a l p l a n n e r or calendar.
T R Y T H I S NOW!
Take the n o t e - t a k i n g checklist with y o u to y o u r next lecture. Try to follow all the
s u g g e s t i o n s . After lecture review y o u r notes and c h e c k off e a c h point that y o u actually
followed. T h e n return h e r e to read t h e next strategy.
H i n t : P h o t o c o p y the checklist a n d u s e it for every lecture until all the strategies b e c o m e
habits. U s e d this way, the checklist b e c o m e s a visual record of y o u r p r o g r e s s as a skillful
n o t e taker.
After Lecture
Review Your Notes Immediately
G o o d n o t e t a k i n g c o n t i n u e s after the lecture is over. Right after lecture, w h i l e the material is
fresh in y o u r m i n d , is the perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s . R e v i e w to be sure y o u u n d e r s t o o d
the key points and w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a form that will be easy to review later.
D o n ' t p o s t p o n e this activity. T h e best t i m e is right after lecture before you go to y o u r next
class or activity. L e a r n i n g experts tell us that m o s t of us will forget 80 p e r c e n t of w h a t we
h e a r d in a lecture by the following day. On the other hand, if y o u review right after the lecture, t h e r e will h a v e b e e n no interruptions. M u c h of w h a t w a s said will still be in y o u r shortt e r m m e m o r y . If y o u m i s s e d s o m e t h i n g , you can p r o b a b l y r e m e m b e r it and p u t it into y o u r
notes. T h e basic i d e a of r e v i e w i n g y o u r notes is to fill in w h a t you m i s s e d and to add helpful
visual m a t e r i a l from the text. U s e the following checklist as a g u i d e .
Check Your Notes: Have y o u . . .
written legible notes? (Rewrite t h e m if you n e e d to!)
identified the important points clearly? (You should have h e a d i n g s in y o u r notes for
e a c h of the questions in the C h a p t e r Preview.)
filled in the h o l e s ( m i s s i n g material) w h i l e the lecture w a s still fresh in y o u r shortterm memory?
m a r k e d areas w h e r e you d o n ' t r e m e m b e r w h a t w a s said for a f o l l o w - u p session with

y o u r instructor, tutor or study partner?
indicated possible test questions ( T Q ) in the m a r g i n ?
a d d e d additional visual material?
r e w o r k e d notes into a form that is efficient for y o u r learning style?
created a brief big picture overview of this lecture (using a sketch or written outline)?
T R Y T H I S NOW!
After the next lecture, review y o u r notes and improve t h e m using the points in the checklist
as a guide. C h e c k off each point as you complete it. T h e n return here to read the next
strategy. Hint: Consider photocopying the checklist so that you can u s e it repeatedly.
Intensive Study Session

Ask yourself questions as you study. Then answer them.
You should schedule at least o n e h o u r after e a c h lecture for intensive study. T h i s can
occur a n y t i m e before the next lecture. (Short-term m e m o r y is no longer a p r o b l e m since you
have c o m p l e t e d a note review and have g o o d notes.)
W h y do you need an intensive study session? T h i n k about the house/construction e x a m ple that we mentioned earlier. You need frames before you can add the siding, so you construct
a frame of questions before each lecture. During lecture, you add the s i d i n g t h e a n s w e r s to
the questions. After lecture, master the ideas and details during an intensive study session.
N o w y o u have constructed the first story. But this g e o l o g y c o u r s e is a s k y s c r a p e r with 23
floors (one for each chapter). E a c h chapter supports those a b o v e it. If y o u d o n ' t c o m p l e t e l y
m a s t e r a chapter, the next will be m o r e difficult.
M a s t e r y is not gained by j u s t reading the text. M a s t e r y occurs as the result of a s k i n g
yourself q u e s t i o n s and a n s w e r i n g t h e m . T o help you w e p r o v i d e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s for every c h a p t e r of the text. T h i s interactive learning material is specifically d e s i g n e d to h e l p you m a s t e r the key c o n c e p t s of each chapter. T h e greater the n u m b e r
of these exercises a n d q u e s t i o n s you can w o r k into y o u r intensive study sessions early in t h e

course, the easier s u b s e q u e n t chapters will b e . Plan to spend the majority of y o u r study t i m e
(70 percent) on t h e s e exercises and questions.
U s e y o u r text as a reference. R e a d it as n e e d e d to a n s w e r questions and m a s t e r material.
W h e n y o u read, r e a d efficiently. R e a d with p u r p o s e and r e a d to find a n s w e r s to questions.
Hint: To u s e y o u r text effectively you m u s t k n o w it like the b a c k of y o u r hand. Carefully read
Part I, C h a p t e r 2, H o w to U s e Understanding Earth in this g u i d e .
T R Y T H I S NOW!
E a c h c h a p t e r of the S t u d y G u i d e c o n t a i n s a section titled I n t e n s i v e S t u d y S e s s i o n .
Turn n o w to t h e c h a p t e r y o u are currently w o r k i n g on and try out its Intensive S t u d y
Session material. Do e n o u g h to get a feeling for h o w Intensive S t u d y S e s s i o n
works. T h e n return h e r e and r e a d t h e next section.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r preparation for m i d t e r m and final e x a m inations. F o r o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e , m i d t e r m preparation should begin about eight days before
the e x a m (see the E i g h t - D a y S t u d y P l a n in A p p e n d i x A ) . T h e basic i d e a is a systematic
review of material divided into short study sessions.
Tips for Preparing for Geology Exams

U s e the clues y o u r instructor has provided in lecture about what is important. Even w h e n
a d e p a r t m e n t agrees on a c o m m o n core of material (a very rare occurrence), each
instructor carves out a course that is unique, has a particular character or flavor, and has
distinct areas of e m p h a s i s . Your instructor is the ultimate guide on what is important.
Be sure y o u k n o w the format of the e x a m . M u l t i p l e c h o i c e ? T r u e - f a l s e ? E s s a y ?
Thought problems?
R e v i e w y o u r notes m a r k e d TQ (test q u e s t i o n ) .
A s k y o u r instructor if e x a m s are available from the p r e v i o u s semester. R e v i e w t h e m
to c h e c k t h e format of q u e s t i o n s , see w h a t areas of c o n t e n t are stressed, and find out
w h a t types of p r o b l e m solving are included. D o n ' t m a k e the m i s t a k e of a s s u m i n g
that the s a m e q u e s t i o n s will be a s k e d this semester.
Be sure to attend review sessions if they are offered.
If y o u h a v e tutors, p r e c e p t o r s , s u p p l e m e n t a l instruction leaders, or other peer h e l p e r s
w h o h a v e taken the class, a s k for their suggestions about p r e p a r i n g for the e x a m .
O n c e y o u are clear a b o u t the nature of the e x a m , begin y o u r review. C o n d u c t review
in an orderly, systematic m a n n e r that focuses on all t h e important material. T h e E i g h t D a y S t u d y P l a n ( A p p e n d i x A) is a g o o d m o d e l for an orderly review.
Test Taking
In every college e x a m , a n u m b e r of students k n o w the material yet fail the test b e c a u s e they
get a n x i o u s , p a n i c , and freeze u p . We have found over the years that the best w a y to o v e r c o m e
or avoid test anxiety is by c o m i n g to the test well p r e p a r e d a n d confident a n d by w o r k i n g
strategically on the test. E x a m p r e p will not be a p r o b l e m if y o u u s e the materials p r o v i d e d
for this p u r p o s e in this Study G u i d e . In this section, we will s u g g e s t strategies to try out during y o u r e x a m . You m a y w a n t to return to this section a day or so before y o u r e x a m .
Test-Taking Tips for Different Learning Styles

Visual L e a r n e r s
U s e written directions.
W h e n you get stuck on an item, close y o u r eyes and picture flowcharts, pictures,
field e x p e r i e n c e s , or text.
Auditory Learners
Pay attention to verbal directions.
R e p e a t written directions quietly to yourself ( m o v i n g y o u r lips should be e n o u g h ) .
If you get stuck, r e m e m b e r the lecturer's voice c o v e r i n g this section.
Kinesthetic Learners
W h e n you get stuck, m o v e in y o u r chair or tap y o u r foot to trigger y o u r m e m o r y .
Feel yourself d o i n g a lab p r o c e d u r e .
Sketch a flowchart to unlock the m e m o r y of a p r o c e s s .
M a n y e x a m s are in m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e format. H e r e are s o m e tips to m a x i m i z e y o u r perf o r m a n c e on m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e questions.
Test-Taking Tips for Multiple-Choice Exams

1 0 . A n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s y o u k n o w first. Flag items w h e r e y o u get stuck and c o m e
b a c k to t h e m later. Often y o u will find t h e a n s w e r you are l o o k i n g for e m b e d d e d in
another, easier question.
9 . Try t o a n s w e r t h e i t e m w i t h o u t l o o k i n g a t t h e o p t i o n s . T h e n c h e c k t o see i f y o u r
a n s w e r m a t c h e s any of the options.
8. E l i m i n a t e t h e o p t i o n s . Treat each alternative a n s w e r as a t r u e - f a l s e item. If "false,"
e l i m i n a t e it.
7. U s e c o m m o n sense. R e a s o n i n g is m o r e reliable than m e m o r y .
6. U n d e r l i n e key w o r d s in the s t e m . T h i s is a g o o d strategy w h e n y o u are stuck.
It m a y h e l p you focus on w h a t question is really b e i n g asked.
5. If t w o alternatives l o o k similar, it is likely that o n e of t h e m is correct.
4 . A n s w e r all q u e s t i o n s . U n l e s s points are b e i n g subtracted for w r o n g a n s w e r s (rare),
it pays to g u e s s w h e n y o u ' r e not sure. R e s e a r c h indicates that the i t e m with the m o s t
w o r d s in the m i d d l e of t h e list is often the correct item. B u t be c a u t i o u s . Your professor
m a y have read the research, t o o !
3 . D o n o t c h a n g e a n s w e r s . Particularly w h e n you are g u e s s i n g , y o u r f i r s t g u e s s i s often

correct. C h a n g e a n s w e r s only w h e n you have a clear reason for d o i n g so.
2. If the first i t e m is correct, c h e c k t h e last. If it says "all (or n o n e ) of the a b o v e , " you
obviously n e e d to read the other alternatives carefully. M i s s i n g an "all of the a b o v e " item
is one of the most c o m m o n errors on a multiple-choice e x a m . It is easy to read carelessly
w h e n you are a n x i o u s .
1. READ THE DIRECTIONS BEFORE YOU BEGIN!
Final Exam Week

At the end of e a c h semester, in o n e or t w o w e e k s , you take an e x a m in each and every c o u r s e .
Most of the e x a m s are c o m p r e h e n s i v e finals that cover the entire semester. D e a l i n g with finals
week successfully is a major challenge. H e r e are s o m e tips that will ensure that y o u do y o u r
best work d u r i n g final w e e k .
Tips for Surviving Finals Week

B e o r g a n i z e d a n d s y s t e m a t i c . U s e the Final E x a m P r e p W o r k s h e e t ( A p p e n d i x B )
to help you get o r g a n i z e d for finals. U s e the E i g h t - D a y Study Plan ( A p p e n d i x A)
for every c o u r s e w h e r e the final e x a m will be an important factor in d e t e r m i n i n g
your g r a d e .
Stick to priorities. Say no to distractions.
Build in m o m e n t s of r e l a x a t i o n . Take regular short b r e a k s , exercise, and get e n o u g h
sleep.
Be confident. By n o w you have built up a g o o d set of study habits. You are a
c o m p e t e n t learner.
Organizing for final e x a m s can be quite a c h a l l e n g e . As with any big project, s p e n d i n g

organizing t i m e up front will pay big d i v i d e n d s . Modify the suggestions in the F i n a l E x a m
Prep W o r k s h e e t to fit y o u r personal situation and n e e d s .
We wish you s u c c e s s !
CHAPTER
The Earth System
H o w w a s E a r t h ' s size first m e a s u r e d a n d w h a t is E a r t h ' s t o p o g r a p h i c relief?

Brief a n s w e r : E r a t o s t h e n e s m e a s u r e d the c i r c u m f e r e n c e of the E a r t h s o m e t i m e a r o u n d
2 5 0 B.C. F i g u r e 1.2 s h o w s how. Key F i g u r e 1.3 shows E a r t h ' s t o p o g r a p h y with respect
to sea level. T h e sense of scale provided by Key F i g u r e 1.3 is very important.
W h a t is E a r t h ' s internal s t r u c t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n ?
Brief answer: T h e crust, mantle, and core are the major concentric layers within the
Earth. T h e s e layers and their subdivisions are thought to represent changes in
composition and in physical state (solid versus liquid). Preview Figures 1.5, 1.7, and
Key Figures 1.8 and 1.11.
W h a t are t h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s of the E a r t h S y s t e m ?
Brief a n s w e r : Earth S y s t e m F i g u r e 1.10 illustrates Earth as a s y s t e m of interacting
c o m p o n e n t s , including the a t m o s p h e r e , h y d r o s p h e r e , b i o s p h e r e , and interior.
W h a t w e r e s o m e k e y e v e n t s in the history of the E a r t h ?
Brief a n s w e r : Figure 1.13 presents the highlights. F o c u s on the c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n
g e o l o g i c and life history.
During Lecture
This will be your very first lecture for this course. Get off to a good start. Arrive 10 minutes early.
Find the best seat in the house: close to the front of the room, where you can hear the lecture and
see the slides. This section is referred to by some as the "A section." Quite apt, since there really
is a correlation between where you sit in a lecture hall and the grade you are likely to receive.
Test this out. Try sitting in different locations the first week. Notice where it is easiest to concentrate and where it is most difficult. In many lecture halls the back row is the worst place to be.
It is the location chosen by students w h o arrive late and leave early. It may even be noisy. A l w a y s
feel free to change locations if your view is impeded by projection equipment or if you c a n ' t hear
because of the whispered conversations of other students. Talk to your instructor if you need to.
Okay, you have g o o d seat. W h a t can you do w h i l e you wait for lecture to b e g i n ?
M o t i v a t e yourself to w a n t to listen to this l e c t u r e . O p e n y o u r text to C h a p t e r
1. T h u m b through the chapter. Take a g o o d l o o k at the p h o t o s and figures.
L o o k for topics that interest you. C h a p t e r 1 is loaded with visual material that
should m a k e it easy to find subjects of interest. A s k yourself w h a t y o u w o u l d
like to k n o w about this chapter. W h a t w o u l d you ask y o u r teacher if this w e r e
a o n e - o n - o n e tutorial? Finally, try to think of s o m e e x p e r i e n c e you h a v e h a d
that relates to this chapter. M a y b e you visited a p l a n e t a r i u m or read a catchy
version of the formation of the universe like Cosmic Comics by Italo C a l v i n o .
Or m a y b e you saw a v o l c a n o on y o u r last vacation. Actively l o o k for e x p e r i e n c e s to h o o k y o u r interest and to c o n n e c t you personally with c o u r s e inform a t i o n . Notice that the m o r e you look at the c h a p t e r and the m o r e you let
yourself think about the pictures, the m o r e y o u r interest builds. Five m i n u t e s
should b e e n o u g h t o get y o u r "motivational e n g i n e " turned o n and h u m m i n g .
P r e p a r e y o u r m i n d for learning. M a s t e r football players w a r m up by r u n n i n g ,
stretching, and passing the football. M a s t e r learners w a r m up by focusing their
attention on what will be covered during lecture. S p e n d a m i n u t e or t w o looking over the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions. Try to anticipate h o w these questions
will be a n s w e r e d in lecture. If you have time, read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y for
C h a p t e r 1. W h e n you preview, the goal is not to learn the material but merely
to formulate questions that you expect to be a n s w e r e d during the lecture. W i t h
questions in m i n d you are ready to take notes.
Learning Tip
Do a learning w a r m - u p before every lecture. Arrive 10 m i n u t e s early. A n t i c i p a t e
questions that will be a n s w e r e d in lecture.
The Earth System
The
man
who
is afraid of asking
is ashamed of learning.
D A N I S H PROVERB
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to r e v i e w y o u r notes is right after the lecture w h i l e the material is still fresh
in your m i n d . R e v i e w to be sure y o u o b s e r v e d all the key points a n d w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a
form that will be r e a d a b l e later. As y o u review, y o u c a n polish y o u r notes by a d d i n g useful
visual material and a s u m m a r y .
Check Your Notes: Have y o u . . . .

added a s i m p l e sketch or t w o to clarify the key p o i n t s ? H i n t : Try s k e t c h i n g y o u r
personal v e r s i o n of h o w c o n v e c t i o n drives plate tectonics b a s e d on F i g u r e 1.11. M a k e
it s i m p l e s o m e t h i n g y o u will easily picture a n d r e m e m b e r .
written a brief ( o n e - p a r a g r a p h ) s u m m a r y of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t y o u learned
from this lecture? Feel free to u s e y o u r notes a n d figures in y o u r text as n e e d e d .
Reviewing preview questions may help.
You will spend s o m e of y o u r study t i m e r e a d i n g Understanding Earth, particularly sections

of the text that are e m p h a s i z e d in lecture. T h e text is l o a d e d with tools a n d c l u e s to h e l p y o u
learn. You will find o u r s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t h o w to take a d v a n t a g e of t h e s e learning aids in Part
I, Chapter 2, M e e t Your A u t h o r s , in this S t u d y G u i d e .
Web Site Study Resources

http://www.whfreeman.com/understandingearth5e
Check out the W e b site to get an idea of the study aids that are available there. You will find
Concept Review, W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s , G r a d e d Q u i z z i n g , O n l i n e R e v i e w Exercises, a n d
Flashcards (to help you learn n e w terms). T h e Chapter 2 O n l i n e R e v i e w Exercise: Identify the
Plate Boundaries is a g o o d review of plate tectonics; use it for both C h a p t e r 1 and C h a p t e r 2.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r S u m mary and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w
that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , r e v i e w e a c h q u e s tion you missed. Identify a n d correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How do geologists study Earth?
Field and lab observations, experiments, and the h u m a n creative process help
geoscientists formulate hypotheses (models) for h o w the Earth works and its history. A " h y p o t h e s i s " is a tentative explanation that can help focus attention on
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PART II C H A P T E R 1
plausible features and relationships of a working m o d e l . If a hypothesis is eventually confirmed by a large body of data, it m a y be elevated to a "theory."
Theories are a b a n d o n e d when subsequent investigations show t h e m to be false.
Confidence g r o w s in theories that withstand repeated tests and are able to predict the results of new experiments and c o m p u t e r m o d e l s .
How was Earth's size first measured and what is

Earth's topographic relief?
F i g u r e 1.2 illustrates h o w E r a t o s t h e n e s m e a s u r e d E a r t h ' s size.
E a r t h ' s t o p o g r a p h y is m e a s u r e d with respect to sea level. T h e lowest point in
the Pacific O c e a n is actually d e e p e r than M o u n t E v e r e s t rises a b o v e sea level;
see Key F i g u r e 1.3.
What is Earth's internal structure and composition?

E a r t h ' s interior c o n s i s t s of c o n c e n t r i c layers d i s t i n g u i s h e d by differences in
c o m p o s i t i o n and physical state (solid versus liquid) and a s s o c i a t e d c h a n g e s
in density.
E a r t h ' s crust (continental and o c e a n ) is c o m p o s e d of low-density silicate
r o c k s , w h i c h are rich in a l u m i n u m and p o t a s s i u m . Refer to F i g u r e 1.7. T h e
crust essentially floats on the m a n t l e , like an iceberg floats in water.
T h e m a n t l e is c o m p o s e d of silicate r o c k s of h i g h e r d e n s i t y than the crust and
contains m o r e m a g n e s i u m and iron. T h e M o h o i s the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the
crust and m a n t l e .
T h e c o r e is t h o u g h t to be metallic, c o m p o s e d mostly of iron and nickel.
S e i s m i c w a v e s allow geoscientists to detect the p r e s e n c e s of a liquid outer c o r e
and an inner solid c o r e . C h a n g e s (jumps) in density b e t w e e n E a r t h ' s major layers are c a u s e d by c h a n g e s in their c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and can be studied
using s e i s m i c w a v e s .
What are the major components of the Earth system?

T h e major c o m p o n e n t s of the Earth s y s t e m are c l i m a t e , plate t e c t o n i c s , and the
geodynamo.
T h e c l i m a t e system is driven by heat from our S u n and is influenced by the
h y d r o s p h e r e , the c r y o s p h e r e , the b i o s p h e r e , and the lithosphere.
T h e plate tectonic s y s t e m is primarily driven by E a r t h ' s internal heat, w h i c h
e s c a p e s t h r o u g h the c o n v e c t i o n of material in E a r t h ' s solid m a n t l e . Tectonic
plates consist of the lithosphere, w h i c h includes the continental and o c e a n i c
crust, and the rigid, u p p e r m o s t m a n t l e .
T h e g e o d y n a m o s y s t e m involves interactions in the o u t e r c o r e that p r o d u c e
E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field.
E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field reverses in polarity (the north and south p o l e s flip) at
irregular intervals.
What were some key events in the history of the Earth?

Earth formed 4.5 billion years a g o .
Earliest life forms are found in rocks about 3.5 million y e a r s old.
The Earth System

By 2.7 billion years ago, photosynthesis by early plant life p r o d u c e d increasing
levels of o x y g e n in E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e .
Only one-half billion years a g o animals appeared, diversifying rapidly in an
explosion of evolution.
Life history is m a r k e d by periodic m a s s extinctions. A b o u t 65 million years
ago, d i n o s a u r s w e r e killed off in an extinction event that w a s caused by a large
bolide impact.
Our species (Homo sapiens) arrived 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 years a g o a tiny fraction of the
4.5-billion-year history of the Earth.
Practice Exercise
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the Study G u i d e .
Earth's topography
A. W h e r e is the highest point on Earth relative to sea level?
B. W h e r e is the lowest t o p o g r a p h i c point on E a r t h ?
C. Relative to sea level, h o w m u c h l o w e r is the lowest point c o m p a r e d to the highest
point?
D. W h a t is the total t o p o g r a p h i c relief on the E a r t h ?
Hint: Refer to p a g e 4 and Key F i g u r e 1.3.
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the end of the Study G u i d e .
1. W h a t p u r p o s e d o e s a scientific h y p o t h e s i s serve?
A.
B.
C.
D.
It
It
It
It
represents a w i d e l y a c c e p t e d explanation.
provides an opportunity for f e e d b a c k and testing.
serves little p u r p o s e as part of the scientific m e t h o d .
typically results in u n a n i m o u s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n scientists.
2. Of the following statements about the scientific m e t h o d , w h i c h o n e is true?

A. A hypothesis that has w i t h s t o o d m a n y scientific tests is called a theory.
B. T h e o u t c o m e of scientific e x p e r i m e n t s c a n n o t be predicted by a hypothesis.
C. For a h y p o t h e s i s to be a c c e p t e d , it m u s t be agreed on by m o r e than o n e scientist.
D. After a theory is proven to be true, it m a y not be discarded.
Hint: Figure 1.1 is an excellent o v e r v i e w of the scientific m e t h o d .
3. How did E r a t o s t h e n e s m e a s u r e the c i r c u m f e r e n c e of E a r t h ?
A. He m e a s u r e d the t i m e it takes for a sailing ship to appear fully on the horizon.
B. He m e a s u r e d the difference in the angle of sunlight hitting the Earth at the s u m m e r
solstice at t w o different places in E g y p t .
C. He used data logged by C o l u m b u s .
D. He m e a s u r e d the c h a n g e in the position of stars at night at t w o different p l a c e s in
Egypt.
23
4. T h e principle of uniformitarianism can be s u m m a r i z e d by w h i c h s t a t e m e n t ?

A. T h e E a r t h ' s surface and life c h a n g e very slowly o v e r t i m e .
B. H u m a n activity has a small but significant effect on the Earth.
C. T h e present is the key to the past.
D. T h e Earth s y s t e m is all parts of our planet and their interactions.
5. W h i c h of the following internal layers of the Earth is the m o s t m a s s i v e ?
A. crust
C.
mantle
B . inner core
D.
outer c o r e
H i n t : Refer to Figure 1.5.

6. T h e crust is
A. thickest in the continents.
B. thickest in the o c e a n s .
C. about the s a m e thickness in both the continents and o c e a n s .
D. of a c o m p l e t e l y u n k n o w n thickness.
7. W h i c h of the following e l e m e n t s is m o r e a b u n d a n t in the E a r t h ' s crust c o m p a r e d to the
Earth as a w h o l e ?
A. iron
C.
nickel
B. magnesium
D.
silicon
H i n t : Refer to Key Figure 1.8.

8. W h y do geoscientists think tectonic plates m o v e across the E a r t h ' s surface?
A. Centrifugal force of E a r t h ' s rotation spins plates across the E a r t h ' s surface.
B. Volcanic eruptions on the seafloor push tectonic plates apart.
C. Tidal forces drive plate m o t i o n .
D. M o v e m e n t of the plates is a result of convection in the m a n t l e .
9. T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field is caused by
A. the p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t i s m of the E a r t h ' s solid inner core.
B. the flow of molten iron in the inner core.
C. the g e o g d y n a m o , created by convection in the outer liquid core, and electrical currents.
D. solar radiation b o m b a r d i n g the Earth.
10. E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c poles
A. reverse at irregular intervals.
B. consist of four poles.
C. are g e n e r a t e d by a p e r m a n e n t l y m a g n e t i z e d inner c o r e .
D. are very stable and do not c h a n g e .
The Earth System
11. C o n v e c t i o n transfers heat (see Key F i g u r e 1.11) by the physical circulation of hot and
cold matter. H o w d o e s it w o r k ?
A. H e a t e d m a t t e r rises u n d e r the force of b u o y a n c y b e c a u s e it is less d e n s e .
B. H o t m a t t e r within the m a n t l e sinks b e c a u s e it is denser.
C. C o l d m a t t e r rises u n d e r the force of b u o y a n c y b e c a u s e it is less d e n s e .
D. M e t e o r b o m b a r d m e n t acts to stir up the m a n t l e and drive convection.
12. W h e n did b i o l o g y ' s B i g B a n g (evolutionary e x p l o s i o n ) o c c u r ?
A . about 6 5 million y e a r s a g o
B . a b o u t 5 4 0 million years a g o
C . a b o u t 2 2 0 0 million years a g o
D . a b o u t 3 5 0 0 million years a g o
25
Plate Tectonics: The Unifying Theory
Before Lecture
This is a particularly i m p o r t a n t chapter. Plate tectonics is the major c o n c e p t that guides m o d ern geology. Before y o u attend lecture be sure to spend s o m e t i m e previewing the chapter.
Previewing will greatly increase y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture (see the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w
in Part I, C h a p t e r 3, H o w to Be Successful in G e o l o g y ) . F o r an efficient preview use the following questions.
Chapter Preview
This chapter c o n t a i n s extraordinarily helpful figures and p h o t o s . T h e goal is to learn
how the continents and o c e a n plates can float about the Earth. F o c u s y o u r C h a p t e r 2
study time on e x a m i n i n g the fascinating figures and p h o t o s of s o m e of E a r t h ' s m o s t
amazing features.
W h a t is t h e t h e o r y of p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ?
Brief answer: T h e theory of plate tectonics describes the m o v e m e n t of lithospheric
plates and t h e forces acting b e t w e e n t h e m . It also explains the distribution of m a n y
large-scale features that result from m o v e m e n t s at plate b o u n d a r i e s : m o u n t a i n c h a i n s ,
earthquakes, v o l c a n o e s , t o p o g r a p h y of the seafloor, and distribution of r o c k
a s s e m b l a g e s a n d fossils. Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 5 , E a r t h ' s lithosphere is m a d e of m o v i n g
plates, on p a g e 2 4 .
W h a t are s o m e of t h e g e o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of plate b o u n d a r i e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Volcanoes a n d e a r t h q u a k e activity are c o n c e n t r a t e d along plate
b o u n d a r i e s . W h e r e divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s are e x p o s e d on land, subsiding basins
and v o l c a n i s m are typical. M o u n t a i n chains form along convergent and transform
plate b o u n d a r i e s . It is i m p o r t a n t to visualize each major type of plate b o u n d a r y and
their locations on Earth. U s e the following figures in the text to do so: F i g u r e s 2 . 5 ,
2.6, 2.7, and 2.8 for divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s ; F i g u r e s 2.5 and 2.6 for convergent
plate b o u n d a r i e s ; a n d F i g u r e s 2 . 5 , 2.6, a n d 2.9 for a transform b o u n d a r y . If y o u h a v e
seen or lived near the San A n d r e a s , a v o l c a n o , or a rift valley, like the R i o G r a n d e in
N e w M e x i c o , start with the actual feature.
H o w c a n t h e a g e of t h e seafloor be d e t e r m i n e d ?
Brief answer: A pivotal discovery in the history of plate tectonics w a s the determination
of the age of the seafloor u s i n g m a g n e t i c a n o m a l i e s . F i g u r e 2.10 s h o w s h o w the age
was d e t e r m i n e d .
H o w is t h e h i s t o r y of plate m o v e m e n t r e c o n s t r u c t e d ?
Brief answer: T r a n s f o r m b o u n d a r i e s indicate the directions of relative plate m o v e m e n t ,
and seafloor i s o c h r o n s reveal the positions of divergent b o u n d a r i e s in earlier t i m e s .
Refer to F i g u r e s 2.11 and 2 . 1 2 .
W h a t drives p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ?
Brief a n s w e r : E a r t h ' s internal heat creates convective currents (flow of r o c k material
from hotter to c o o l e r areas) in the m a n t l e . C o n v e c t i o n , the force of gravity, a n d the
existence of an a s t h e n o s p h e r e are all i m p o r t a n t factors in any explanation of plate
m o v e m e n t . R e v i e w Key F i g u r e 1.11 to see h o w convection w o r k s .
Vital Information from Other Chapters

Review Key Figure 1.11 in Chapter 1 to remind yourself h o w convection drives plate tectonics.
27
CHAPTER
Plate Tectonics:
The Unifying Theory
From time to time in the history of science, a fundamental concept appears
that unifies a field of study by pulling together diverse theories and
explaining a large body of observations. Such a concept in physics is the
theory of relativity; in chemistry, the nature of the chemical bond;
in biology, DNA; in astronomy, the Big Bang; and in geology, plate tectonics.
UNDERSTANDING EARTH,
FRANK P R E S S AND RAYMOND SIEVER
T h e r e are t w o i m p o r t a n t caveats h e r e . First, you n e e d to budget y o u r t i m e . F o c u s

on very i m p o r t a n t material, such as the figures we suggested in the preview questions.
You d o n ' t h a v e t i m e to r e d o all the a r t w o r k in Understanding Earth. S e c o n d , the art in
the text is especially well d o n e . It includes m a n y details you cannot easily execute
in your notes. A l s o t h e c a p t i o n s in the text are very helpful, so w h e n y o u are w o r k i n g
on sketches be sure to refer to the text figure and caption.
Get off to a g o o d start. Try this idea for C h a p t e r 2 and o b s e r v e h o w it w o r k s for
you. Modify it to fit y o u r learning style.

Set priorities for studying this chapter. T h e r e is a lot to d o , probably m o r e than you will have
time for in one intensive study session. Set priorities and always do the important things first.
Instructor. Pay particular attention to any exercises r e c o m m e n d e d by y o u r
instructor d u r i n g lecture and a l w a y s a n s w e r t h e m first. Your instructor is also
your best r e s o u r c e if you are w o n d e r i n g w h i c h material is m o s t important.
Practice E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . U s e the Study G u i d e Practice
Exercises and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Be sure to do E x e r c i s e 1 b e c a u s e it involves
the key information you need to learn in this chapter.
Text. W o r k on y o u r r e s p o n s e s to E x e r c i s e s 2, 4, and 5 and T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s
1, 3, and 6 at the end of C h a p t e r 2 in the textbook.
W e b Site S t u d y R e s o u r c e s
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention to the e x p l a n a t i o n s of the a n s w e r s .
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r
S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview
Next, w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as you w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well you h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h q u e s tion you m i s s e d . Identify a n d correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
Chapter Summary
What is the theory of plate tectonics?
For over the last century s o m e geologists have argued for the concept of continental drift because of the j i g s a w - p u z z l e fit of the coasts on both sides of the
Atlantic, the geological similarities in rock ages and trends in geologic structures
on opposite sides of the Atlantic, fossil evidence suggesting that continents w e r e
j o i n e d at one time, and the distribution of glacial deposits as well as other paleoclimatic evidence.
29

Identify the Earth's Plates and Identify the Plate Boundaries are Interactive Exercises w o r t h
c o m p l e t i n g before t h e first lecture on this topic.
During Lecture
O n e goal for the lecture should be to leave the class with good a n s w e r s to the preview questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 2 tells
the story of plate tectonics: Earth's moving plates, how the plates m o v e , and the
g e o l o g i c a l features associated with converging and diverging plate b o u n d a r i e s .
Plate tectonics underlies and explains m u c h about m o d e r n geology. In that
sense, this chapter provides a preview of y o u r entire g e o l o g y c o u r s e .
Focus on understanding Figure 2.6. It will be helpful to have this figure handy
during lecture. Annotate the text figures with c o m m e n t s m a d e by your instructor.
If you h a v e n ' t already d o n e so, read the discussion of n o t e t a k i n g in Part I,
C h a p t e r 3, H o w to Be Successful in G e o l o g y . H i n t : You can u s e the N o t e T a k i n g C h e c k l i s t before you go to lecture as a o n e - m i n u t e r e m i n d e r of w h a t
to do to i m p r o v e y o u r note-taking skills. After lecture, use it as a quality c h e c k .
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general review tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.

m a r k e d areas w h e r e you d o n ' t r e m e m b e r w h a t w a s said? Do y o u n e e d a f o l l o w - u p
session with y o u r instructor, tutor, or study partner to get w h a t y o u m i s s e d ?
a d d e d visual m a t e r i a l ? E x a m p l e : For the lecture on C h a p t e r 2, it is very i m p o r t a n t
to distinguish the difference b e t w e e n diverging a n d converging plates ( F i g u r e 2.6).
You could insert a visual c u e about this distinction into y o u r n o t e s . F o r e x a m p l e ,
the simplest possible representation of Figure 2.6 w o u l d be t w o a r r o w s p o i n t e d a w a y
from e a c h other. You also w a n t to r e m e m b e r that d i v e r g e n c e can c a u s e b o t h r i d g e s
and valleys. You could d r a w a r i d g e (zigzag lines) and a valley ( d r o p p i n g plates)
b e t w e e n y o u r arrows
Study Tip: Learn by drawing

S k e t c h i n g simplified versions of figures in y o u r notes is a helpful w a y to learn and
r e m e m b e r . Visual learners will r e m e m b e r material best after they l o o k at and study
a figure. Visual learners learn m o r e if they enrich their notes with visual c u e s .
F o r kinesthetic learners m e m o r y is activated by the act of d r a w i n g , so you learn as
y o u l o o k and draw. As you take notes, be sure to leave r o o m so that y o u can insert
material later. T h e ultimate goal is notes you can study from.
31
typically f o r m a l o n g c o n v e r g e n t a n d t r a n s f o r m p l a t e b o u n d a r i e s . W h e r e
divergent p l a t e b o u n d a r i e s are e x p o s e d o n land, s u b s i d i n g b a s i n s a n d volcanism are typical.
How can the age of the seafloor be determined?

T h e a g e and relative plate velocity are inferred from c h a n g e s in the p a l e o m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t i e s of the o c e a n floor.
Various o t h e r m e t h o d s a r e n o w u s e d to m e a s u r e the rate and d i r e c t i o n of
plate m o v e m e n t s . R e l a t i v e p l a t e s p e e d s in m i l l i m e t e r s p e r y e a r are s h o w n in
Figure 2.5.
How is the history of plate movement reconstructed?

Seafloor i s o c h r o n s p r o v i d e the basis for reconstructing plate m o t i o n s for about
the last 2 0 0 million years.
Distinct a s s e m b l a g e s of r o c k s characterize each type of plate boundary. U s i n g
diagnostic r o c k a s s e m b l a g e s e m b e d d e d in continents and p a l e o e n v i r o n m e n t a l
data r e c o r d e d by fossils and s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s , geologists have b e e n able to
reconstruct ancient plate tectonic events and plate configurations.
What is the engine that drives plate tectonics?

Driven by E a r t h ' s internal heat, convection within the mantle, c o u p l e d with the
force of gravity and the existence of a soft z o n e , called the a s t h e n o s p h e r e , are
important factors in m o d e l s for h o w plate tectonics w o r k s .
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Characteristics of active tectonic plate boundaries

Complete the table by filling in the blank spaces and b o x e s .
Convergent
See Figures 2.5 and 2.9.
Divergent
Characteristics
See Figures 2.5,

2.6, 2.7, and 2.8.
Examples
Topography
Volcanism
Ocean/
Ocean
J a p a n e s e islands
Marinas Trench
Aleutian T r e n c h
oceanic ridge,
rift valley,
ocean
basins,
ocean
floor features
offset by transforms,
seamounts
trench,
island arc
Ocean/
Continental
Collision
Transform
See Figures2.5,
2.6, and 2.9.
H i m a l a y a s and
Tibetan Plateau
offset of creek
beds and other
topographic
features
that
cross the fault
present
not
characteristic
30
In the last half of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y the m a j o r e l e m e n t s of the plate t e c t o n i c theory w e r e f o r m u l a t e d . Starting in the 1940s, o c e a n floor m a p p i n g
b e g a n to reveal major g e o l o g i c features on the o c e a n floor. T h e n the m a t c h
b e t w e e n m a g n e t i c a n o m a l y p a t t e r n s o n t h e seafloor with the p a l e o m a g n e t i c
t i m e scale revealed that the o c e a n floor h a d a y o u n g g e o l o g i c age a n d w a s
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o l d e r a w a y from the o c e a n i c r i d g e s y s t e m s . T h e c o n c e p t s o f
seafloor s p r e a d i n g , s u b d u c t i o n , and t r a n s f o r m faulting e v o l v e d f r o m t h e s e
and o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s .
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth's lithosphere is broken into
over a dozen moving plates. T h e plates slide over a hot and w e a k asthenosphere,
and the continents, e m b e d d e d in s o m e of the m o v i n g plates, are carried along.
T h e assembly breakup of Pangaea (see Figure 2.12) provides a dramatic e x a m p l e
of h o w the m o v e m e n t of plates creates geography and geological features such as
the H i m a l a y a M o u n t a i n s and even changes climate as land masses travel about.
(Note Antarctica's location during the late Proterozoic. Would Antarctica have
been covered with ice at that time? W h a t would its climate have been like?)
What are some of the geologic characteristics of plate boundaries?

T h e r e are t h r e e major t y p e s of b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n l i t h o s p h e r i c p l a t e s : diverg e n t b o u n d a r i e s , w h e r e p l a t e s m o v e apart; c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s , w h e r e
p l a t e s m o v e t o g e t h e r and o n e plate often s u b d u c t s b e n e a t h t h e o t h e r ; a n d
transform boundaries, w h e r e plates slide past each other. Volcanoes, e a r t h q u a k e s
and mountains are concentrated along the active plate b o u n d a r i e s . M o u n t a i n s
Exercise 2: Construct a conceptual flowchart or

diagram illustrating how plate tectonics works
Construct a c o n c e p t u a l flowchart or d i a g r a m that illustrates m o d e r n ideas on h o w plate tectonics w o r k s . Include t h o r o u g h captions or a written description of h o w it w o r k s . Be sure the
roles p l a y e d by the following important factors are a d d r e s s e d .
E a r t h ' s internal heat
density differences
convection
lithosphere
asthenosphere
the push and pull of gravity
divergent and convergent b o u n d a r i e s

H i n t s : Refer to p a g e s 1 2 - 1 3 and 3 7 ^ 1 7 in the text. T h i s is a c o m p l e x task.
Break it d o w n into pieces. First, m a k e a sketch for each factor on separate pieces
of paper. T h e n ask yourself w h e r e (in w h i c h E a r t h layer) e a c h p r o c e s s o p e r a t e s
and arrange y o u r sketches accordingly. Finally, try to c o m b i n e all this material
into a single chart.
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. T h e m o s t important p r o c e s s in building the o c e a n floor is
A. v o l c a n i s m .
B . subduction.
C. e a r t h q u a k e activity.
D . m a g n e t i c reversal.
2. T h e y o u n g e s t ocean crust is located

A. along the o c e a n i c ridges.
C.
B. in the o c e a n i c t r e n c h e s .
D. on the abyssal seafloor.
a r o u n d hot spots.
3. Rates of seafloor spreading today are in

A. m i l l i m e t e r s p e r year.
C.
m e t e r s per year.
B. c e n t i m e t e r s per year.
D. kilometers p e r year.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 5 .
4. A l o n g a transform plate boundary, the t w o plates
A. m o v e apart to create a w i d e n i n g rift valley.
B. are being c o n s u m e d by subduction.
C. are being forced together to p r o d u c e a m o u n t a i n s y s t e m .
D. m o v e horizontally past e a c h other.
5. T h e
is an e x a m p l e of a divergent plate m a r g i n .
A. E a s t African Rift
B. J a p a n Trench
C. H i m a l a y a s
D. San A n d r e a s fault
6. All the following features m a r k plate b o u n d a r i e s except

A. the R e d Sea.
C. the H a w a i i a n Islands.
B. the San A n d r e a s fault.
D. Iceland.

7. W h i c h of the following features is not associated with a t y p e of active plate b o u n d a r y ?
A. Atlantic coast of North A m e r i c a
B . n o r t h w e s t e r n North A m e r i c a
C. Gulf of California
D. Himalayas
8. T h e n a m e given to the supercontinent that b r o k e up in the Early Jurassic (195 M a ) w a s

A. India.
C. L a u r a s i a .
B . Atlantis.
D. Pangaea.
H i n t : Refer to Figure 2 . 1 3 .

9. M i d - o c e a n ridges, a c c o r d i n g to the plate tectonic theory, are
A.
B.
C.
D.
p l a c e s w h e r e o c e a n i c crust is c o n s u m e d .
pull-apart z o n e s w h e r e new oceanic crust is p r o d u c e d .
locations of plate c o n v e r g e n c e .
t r a n s f o r m faults.
10. T h e
are an e x a m p l e of a collision z o n e b e t w e e n t w o
pieces of continental crust riding on converging lithospheric plates.

A. H i m a l a y a M o u n t a i n s
C.
B. islands of J a p a n
D. A n d e s M o u n t a i n s in South A m e r i c a
A l e u t i a n Islands in A l a s k a
11. At w h i c h t y p e of plate b o u n d a r i e s are v o l c a n o e s least likely to form?

A. divergent b o u n d a r i e s
C.
B. c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s
D. hot spots
transform b o u n d a r i e s
12. D u r i n g the early Triassic (237 M a ) ,

A. India collided with A s i a to form the H i m a l a y a n M o u n t a i n s .
B. the s u p e r c o n t i n e n t R o d i n i a formed.
C. the s u p e r c o n t i n e n t P a n g a e a w a s m o s t l y a s s e m b l e d .
D. the Atlantic O c e a n had already b e g u n to o p e n .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 .
13. South A m e r i c a lay closest to t h e S o u t h P o l e during the
A. late P r o t e r o z o i c ( 6 5 0 M a ) .
C. late Jurassic (152 M a ) .
B. last 65 million y e a r s .
D. early D e v o n i a n (390 M a ) .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 .
14. T h e significance of the m a g n e t i c a n o m a l y patterns discovered in association with the
seafloor w a s that the a n o m a l y patterns
A. c o u l d be m a t c h e d with the m a g n e t i c reversal c h r o n o l o g y to establish an e s t i m a t e d
age for the seafloor.
B. p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e for m a n t l e convection, a driving m e c h a n i s m for plate tectonics.
C. a l l o w e d g e o m a g n e t i s t s to reconstruct the supercontinent Rodinia.
D. r e p r e s e n t e d absolute proof that the seafloor w a s spreading apart.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2.10.
15. T h e oldest r o c k s on the seafloor are about
A. 20 million years old.
C.
B. 2 0 0 million years old.
D. 1 billion years old.
5 0 0 million years old.
16. T h e o c e a n i c crust
A . b e c o m e s progressively y o u n g e r a w a y from the oceanic ridges.
B . b e c o m e s progressively older a w a y from the oceanic ridges.
C. is the s a m e age virtually e v e r y w h e r e .
D. r a n g e s in age from Jurassic to P r e c a m b r i a n .
17. Volcanic island arcs like the J a p a n e s e islands are associated with
A. c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s .
C.
transform b o u n d a r i e s .
B. divergent b o u n d a r i e s .
D.
a chain of hot spots.
A. c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s .
C.
transform b o u n d a r i e s .
B . divergent b o u n d a r i e s .
D . active continental m a r g i n s .
18. Rift valleys are associated with
33
34
19. W i t h w h a t tectonic activity is a rift valley usually a s s o c i a t e d ?

A. s u b d u c t i o n
C.
B. m o v e m e n t on a transform fault
D. c o n t i n e n t a l collision
continental r u p t u r e
2 0 . M a g n e t i c a n o m a l i e s in the seafloor are c a u s e d by

A. m a g n e t i c reversals r e c o r d e d by lavas e r u p t e d at o c e a n i c s p r e a d i n g c e n t e r s .
B. c h a n g e s in the a t o m i c structure of m i n e r a l s in r e s p o n s e to c h a n g i n g o c e a n d e p t h .
C. the m e t a m o r p h i s m of d e e p - s e a s e d i m e n t s .
D. the heating up of subducting oceanic lithosphere as it plunges d e e p e r into the mantle.
H i n t : R e v i e w p a g e s 1 3 - 1 4 and F i g u r e 2.10.
2 1 . W h e r e d o the plate-driving forces originate?
A. Tectonic plates are passively d r a g g e d by c o n v e c t i o n c u r r e n t s .
B. Gravity pulls and/or p u s h e s old, cold, h e a v y l i t h o s p h e r e .
C. Injection of m a g m a from the m a n t l e p u s h e s the l i t h o s p h e r e apart.
D . E a r t h q u a k e s c a u s e the plates t o m o v e .
2 2 . E a r t h ' s lithosphere can be characterized as
A. h a v i n g an average t h i c k n e s s of about 100 k m .
B . i n c l u d i n g the crust and u p p e r m a n t l e .
C. b e i n g solid and a b o v e the a s t h e n o s p h e r e .
D. all of the a b o v e .
CHAPTER
Earth Materials:
Minerals and Rocks
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
W h a t is a m i n e r a l ?
Brief a n s w e r : A naturally occurring inorganic, crystalline solid.
H o w are r o c k s related to m i n e r a l s ?
Brief a n s w e r : M i n e r a l s are the building b l o c k s of r o c k s . Study Figure 3.21 (p. 3 5 ) .
H o w d o a t o m s c o m b i n e t o f o r m the crystal s t r u c t u r e o f m i n e r a l s ?
Brief answer: H o w atoms c o m b i n e (chemically bond) d e p e n d s on the electronic charge
on their ion, the size of the ion, and the degree to which the b o n d is ionic or covalent.
W h a t is t h e a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e of m i n e r a l s ?
H i n t : See Figures 3.3 (halite), 3.8 (graphite and d i a m o n d ) , 3.9 (silicates), 3.10
(calcite), and 3.15 (mica).
W h a t a r e t h e m a j o r r o c k - f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s a n d t h e i r physical p r o p e r t i e s ?
Brief answer: T h e major minerals are silicates, carbonates, oxides, sulfides, and sulfates.
Diagnostic properties include hardness, cleavage, luster, color, density, and the shape of
the crystal.
W h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of r o c k s ?
Brief a n s w e r : M i n e r a l content and texture.
W h a t are the three t y p e s of r o c k s a n d h o w a r e they f o r m e d ?
Brief a n s w e r : I g n e o u s , sedimentary, and m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .
H o w do t h e three t y p e s of r o c k s interact with e a c h o t h e r via plate t e c t o n i c s ,
t h e c l i m a t e s y s t e m , a n d the rock c y c l e ?
Brief a n s w e r : Refer to Figures 3.22, 3 . 2 3 , 3.25, and 3.26.
W h a t is an ore m i n e r a l ?
Brief a n s w e r : Mineral deposits b e c o m e ore deposits w h e n they are rich and v a l u a b l e
e n o u g h t o m i n e economically.
H o w d o ore d e p o s i t s o f m e t a l - b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s f o r m ?
Brief answer: M a n y metal ore deposits are f o r m e d by m a g m a t i c a n d h y d r o t h e r m a l
p r o c e s s e s that are closely linked to m o d e r n and ancient plate tectonic b o u n d a r i e s .
Refer to F i g u r e 3.28.
Previewing Tips
Tip 1
To preview a chapter quickly, focus on the figures. It is often p o s s i b l e to get a g o o d
o v e r v i e w j u s t by e x a m i n i n g the figures and c a p t i o n s . N o t e that preview q u e s t i o n s often
refer you to specific figures. As little as 5 or 10 m i n u t e s p r e v i e w i n g t h e figures before
lecture will i m p r o v e the quality of y o u r n o t e taking.
Tip 2
T h e m o r e material a c h a p t e r contains the m o r e i m p o r t a n t it b e c o m e s to chunk
material into a s c h e m a that is meaningful to you and is s i m p l e e n o u g h to r e m e m b e r .
E x a m p l e : T h i n k of C h a p t e r 3 as a n s w e r i n g three simple q u e s t i o n s : (1) W h a t is a
m i n e r a l ? (2) H o w is a m i n e r a l related to a r o c k ? (3) H o w do the three k i n d s of r o c k s
interact with each other in the system called t h e rock c y c l e ? If you can r e m e m b e r those
three questions and use t h e m to tie the details of the c h a p t e r together, y o u are likely
to find that the c h a p t e r suddenly s e e m s m u c h simpler and that the material s e e m s m u c h
easier to r e m e m b e r . H i n t : R e a d the section on P r e v i e w i n g in C h a p t e r 3 of Part I of
this Study G u i d e .
Earth Materials: Minerals and Rocks
Minerals are
the alphabet and rocks are
the
words.
T O M DILLEY

R e v i e w F i g u r e 1.8 (the relative a b u n d a n c e of e l e m e n t s in the w h o l e Earth
c o m p a r e d to that of e l e m e n t s in E a r t h ' s crust) on p a g e 9 of the textbook.
Plate tectonic processes drive the formation of igneous and m e t a m o r p h i c rocks
plus the burial sediments. It will be particularly useful to review C h a p t e r 2, especially the text a n d figures regarding converging and diverging plate boundaries.
During Lecture
Do a learning w a r m - u p . A r r i v e early. L o o k for pictures in the text that catch y o u r interest.
L o o k over the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s and k e e p t h e m h a n d y for e a s y reference.
Your b a s i c goal d u r i n g lecture is to take g o o d notes. T h e notes should contain i n - d e p t h
a n s w e r s to the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s . To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the " b i g p i c t u r e " in
mind. C h a p t e r 3 e x p l a i n s h o w r o c k s are built out of m i n e r a l s a n d h o w m i n e r a l s are built out
of a t o m s .
K e e p in m i n d the typical g e o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s n e e d e d for the formation of the t h r e e m a j o r
rock t y p e s . T h i s is nicely s u m m a r i z e d in F i g u r e 3.22. O p e n y o u r b o o k to this figure a n d put
a b o o k m a r k there. You w o n ' t h a v e t i m e d u r i n g lecture.
T h e lecturer m a y s h o w slides of m i n e r a l crystals and m a y pass a r o u n d s p e c i m e n s of particular m i n e r a l s a n d r o c k s . You will get m o r e out of the s a m p l e s if y o u sit c l o s e to the front
of the r o o m w h e r e y o u c a n see the s a m p l e s as they are d i s c u s s e d . R e m e m b e r to focus on clues
the lecturer p r o v i d e s for r e c o g n i z i n g a particular s a m p l e in the field. As y o u listen, try to formulate at least o n e g o o d q u e s t i o n y o u can ask d u r i n g the lecture.
The
important thing
is not to stop
questioning.
A L B E R T EINSTEIN
Lecture Tip: Rock texture

The lecturer m a y s h o w or pass a r o u n d s a m p l e s of the three types of rocks to h e l p
you learn h o w they differ. P a y p a r t i c u l a r attention to the crystal or grain size (texture)
and to the p r e s e n c e or a b s e n c e of layering, fossils, and patterns p r o d u c e d by the
alignment of m i n e r a l s . You will h a v e a better c h a n c e of s e e i n g the s a m p l e s if y o u sit
at the front of the r o o m .
After Lecture
Review Notes
Right after lecture w h i l e the material is fresh in y o u r m i n d is the perfect t i m e to review y o u r
notes. R e v i e w to be sure you u n d e r s t a n d all the key points and w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a form
that will be r e a d a b l e later. O n e g o o d c h e c k is that y o u r notes should p r o v i d e detailed a n s w e r s
37
Everything you do in life is worth infinite care and infinite effort.

J.D.
MCDONALD
Here are a few suggestions for h o w you might do an intensive study session for this chapter.
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Start y o u r study session by d e t e r m i n i n g h o w m u c h y o u
already k n o w . Try a n s w e r i n g the S t u d y G u i d e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . N o t i c e that
you can c h e c k the a n s w e r s to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Often w e p r o v i d e s o m e additional information with a n answer. T h e R e v i e w
Q u e s t i o n s are a great w a y to start studying b e c a u s e trying to a n s w e r t h e m will
help you focus on w h a t y o u n e e d to w o r k on. Afterward y o u can go b a c k a n d
read the text c o n c e r n i n g any p o i n t s y o u m i s s e d .
Practice E x e r c i s e s . I m m e d i a t e l y before the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s you will find
Practice E x e r c i s e s . T h e s e exercises a l w a y s focus o n s o m e key material that
you will learn best by an interactive a p p r o a c h that requires y o u to think. F o r
C h a p t e r 3 the exercises deal with u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w the structure of a m i n e r a l
d e t e r m i n e s its p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s .
Text. W o r k on E x e r c i s e s 5 a n d 12 at the e n d of the chapter. A l s o w o r k on
T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s 4, 8, 11 (see F i g u r e 3.26), a n d 13.
A lot of the fun of g e o l o g y h a s to do with figuring out the h o w s and w h y s of
interesting and beautiful natural p h e n o m e n a . Go online and explore h o w the
wondrous blue color of the H o p e D i a m o n d is related to its atomic structure and
composition by d o i n g the G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercises. T h e Rock Cycle
Review Online Review Exercise provides an excellent tour through the rock
cycle and h o w it w o r k s in the context of plate tectonics. O t h e r useful study aids
on the W e b site:
F l a s h c a r d s to h e l p y o u learn n e w t e r m s
An online C h e m i s t r y R e v i e w containing an interactive periodic table of the
elements
Additional C h a p t e r R e v i e w q u e s t i o n s
Obviously you d o n ' t have time to do all these things for every chapter. T h e idea is to try out
some of the tools and then decide w h i c h will be m o s t helpful given your personal learning style.
" C r y s t a l " c o m e s f r o m t h e G r e e k w o r d krustallos,
w h i c h m e a n s ice. I s i c e w a t e r
icea m i n e r a l ? H i n t : A s k y o u r s e l f if ice h a s t h e t h r e e p r o p e r t i e s of a m i n e r a l . (1) Is ice

naturally o c c u r r i n g ? (2) D o e s it h a v e a solid c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e ? (3) D o e s it h a v e a definite c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ? ( S e e p a g e 4 5 i n t h e t e x t b o o k . )
Exam Prep
Materials i n this s e c t i o n a r e m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for m i d t e r m a n d final
examinations. T h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s
should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It
provides a helpful o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
39
to all the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s both general review

tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.

a d d e d a c o m p a r i s o n chart to h e l p you sort out the key differences b e t w e e n the three
rock t y p e s ? (See the e x a m p l e . )
a d d e d simplified sketches of key text figures? Trying to simplify a figure is often the
best w a y of studying it, since you get involved in the i m p o r t a n t details. E x a m p l e :
D r a w a simplified version of F i g u r e 3.22 that will h e l p you r e m e m b e r the difference
in texture (crystal size) b e t w e e n intrusive and extrusive i g n e o u s r o c k s .
Differences Between the Three Rock Types

Igneous
S o u r c e of materials
M e l t i n g of r o c k s in
crust and m a n t l e
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
W e a t h e r i n g and e r o sion of rocks e x p o s e d

at the surface
High temperatures
and p r e s s u r e s in
d e e p crust and u p p e r
m a n t l e , b r e a k s from
faulting or i m p a c t
R o c k - f o r m i n g process
Crystallization
(solidification of
melt)
Sedimentation, burial,
and lithification
( c o m p a c t i o n and
cementation)
S h e a r i n g and r e c r y s tallizing in the solid

state
Refer to Figure 3.22 for the three different types of rock.

Study Tip: Intensive study session
T h e p r o c e s s of learning g e o l o g y is similar to the p r o c e d u r e for building a h o u s e .
Before each lecture, construct a frame of q u e s t i o n s . D u r i n g lecture, attach details and
ideas to the frame. After lecture, m a s t e r the ideas d u r i n g an intensive study session. By
learning about plate tectonics you have laid a g o o d foundation, but g e o l o g y is a
skyscraper with 23 floors (one for each c h a p t e r ) . E a c h floor (chapter) s u p p o r t s t h e o n e
a b o v e it. If you d o n ' t c o m p l e t e l y m a s t e r this chapter, the next o n e will be m o r e difficult.
S c h e d u l e about an h o u r after each lecture for intensive study. D e v o t e this t i m e to
m a s t e r i n g key c o n c e p t s . M a s t e r y is not gained by j u s t r e a d i n g the text. M a s t e r y o c c u r s
as the result of asking yourself q u e s t i o n s and a n s w e r i n g t h e m . T h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s
and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s are d e s i g n e d to h e l p you r e a c h m a s t e r y quickly. T h e m o r e of
these exercises and q u e s t i o n s you can w o r k into y o u r study s c h e d u l e early in t h e c o u r s e ,
the easier s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r s will be.
40
PART II
CHAPTER 3
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . T o d e t e r m i n e h o w well

y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter, c o m p l e t e t h e e x e r c i s e s a n d q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d a
m i d t e r m . After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, review e a c h q u e s t i o n y o u
m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d i n y o u r a n s w e r i n g the q u e s tion incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What are minerals?
M i n e r a l s are naturally o c c u r r i n g inorganic solids with a specific crystal structure and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
How do atoms combine to form the crystal structure of minerals?

M i n e r a l s form w h e n a t o m s or ions c h e m i c a l l y b o n d in an orderly, t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l g e o m e t r i c a r r a y a crystal structure. T h e c h a r a c t e r o f the c h e m i cal b o n d c a n be ionic, covalent, or metallic. Ionic b o n d s are the d o m i n a n t t y p e
of c h e m i c a l b o n d s in mineral structures.
What is the atomic structure of minerals?

T h e a t o m i c structure is d e t e r m i n e d by h o w the a t o m s or ions p a c k t o g e t h e r to
form a crystalline solid. T h e p a c k i n g of a t o m s d e p e n d s on their size a n d the
characteristics of c h e m i c a l b o n d s b e t w e e n the a t o m s .
Conceptual flowchart illustrating the factors

that influence the physical properties of minerals
Composition
Temperature
Pressure
What are the major rock-forming minerals and what

are their physical properties?
T h e strength of the c h e m i c a l b o n d s and the crystalline structure
d e t e r m i n e s m a n y of the physical p r o p e r t i e s of m i n e r a l s , s u c h as
h a r d n e s s and cleavage.
Silicate m i n e r a l s are the m o s t a b u n d a n t class of m i n e r a l s in the
Crystal structure
the way atoms are packed together
+
Type of chemical b o n d s ionic vs. covalent bonds
E a r t h ' s crust and m a n t l e .

Isolated and chain silicatesolivine, pyroxene, and hornblende
Sheet s i l i c a t e s m i c a s and clay m i n e r a l s
F r a m e w o r k silicatesfeldspar and quartz
Other c o m m o n mineral classes include carbonates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, h a l i d e s , and native m e t a l s .
Physical
properties of
minerals:
Crystal shape
Hardness
Cleavage
Color
Electrical
Optical
Why study minerals?

T h e c o m p o s i t i o n of r o c k s can be d e d u c e d from the c o m p o s i t i o n
of its m i n e r a l s .
T h e e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h the r o c k f o r m e d c a n be inferred
b e c a u s e m o s t m i n e r a l s are stable u n d e r only certain c o n d i t i o n s
of t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure.
For fun and profit. G e m s t o n e s are treasured for their beauty, color, and rarity.
M a n y m i n e r a l s are used in industrial p r o c e s s e s and manufacturing.
What determines the properties of rocks?

T h e properties and n a m e s of r o c k s are d e t e r m i n e d by mineral content (the
kinds and p r o p o r t i o n s of minerals that m a k e up rocks) and texture (the size,
shapes, and spatial a r r a n g e m e n t of a r o c k ' s crystals or grains).
What are the three types of rocks, and how

are they formed?
T h e r e are t h r e e m a j o r r o c k t y p e s . I g n e o u s r o c k s solidify from m o l t e n liquid
( m a g m a ) . C r y s t a l size w i t h i n i g n e o u s r o c k s i s largely d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e
c o o l i n g rate o f t h e m a g m a body. S e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s are m a d e o f s e d i m e n t s
formed from the w e a t h e r i n g and erosion of any preexisting rock.
D e p o s i t i o n , b u r i a l , a n d lithification ( c o m p a c t i o n a n d c e m e n t a t i o n ) t r a n s form l o o s e s e d i m e n t s into s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s . M e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s a r e p r o d u c e d by a l t e r a t i o n in t h e solid state of any p r e e x i s t i n g r o c k by h i g h p r e s sures a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s , w h i c h result in a c h a n g e in t e x t u r e , m i n e r a l
composition, or chemical composition.
What is the association of different rock types with plate

tectonics, the climate system, and the rock cycle?
T h e rock cycle is the result of interactions b e t w e e n plate tectonic and climate
systems.
T h e s c h e m a t i c o f t h e r o c k c y c l e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 3.26 s h o w s h o w
the three major r o c k types are strongly associated with plate tectonic and climatic settings. You m a y want to c h e c k out the online review exercise on the
rock cycle.
What is an ore mineral?

Mineral deposits are c o n s i d e r e d ore deposits w h e n they are rich and valuable
enough to be m i n e d economically.
H y d r o t h e r m a l , m e t a m o r p h i c , c h e m i c a l , and m e c h a n i c a l w e a t h e r i n g and sedimentary p r o c e s s e s can enrich metal-bearing minerals to form e c o n o m i c a l
deposits.
How do ore deposits of metal-bearing minerals form?

Many metal ore deposits are formed by m a g m a t i c and hydrothermal processes,
which are closely linked to both m o d e r n and ancient plate boundaries.
Knowledge of how mineral deposits form and the association of mineral deposits
and plate boundaries has greatly facilitated the discovery of new deposits.
41
Silicate structure B
B a s i c crystal s t r u c t u r e
Example mineral
C l e a v a g e (Fill in the b o x with o n e of the

cleavage s y m b o l s given in the key.)
Silicate structure C
B a s i c crystal s t r u c t u r e
Example mineral
C l e a v a g e (Fill in the b o x with o n e of the

cleavage s y m b o l s given in the key.)
Exercise 2: Major mineral classes

Fill in the blank with the n a m e of the mineral class to w h i c h each m i n e r a l b e l o n g s . T h e c o m mon classes of minerals include silicates, carbonates, sulfates, sulfides, oxides, native elements,
and halides. Hint: Refer to Figure 3.9 and p a g e 53 in the textbook.
1. hornblende
silicate
13. graphite
Hint: an a m p h i b o l e
2. spinel
14. p y r i t e .
3. clay minerals
15. m u s c o v i t e
Hint: a mica
4. calcite
16. anhydrite
5. g y p s u m
17. enstatite
6. quartz_
18. pyrite
7. d i a m o n d
19. s a p p h i r e .
8. dolomite
2 0 . orthoclase
.
H i n t : typically a tan-to-pink feldspar
9. plagioclase
2 1 . silver
Hint: a pyroxene
Hint: a feldspar
10. ruby
2 2 . albite
11. halite
2 3 . olivine
12. hematite
24. biotite
H i n t : typically a w h i t e feldspar
H i n t : a black mica
.
.
43
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and explanations are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Crystal structures of some common silicate minerals

T h r e e crystal structures of silicate m i n e r a l s are illustrated h e r e . T h e illustration p r o v i d e s a
b i r d ' s - e y e view of a plane of a t o m s within the crystal structure of the m i n e r a l . T h e triangles,
representing silica tetrahedra, are equivalent to the b l u e p y r a m i d s in F i g u r e 3.9.
W r i t e the n a m e for each major silicate structure (single chain, d o u b l e chain,
sheet, framework, or isolated tetrahedra).
Give an e x a m p l e of a m i n e r a l with that crystal structure.
U s i n g the s y m b o l s given in the C l e a v a g e S y m b o l Key below, characterize the
cleavage properties for minerals with this crystal structure.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 3.9 and p a g e s 6 0 - 6 6 .
Geology Puns
W h y did the geologist skip the m i n e r a l o g y l u n c h e o n ?
She d i d n ' t have any apatite.
T h e g e o l o g y teacher asks a student if he can n a m e t h e felsic m i n e r a l w i t h crystal faces,
c o n c h o i d a l fracture, and a h a r d n e s s of 7 on the M o h s ' scale.
"Of quartz I can," says the student.
T h e geologist is at the eye doctor, being fitted for a n e w pair of glasses. " D o y o u ever
see d o u b l e ? " asks the doctor.
" O n l y w h e n I look t h r o u g h calcite s a m p l e s in lab," says the geologist.
Exercise 3: Identifying minerals by their physical properties

Give the n a m e for each of the mineral s a m p l e s described.
Hint: Refer to figures and text in Chapter 3, Appendix 3 and to various links to minerals
and g e m s provided on the W e b site http://www.whfreeman.com/understandingearth5e.
Mineral S a m p l e A
T h i s mineral is colorless and has a silvery shine. It separates into thin sheets or flakes
that can b e n d w i t h o u t b r e a k i n g . It is within a rock that c o n t a i n s large crystals of q u a r t z
and feldspar. H i n t : T h i s mineral is n a m e d after M o s c o w w h e r e it w a s c o m m o n l y u s e d
as a substitute for w i n d o w glass.
Mineral n a m e :
Mineral Sample B
This mineral sample is pale yellow and occurs as a vein within a rock fracture. M a n y small
cubic crystals of this mineral were exposed in the vein when the rock broke apart along the
fracture. T h e powdered form (streak) of the mineral is black and has a sulfurlike smell. It
is a c o m m o n metal sulfide ore mineral.
H i n t : A c o m m o n n a m e for this mineral is "fool's gold."
Mineral name:
Mineral S a m p l e C
T h i s mineral is on display at a mineral exhibition both as a mineral s p e c i m e n and cut
and polished in pieces of jewelry. It consists of beautiful c o n c e n t r i c b a n d s of various
shades of green. A knife blade can easily p o w d e r its surface but my fingernail c a n n o t
scratch it. Acid reacts with the mineral, especially if p o w d e r e d . T h e s p e c i m e n w a s
labeled as c o m i n g from a c o p p e r m i n e in Bisbee, A r i z o n a .
H i n t : T h e mineral is a c o p p e r carbonate.
Mineral n a m e :
Mineral S a m p l e D
T h i s tan-to-pink s a m p l e o c c u r s as m a n y 5- to 7-centimeter crystals s u r r o u n d e d by
flakes of m i c a a n d g r a i n s of w h i t e - t o - c l e a r q u a r t z . T h e t a n - t o - p i n k c r y s t a l s are p r i s m a t i c r e c t a n g u l a r or b o x shaped. It has a h a r d n e s s b e t w e e n that of a knife b l a d e and
that of a steel file.
H i n t : It is o n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n m i n e r a l s in t h e E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t a l c r u s t . A
s e m i p r e c i o u s variety, called m o o n s t o n e , is used in j e w e l r y . Refer to F i g u r e 3 . 2 1 .
Mineral name:
Mineral S a m p l e E
Exhibiting excellent cleavage in three directions, this mineral breaks into beautiful
r h o m b o h e d r a l - s h a p e d p i e c e s . S a m p l e s vary in color from clear to w h i t e to tan. A fingernail does not scratch the surface, but a knife blade easily p o w d e r s the surface. W e a k
acid readily reacts with the surface of the m i n e r a l .
Hint: M a r i n e o r g a n i s m s typically p r o d u c e this mineral from seawater to g e n e r a t e their
s k e l e t o n s s e a s h e l l s . Refer to F i g u r e 3.16.
Mineral n a m e :
Mineral S a m p l e F
This s a m p l e w a s found as a series of thin layers with other layers of m u d and silt. My
fingernail can easily scratch its surface and form a w h i t e powder. Water dissolves the
powder, but the s a m p l e d o e s not react with acid. S a m p l e s c o m m o n l y exhibit a splintery
aspect but do not separate into individual fibers, such as asbestos d o e s . T h e s a m p l e easily breaks (cleaves) along o n e plane but d o e s not form the thin sheets typical of mica.
Hint: T h i s mineral is a major constituent of plaster of Paris and w a l l b o a r d u s e d in
buildings and h o u s e s . Refer to Table 3.2.
Mineral n a m e :
Exercise 4: Rock cycle review

Information and figures in Chapters 2 and 4 will be helpful references for this exercise.
Also refer to Figure 3.26.
A. W h a t are the three plate tectonic settings for the generation of m a g m a ?
hotspots,
like
Hawaii
B. Given the t w o types of i g n e o u s r o c k s , intrusive and extrusive, fill in the table with their
characteristic c o o l i n g rates (fast vs. slow) and textures (fine grained vs. coarse grained).
Types of igneous rocks
Cooling rates
Textures
Extrusive
Intrusive
C. Rock and m i n e r a l particles are transported and laid d o w n as s e d i m e n t s by w h a t natural

agents of transport?
Hint: T h r e e different agents of transport are s h o w n in Figure 3.24.
D. W h a t are the t w o w a y s loose s e d i m e n t s are converted into solid s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k ?
45
E. W h a t are the t w o m a i n types of s e d i m e n t s , and w h a t are they m a d e of?
Type of sediment
What is it made of?
H i n t : Refer to p a g e 65 in t h e textbook.
F. W h a t are the four major conditions that result in m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s ?
H i n t : Refer to Figure 3.25
G . A r e m e t a m o r p h i c rocks f o r m e d b y m e l t i n g ? A n s w e r yes o r n o .
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. T h e b o n d s b e t w e e n Na and CI in halite are strongly ionic. In ion form, CI h a s seven
electrons in its outer shell and Na has one. After these t w o e l e m e n t s b o n d , CI has
electrons in its outer shell and Na has
electrons in its outer shell.
A. six, t w o
C.
o n e , seven
B. four, four
D.
eight, eight
2.
and
are e x a m p l e s of minerals with identical c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s but
different crystal structures.
A . Calcite, d o l o m i t e
B. Hematite, magnetite
C . Pyrite, g y p s u m
D. Graphite, diamond
3. T h e term geologists use for a naturally o c c u r r i n g a g g r e g a t e of m i n e r a l s is

A. element.
B. rock.
C. compound.
D. crystal.
4. W h e n a substance is m a d e of a t o m s that are a r r a n g e d in a fixed, orderly, a n d r e p e a t i n g

pattern, it is said to be
A. a m o r p h o u s .
B . glassy.
C. crystalline.
D . liquid.
5. W h i c h of the following statements is N O T true of m i n e r a l s ?

A.
B.
C.
D.
They
They
They
They
are crystalline.
p o s s e s s a definite c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
are naturally occurring.
are organic.
48
16. C h e m i c a l b o n d i n g a l o n g c l e a v a g e p l a n e s w i t h i n t h e c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e of a m i n e r a l
typically
A. is m o r e covalent.
B. is m o r e ionic.
C. is m o r e m a g n e t i c .
D . involves electron sharing b e t w e e n a t o m s .
H i n t : Refer to the section in the textbook titled Cleavage.

17. Iron and m a g n e s i u m ions are similar in size and both have a +2 c h a r g e . T h e r e f o r e we
w o u l d e x p e c t iron and m a g n e s i u m to
A . b o n d easily.
B . share electrons.
C. form m i n e r a l s with different crystal structures.
D. substitute for e a c h other within the crystal structure of m i n e r a l s .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 3.3 and 3.4 and the section in the t e x t b o o k titled How Do
Minerals
Form?
18. T h e c h e m i c a l b o n d s b e t w e e n carbon a t o m s within d i a m o n d are p r e d o m i n a n t l y

A. covalent.
C.
metallic.
B . ionic.
D.
nuclear.
19. W h i c h of the following rocks forms from molten material c o o l i n g and solidifying within the E a r t h ' s crust?
A. volcanic
C.
sedimentary
B . plutonic
D.
metamorphic
2 0 . M o l t e n rock within the E a r t h ' s crust is called

A . silica.
C.
magma.
B . lava.
D.
mica.
2 1 . C o a r s e - g r a i n e d i g n e o u s r o c k s , s u c h as granite, are e x p o s e d today at the E a r t h ' s surface

d u e to
A. uplift and erosion.
B . quickly c o o l e d lavas e r u p t i n g from ancient v o l c a n o e s .
C. silicate m i n e r a l s precipitated from rainwater.
22. Lithification is the p r o c e s s that converts s e d i m e n t s into solid rock by
A. c o o l i n g and crystallization.
B. pressure cooking.
C.
subduction.
D . c e m e n t a t i o n and c o m p a c t i o n .
2 3 . B e d d i n g (layering) is a major identifying characteristic of
A. s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s .
C.
intrusive r o c k s .
B. metamorphic rocks.
D.
n o n e o f the a b o v e .
24. Contact metamorphism

A. o c c u r s in areas of very high t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e , like s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s .
B. e x t e n d s over very large areas.
C. is characteristic of continental collision z o n e s .
D . o c c u r s i n areas w h e r e m a g m a intrudes a n d m e t a m o r p h o s e s n e i g h b o r i n g rock.
2 5 . In the rock cycle, w e a t h e r i n g
A. creates s e d i m e n t s .
C.
creates m o u n t a i n s .
B. results in burial and lithification.
D.
can c a u s e m e t a m o r p h i s m .
2 6 . In the r o c k cycle, m o u n t a i n s typically form as a result of

A . w e a t h e r i n g and erosion.
C.
s e d i m e n t a t i o n piling u p rock.
B. metamorphism.
D.
s u b d u c t i o n and c o n t i n e n t s colliding.
E a i Materials: Minerals and Rocks

Earth
6. Which of the following objects is N O T a m i n e r a l ?

A. native c o p p e r
C.
B. glass
D. water ice
diamond
7. T h e most c o m m o n m i n e r a l g r o u p on Earth is
A. carbonates.
C. oxides.
B. silicates.
D. halides.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 1.8 and p a g e 8.

8. T h e structure of feldspars, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, consists of
A.
B.
C.
D.
double c h a i n s of silica tetrahedra.

a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f r a m e w o r k of silica tetrahedra.
single chains of silica tetrahedra.
isolated silica tetrahedra.
9. Micas are k n o w n for their t e n d e n c y to split into thin sheets; their silicate c r y s t a l :
ture is
A.
B.
C.
D.
isolated silica tetrahedra.

chains of silica tetrahedra.
sheets of silica tetrahedra.
a f r a m e w o r k a r r a n g e m e n t of silica tetrahedra.
10. W h i c h of the following d o e s N O T b e l o n g to the c a r b o n a t e class of m i n e r a l s ?

A. calcite
B. anhydrite
C. d o l o m i t e
D. aragonite
11. W h i c h of the following minerals h a s a sheet silicate structure?

A. clay minerals
C.
B. feldspar
D. graphite
amphibole
12. A m p h i b o l e s and p y r o x e n e s are mineral g r o u p s that b e l o n g to t h e class of mil

called
A.
B.
C.
D.
chain silicates.
framework silicates.
sulfide m i n e r a l s .
sheet silicates.
13. W h i c h of the following statements is N O T true of quartz and calcite?

A. Calcite has excellent cleavage; quartz has p o o r to no cleavage.
B. Q u a r t z is a c a r b o n a t e m i n e r a l .
C. Both are often colorless.
D. Quartz h a s a h a r d n e s s of about 7 and calcite a h a r d n e s s of about 3.
14. T h e characteristic of certain m i n e r a l s to b r e a k along p l a n e s of w e a k n e s s is called
A. crystal s y m m e t r y .
B. cleavage.
C. h a r d n e s s .
D. luster.
15. Graphite and d i a m o n d are t w o very different minerals. W h y are the physical p r o p erties of graphite and d i a m o n d so different even though they are both m a d e from
pure c a r b o n ?
A. T h e c h e m i c a l b o n d s b e t w e e n the carbon a t o m s and their crystal structures are
significantly different.
B. G r a p h i t e h a s strikingly different physical properties from d i a m o n d b e c a u s e
of impurities within its crystal structure, w h e r e a s d i a m o n d is p u r e carbon.
C. Actually, g r a p h i t e and d i a m o n d are not m i n e r a l s b e c a u s e they are m a d e from
carbon and all m a t t e r m a d e from carbon is organic. Their physical properties
are different b e c a u s e they w e r e p r o d u c e d by very different living o r g a n i s m s .
D. N o n e of the a b o v e .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e Story 3.11 (a a n d b).
47
Study Tip: Construct a Simplified Rock Cycle

Figure 3.26 p a c k s m u c h information into o n e p a g e and provides an o v e r v i e w of h o w
rock types are linked to E a r t h ' s plate tectonic and c l i m a t e s y s t e m s . As a review for an
exam, construct y o u r own rock cycle flowchart. K e e p it relatively simple and focus
on presenting the following information:
Major r o c k types
O n e or t w o important diagnostic characteristics of each rock type
Process(es) that transform a r o c k into a n o t h e r r o c k type
Use sketches, w o r d s , p h r a s e s , or bulleted lists to describe e a c h c o m p o n e n t (each major
rock type) and c o n n e c t i n g p a t h w a y s (processes that transform r o c k s into a n o t h e r t y p e ) .
If you are a visual learner, c o n c e n t r a t e on d r a w i n g simple illustrations that
characterize h o w e a c h rock type forms and h o w it is linked to other rock t y p e s . If you
learn better from r e a d i n g or listening, then use arrows and describe the major e l e m e n t s
of the rock cycle in w o r d s and read it out loud.
49
CHAPTER
Igneous Rocks:
Solids from Melts
50
Igneous Rocks: Solids from Melts
Before Lecture
Before you go to lecture, s p e n d s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g C h a p t e r 4. We have m a d e it easier by
identifying the five key q u e s t i o n s on i g n e o u s r o c k s for y o u (see C h a p t e r P r e v i e w ) . T h e s e
questions constitute the f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g this chapter. W o r k i n g with the C h a p t e r
Preview questions before lecture a n d c o m m i t t i n g t h e m to m e m o r y should h e l p you understand the lecture better and take excellent notes. N e e d a refresher on p r e v i e w i n g ? See C h a p t e r
3 of Part I, H o w to Be Successful in Geology, in this Study G u i d e .
Chapter Preview
H o w are i g n e o u s r o c k s classified?
Brief answer: C o m p o s i t i o n and texture (cooling history). Preview F i g u r e s 4 . 1 , 4 . 3 ,
and 4.4 and Tables 4.1 a n d 4.2. H i n t : Table 4.2 s u m m a r i z e s t h e crucial information,
but you will n e e d to l o o k at the figures in order to u n d e r s t a n d it.
How and where do m a g m a s form?
Hint: Table 4.3 a n d F i g u r e 4.11 in t h e t e x t b o o k p r o v i d e an overview.
How does m a g m a t i c differentiation a c c o u n t for the great variety of i g n e o u s rocks?
Hint: Figure 4.5 tells the classic differentiation story. Figure 4.6 adds important details.
W h a t are t h e f o r m s of i n t r u s i v e a n d extrusive i g n e o u s r o c k s ?
Hint: Figures 4.7 and 4 . 1 0 show t h e basic intrusive and extrusive igneous rock bodies.
H o w do i g n e o u s r o c k s relate to plate t e c t o n i c s ?
Brief answer: M a g m a s t e n d to form at divergent and convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s a n d
hot spots. H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 4 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 3 , and 4 . 1 4 and the Activity, R o c k
Composition, a n d Types of M a g m a s section of C h a p t e r 4 for m o r e details.
Preview of magma types in relation to plate tectonic settings

Plate tectonic setting (examples)
Magma type (example rock type)
Spreading c e n t e r s
oceanic ridge ( M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e )
mafic (basalt)
continental rift (East African Rift)
mafic to felsic ( s i l i c i c ) m o r e variable

b e c a u s e s o m e continental crust m a y melt.
Subduction z o n e s
oceanic island arc (Japan)
mafic to i n t e r m e d i a t e
continental volcanic arc ( C a s c a d e R a n g e ,

Mt. St. H e l e n s , M o u n t Rainier, and A n d e s
in South A m e r i c a )

b e c a u s e continental crust m a y melt.
Note: N o t m u c h v o l c a n i s m occurs in
association with collision plate b o u n d a r i e s .
Intraplate m a n t l e p l u m e s ("hot spots")
oceanic hot spots ( H a w a i i )
mafic (basalt)
continental hot spots (Yellowstone)

b e c a u s e continental crust is melted.
51

R e v i e w Figures 3.22 and 3 . 2 3 .

R e v i e w the Rock Cycle Review in C h a p t e r 3 on the W e b site. Pay particular attention to inform a t i o n on melting, magmas, cooling, and igneous rocks.
During Lecture
A lot of i m p o r t a n t visual material will be covered in this lecture. Be sure you p r e v i e w the
c h a p t e r before lecture. B e c a u s e the material is s o m e w h a t technical, y o u will want to take
notes in as organized a m a n n e r as possible. F o l l o w i n g are s o m e ideas you m a y find helpful.
B i g picture for C h a p t e r 4. To avoid getting lost in details, keep the big picture
in m i n d t h r o u g h o u t the lecture.
Chapter 5 explains how plate tectonics drives the formation of magma and
how igneous rocks of varying composition and texture are produced at particular plate locations. For
example, fine, textured volcanic rock of basaltic
composition
is produced at a diverging ocean plate (see Figure 4.13).
K e y figures for lecture. T h i s c h a p t e r introduces m a n y n e w w o r d s and c o n cepts to learn. It m a y be helpful to b o o k m a r k o n e or t w o of the m o s t i m p o r tant t e x t b o o k figures you p r e v i e w e d before c o m i n g to lecture. F i g u r e 4 . 3 will
h e l p you with igneous rock classification. F i g u r e s 3.26, 4 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 3 , a n d 4 . 1 4
s u m m a r i z e w h e r e and h o w m a g m a s are formed.
You will also be developing a new skill: identifying igneous r o c k s . Often lecturers use slides or rock s a m p l e s to h e l p you learn this skill. T h e following tip
and chart tool will h e l p you master this skill efficiently.
Note-Taking Tip: How to take notes on rock samples

D u r i n g lecture the instructor m a y s h o w slides of i g n e o u s r o c k formations a n d m a y p a s s
a r o u n d s p e c i m e n s of i g n e o u s r o c k s . T h e s p e c i m e n s will be easier to see if y o u sit close
to the front of the r o o m . F o r the instructor, each s a m p l e tells a story. You can b e c o m e
proficient at r e a d i n g r o c k stories, too. It j u s t takes practice and a little organization. F o r
igneous r o c k s , a chart like the following e x a m p l e will h e l p you o r g a n i z e w h a t you see
and hear. T h e chart focuses on the t w o things you need to pay t h e m o s t attention to:
texture ( w h e t h e r or not you can see crystals) and composition (the likely mineral content
of this rock). If the instructor tells an interesting story about the rock, m a k e a note or
t w o ; stories help us r e m e m b e r details we m i g h t o t h e r w i s e forget.
W h a t to d o . Before the lecture on i g n e o u s r o c k s , m a k e a chart like t h e o n e that
follows on a full sheet of n o t e b o o k paper. L e a v e plenty of r o o m for notes about e a c h
s a m p l e . Try to put s o m e t h i n g in every c o l u m n for every r o c k s a m p l e . If you m i s s a
c o l u m n or w e r e u n a b l e to see s o m e of the m i n e r a l s in the rock, be sure to talk to the
instructor right after lecture (while y o u r m e m o r y is fresh and the r o c k s a m p l e is h a n d y )
and fill in w h a t you need to c o m p l e t e the chart. H i n t : T h i s idea is also g o i n g to be
useful in s u b s e q u e n t chapters on s e d i m e n t a r y and m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .
53
Example: Rock sample-note taking chart

(Set up on one full p a g e of y o u r n o t e b o o k . )
Rock name
(Example)
Granite
Texture clues
(coarse,
fine, etc.)
Coarse
Composition
clues (mineral
clues, color,
dark/light, etc.)
I could m a k e out crystals
of black h o r n b l e n d e ,
w h i t e and pink feldspars,
and thin, shiny sheets
of m i c a in a light gray
matrix (quartz).
Story about the

rock to help you
remember it
" C a m e from [you n a m e
it] M o u n t a i n near o u r
c a m p u s . I slipped and
fell j u s t before I found
this s a m p l e . " Stories
will h e l p you r e m e m b e r
information.
Other notes
Crystals w e r e clearly
visible in the slide.
Crystals w e r e m o s t l y
feldspar and m u s c o v i t e
mica! What I thought was
h o r n b l e n d e turned out to
be biotite. I tried to scratch
t h e r o c k with a p e n n y ; no
luck, m u s t be k i n d of h a r d
( a b o v e 3 on the M o h s '
scale). M i n e r a l s in granite
average greater than 5 on
the M o h s ' scale. T o o b a d
I d i d n ' t b r i n g my b o w i e
knife to class.
Sample 1
Sample 2 and so on
After Lecture
Review Notes
Chapter 4 is a bit technical, so it will be particularly important to r e w o r k and i m p r o v e y o u r
notes after lecture.

used the five p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s as section h e a d i n g s for y o u r n o t e s ? You should h a v e
sections dealing with (1) classification, (2) m a g m a formation, (3) m a g m a differentiation,
(4) igneous structures, a n d (5) plate tectonics a n d i g n e o u s r o c k formation.
54
PART II
CHAPTER 4
a d d e d exercise material from this g u i d e to y o u r n o t e s ? A great place to b e g i n is to

c o m p l e t e E x e r c i s e 1 (see P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s ) . E x e r c i s e 1 will h e l p y o u u n d e r s t a n d
w h a t is p e r h a p s the single m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l idea a b o u t i g n e o u s rock, n a m e l y
rock texture. If you do the exercise sketches on n o t e b o o k paper, y o u can clip t h e m
s o m e w h e r e near the b e g i n n i n g of y o u r notes on i g n e o u s r o c k s for future review.
a d d e d visual material to y o u r n o t e s ? Key figures to c o n s i d e r a d d i n g are F i g u r e 4.4,

classification model of igneous r o c k s ; F i g u r e 4 . 5 , fractional crystallization w h i c h
explains the c o m p o s i t i o n of a basaltic intrusion; F i g u r e 4 . 7 , b a s i c extrusive and
intrusive i g n e o u s structures; and F i g u r e 4 . 1 1 , plate tectonics and m a g m a f o r m a t i o n .
R e m e m b e r , the idea is to d r a w simplified versions that e m p h a s i z e t h e features
d i s c u s s e d in lecture.
included a brief s u m m a r y of this c h a p t e r ? W r i t i n g a brief s u m m a r y of the e s s e n c e

of a c h a p t e r is a g o o d w a y to help focus on w h a t is i m p o r t a n t a n d avoid g e t t i n g
b o g g e d d o w n in less essential details.

You learn g e o l o g y m u c h as y o u w o u l d build a h o u s e . Before e a c h lecture, c o n s t r u c t a frame
of q u e s t i o n s . D u r i n g lecture, attach details and ideas to the frame. After lecture m a s t e r the
ideas during an intensive study session. N o w y o u have c o n s t r u c t e d the first few stories. But
g e o l o g y is a skyscraper with 23 floors (one for e a c h c h a p t e r ) . E a c h c h a p t e r s u p p o r t s t h e o n e
a b o v e it. If y o u d o n ' t c o m p l e t e l y master this chapter, the next will be m o r e difficult.
Test y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of rock t e x t u r e a n d o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t s
identified in t h e C h a p t e r Preview. T h e r e are s o m e great features built into
this c h a p t e r that you c a n use to learn. O n e g o o d e x a m p l e is F i g u r e 4 . 2 . R e a d
the section Texture at the b e g i n n i n g of the chapter. You will learn h o w J a m e s
Hutton d e d u c e d the nature of igneous rock by assessing three lines of e v i d e n c e
(clues 1-3). T h e n l o o k at F i g u r e 4.2. You c a n h a v e an e x p e r i e n c e of d i s c o v ery not unlike H u t t o n ' s . Study F i g u r e s 4 . 1 , 4 . 2 , and 4.3 until y o u think you
u n d e r s t a n d texture. T h e n do E x e r c i s e 1 and really m a s t e r interpreting r o c k textures. M o v e o n t h r o u g h the chapter, p a y i n g particular attention t o F i g u r e s 4 . 3 ,
4 . 4 , 4 . 5 , 4 . 7 , and 4 . 1 1 .
Practice Exercises and Review Questions
N e x t use the S t u d y G u i d e
Practice E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s in the S t u d y G u i d e . Be sure to do

E x e r c i s e 1. It involves the key information you need to learn in this chapter.
Complete
the
online
exercises Bowen's Reaction
Series Review a n d Igneous
Rock Review. F l a s h c a r d s will help you learn new t e r m s . Try y o u r h a n d at b e i n g

a field geologist by d o i n g the exercises in G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e , an excellent
review of basic information on i g n e o u s r o c k s .
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . T h e following
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify y o u r
c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y first. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d
refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, work on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises and

questions just as you w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well you have mastered this chapter. After
you answer the questions, score them. Finally, and most important, review each question you
missed. Identify and correct the misconception(s) that resulted in your incorrect answer.
Chapter Summary
How are igneous rocks classified?
Igneous r o c k s can be divided into t w o b r o a d textural classes: (1) coarsely c r y s talline r o c k s , w h i c h are intrusive (plutonic) and therefore cooled slowly, and
(2) finely crystalline r o c k s , w h i c h are extrusive (volcanic) and cooled rapidly.
Within each of these b r o a d textual classes, the rocks are subdivided according
to their composition. General compositional classes of igneous rocks are felsic,
intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic, with d e c r e a s i n g silica and increasing iron
and m a g n e s i u m content.
How and where do magmas form?

T h e lower crust and the upper m a n t l e are typical places w h e r e physical c o n d i tions induce r o c k to melt. H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , a reduction in p r e s s u r e , and the
presence of w a t e r all c a u s e m e l t i n g . C o m p o s i t i o n is also a factor in the melting t e m p e r a t u r e of r o c k s .
How to melt a r o c k t h e generation of magma

Increase the t e m p e r a t u r e .
N o t all m i n e r a l s melt at the s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e (refer to Figure 4.5). T h e
mineral c o m p o s i t i o n of the rock affects the m e l t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . Felsic r o c k s
55
56
with h i g h e r silica content m e l t at lower t e m p e r a t u r e s than do mafic r o c k s ,

w h i c h contain less silica and m o r e iron and m a g n e s i u m .
L o w e r the confining p r e s s u r e .
A r e d u c t i o n in p r e s s u r e c a n i n d u c e a hot r o c k to melt. A r e d u c t i o n in c o n fining p r e s s u r e on the hot u p p e r m a n t l e is t h o u g h t to g e n e r a t e the basaltic m a g m a s that intrude into the o c e a n i c r i d g e s y s t e m to form o c e a n crust (refer to
Figure 4.13).
A d d water.
T h e p r e s e n c e of water in a r o c k c a n lower its m e l t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e by up
to a few hundred degrees. Water released from rocks subducting into the m a n t l e
a l o n g c o n v e r g e n t plate b o u n d a r i e s m a y b e a n i m p o r t a n t factor i n m a g m a g e n eration, especially at the convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s (refer to F i g u r e 4 . 1 4 ) .
How does magmatic differentiation account for

the great variety of igneous rocks?
T h e r e is an amazing variety of igneous rocks on Earth. Two processes help
to explain how the composition of igneous rocks can be so variable. They
are partial melting and fractional crystallization (refer to Figures 4.5
and 4.6).
T h e B o w e n ' s reaction series in F i g u r e 4.5 is a flowchart d e s c r i b i n g h o w the
very general bulk c o m p o s i t i o n of a m a g m a can c h a n g e as the m a g m a solidifies or as a r o c k m e l t s .
What are the forms of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?

N a m e s are given to i g n e o u s r o c k b o d i e s b a s e d on their size and s h a p e . F i g u r e
4.7 s u m m a r i z e s the c o m m o n i g n e o u s r o c k b o d i e s , such a s batholith, p l u t o n ,
dike, and sill.
How do igneous rocks relate to plate tectonics?

M i d - o c e a n ridges and s u b d u c t i o n zones are the major sites of m a g m a t i c activity (refer to F i g u r e s 4 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 3 , and 4 . 1 4 ) .
Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Igneous rock textures

In each of the four b o x e s , sketch t h e i g n e o u s r o c k texture that is consistent with the origin of
the rock as described a b o v e e a c h b o x . Fill in the blank with the appropriate texture t e r m from
the list. Table 4 . 2 , p l u s F i g u r e s 3.23 and 4 . 3 , will be helpful.
Texture t e r m s
Fine grained (aphanitic)
Intermediate grain s i z e s v i s u a l grains but n o t very coarse grained
Coarse grained (phaneritic)
Mixture of c o a r s e and fine grains (porphyritic)
A. Draw the texture of an igneous rock from a

pluton solidified at depth within the crust.
B. Draw the texture of an igneous rock from a

shallow m a g m a body, like a dike or sill.
phaneritic
N a m e of texture
N a m e of texture
C. Draw the texture of a lava erupted from a

m a g m a c h a m b e r after s o m e minerals had
D. Draw the texture of a lava flow that erupted

before the m a g m a c h a m b e r u n d e r w e n t
begun to crystallize.
N a m e of texture
any crystallization.
N a m e of texture
57
58
P A R T II
CHAPTER 4
Exercise 2: Distribution of igneous rocks within the Earth

C o m p l e t e the table with t e r m s from the lists that follow t h e table. Refer to Table 4.2 and
F i g u r e 4 . 4 i n y o u r t e x t b o o k . S o m e a n s w e r s are p r o v i d e d . N o t e that the E a r t h ' s c o r e i s not
i n c l u d e d in this table b e c a u s e it is t h o u g h t to be c o m p o s e d m o s t l y of iron a n d nickel, not silicate m i n e r a l s .
Major layer
in the Earth
Continental crust
Example
igneous rock
General
compositional group
General
chemical composition
Granite
(For c o n t i n e n t a l crust, t h e r e
are t w o a p p r o p r i a t e a n s w e r s . )
Intermediate
Ocean crust
Mantle
Less Si, Na, K

More Fe, Mg, Ca
E x a m p l e i g n e o u s rocks
General compositional group
granite/rhyolite
ultramafic
basalt/gabbro
felsic
andesite/diorite
intermediate
peridotite
mafic
granodiorite/dacit
Figure 4 . 4 . Classification model of igneous rocks.

The vertical axis measures the mineral composition of
a given rock as a percentage of its volume. The horizontal axis is a scale of silica content by weight. Thus,
if you know by chemical analysis that a coarsely textured rock sample is about 70 percent silica, you
could determine that its composition is about 6 percent amphibole, 3 percent biotite, 5 percent muscovite, 14 percent plagioclase feldspar, 22 percent
quartz, and 50 percent orthoclase feldspar. Your rock
would be a granite. Although rhyolite has the same
mineral composition, its fine texture would eliminate it.
Exercise 3: Predicting the change in composition

in crystallizing magma
Sandstone
Basalt
Mostly sodium-rich
plagioclase feldspar;
no olivine
Calcium-rich plagiocla
feldspar and pyroxene
no olivine
Olivine
Basalt
Sandstone
A basaltic m a g m a intruded b e t w e e n s a n d s t o n e layers to form the sill. As the m a g m a c o o l e d in

place, fractions of the crystals that formed settled into l a y e r s i t u n d e r w e n t fractional crystallization. Using F i g u r e s 4.4 and 4 . 5 , and Table 4.2, predict h o w the silica and iron content of
the Palisades sill c h a n g e s . Indicate w h e t h e r the silica and iron content increase, d e c r e a s e , or
stay the same in e a c h layer of the sill. E x p l a i n the reason(s) for y o u r a n s w e r s .
Predict h o w the silica and iron c o n t e n t of the mafic Palisades sill c h a n g e s as the m a g m a c o o l s .
Circle the correct answer.
A. Olivine -> P y r o x e n e
1. Silica content:
2. Iron content:
C a l c i u m - r i c h p l a g i o c l a s e feldspar and p y r o x e n e with no olivine

i n c r e a s e d / d e c r e a s e d / stay the s a m e
increased / d e c r e a s e d / stay the s a m e
Explanation:
B. Calcium-rich p l a g i o c l a s e -> s o d i u m - r i c h p l a g i o c l a s e feldspar and no olivine
1. Silica content: i n c r e a s e d / d e c r e a s e d / stay the s a m e
2.
Iron content: i n c r e a s e d / d e c r e a s e d / stay the s a m e
Explanation:
Exercise 4: Sequence of mineral crystallization in a solidifying magma

Circle the a n s w e r s that correctly c o m p l e t e the following statements.
A. T h e a t o m i c (crystal) structure of the earliest formed silicate m i n e r a l s in a m a g m a
tend to be M O R E / L E S S c o m p l e x than the crystalline structures of m i n e r a l s f o r m e d
during later stages in the solidification of the m a g m a .
B. D u r i n g the solidification of a m a g m a , the m i n e r a l s with the h i g h e s t silica c o n t e n t
will crystallize F I R S T / L A S T .
C. In the last stages of solidification of a m a g m a , the r e m a i n i n g silicate melt will c o n tain M O R E / L E S S silica than the original melt.
Hint: You do n o t n e e d to k n o w the bulk c o m p o s i t i o n (mafic, i n t e r m e d i a t e , felsic) of the
m a g m a t o a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . Refer t o F i g u r e s 4.4 and 4.5 and Table 4 . 2 .
59
Exercise 5: Partial melting and magma composition

Circle the a n s w e r s that correctly c o m p l e t e the following s t a t e m e n t s .
C o m p a r e d to the bulk c o m p o s i t i o n of the rock, the m i n e r a l s with the l o w e r m e l t i n g temperature are
A. H I G H E R / L O W E R in the B o w e n ' s reaction series.
B. D E P L E T E D / E N R I C H E D in M g , F e , and Ca.
C. D E P L E T E D / E N R I C H E D in Si, N a , K.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 4 . 5 .
Exercise 6: Predicting the composition of magma

generated in subduction zones
Circle the answer for each statement that correctly completes the following sentence: C o m p a r e d
to the basaltic o c e a n crust, the m a g m a generated by partial m e l t i n g of the s u b d u c t i n g slab of
ocean crust will
A
B.
C.
D
h a v e M O R E / L E S S silica,
have M O R E / L E S S iron and m a g n e s i u m ,
have M O R E / L E S S s o d i u m and p o t a s s i u m ,
b e M O R E / L E S S mafic.
Review Questions
1. I g n e o u s r o c k n a m e s are b a s e d on
A.
B.
C.
D.
texture and c o m p o s i t i o n .
f i n e grain and coarse grain.
intrusive and extrusive.
w h e r e the m a g m a c h a m b e r erupts.
2. W h a t r o c k has the s a m e m i n e r a l o g y as granite but a fine-grained t e x t u r e ?

A. andesite
C.
obsidian
B . basalt
D.
rhyolite
H i n t : Refer to Table 4.2.

3. W h i c h of the following r o c k s contains the m o s t silica?
A. basalt
B. rhyolit
C. fissure e r u p t i o n s
D. dacite
4. W h i c h of the following pairs of intrusive and extrusive rocks are m a d e from the s a m e
mineralsi.e., have the s a m e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ?
A. g a b b r o and basalt
B. diorite and basalt
C. fissure eruptions
D. g a b b r o and rhyolite
5. In the field or in h a n d - s i z e d s p e c i m e n s , intrusive and extrusive i g n e o u s r o c k s are distinguished by w h i c h characteristic?

A. c o m p o s i t i o n
B. color
C. porphyritic versus n o n p o r p h y r i t i c texture
D. grain size
6. W h i c h of the following iron-rich m i n e r a l s is most c o m m o n in basalt?
A. p y r o x e n e
B . quartz
C.
D.
muscovite
Na-plagioclase
7. Granite is m a d e up mainly of
A. quartz, o r t h o c l a s e (K-feldspar), and N a - p l a g i o c l a s e .
B. quartz, C a - p l a g i o c l a s e , N a - p l a g i o c l a s e , and a m p h i b o l e .
C. quartz, p y r o x e n e , and m u s c o v i t e .
D. quartz, orthoclase (K-feldspar), C a - p l a g i o c l a s e , and olivine.
Hint: Refer to Table 4.1 and Figure 4.4.
8. An igneous rock m a d e of a m i x t u r e of both coarse- and fine-grained minerals is called
porphyritic and is f o r m e d by
A. rapid c o o l i n g followed by a period of slow cooling.
B. slow c o o l i n g followed by a period of rapid cooling.
C. very slow c o o l i n g of a water-rich m a g m a .
D. very rapid c o o l i n g in the p r e s e n c e of water.
9. Only iron and m a g n e s i u m - r i c h m i n e r a l s are found in w h i c h of the following lists of
minerals?
A. p y r o x e n e , h o r n b l e n d e , K-feldspar, biotite
B. plagioclase, biotite, p y r o x e n e , clay
C. quartz, m u s c o v i t e , biotite, plagioclase
D . biotite, p y r o x e n e , olivine, h o r n b l e n d e
10. Following B o w e n ' s reaction series, the later, l o w e r - t e m p e r a t u r e fractions of liquid
m a g m a b e c o m e progressively
A. d e p l e t e d in silica.
B. e n r i c h e d in silica.
C. enriched in m a g n e s i u m .
D. depleted in p o t a s s i u m .
Hint: Refer to F i g u r e 4 . 5 .
11. W h i c h of the following m i n e r a l s are the earliest h i g h e s t - t e m p e r a t u r e m i n e r a l s to c r y s tallize in B o w e n ' s R e a c t i o n Series?
A. quartz and feldspar
B . plagioclase and a m p h i b o l e
C. plagioclase and olivine
D . chert and m i c a
12. T h e formation of granitic batholiths occurs
A. within the o c e a n crust.
B. within the continental crust.
C. along s p r e a d i n g centers in the o c e a n .
D . u n d e r h o t spots.
61
13. C o n s i d e r i n g the following m i n e r a l s , w h i c h pairs w o u l d you predict w o u l d N O T b e

found together in the s a m e igneous r o c k ?
A. K-feldspar and biotite
B . N a - p l a g i o c l a s e and m u s c o v i t e
C. quartz and N a - p l a g i o c l a s e
D. quartz and olivine
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 4.4 and 4 . 5 .
14. H o w w o u l d you distinguish a lava flow from a sill e x p o s e d at the E a r t h ' s surface?
A. Sills tend to be coarser grained than lava flows b e c a u s e they cool slower.
B. T h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s of the lava flow and the sill (that is, t h e m i n e r a l s present) w o u l d be very different.
C. Sills tend to be finer grained b e c a u s e of slower rates of crystallization.
D. L a v a flows are coarser grained b e c a u s e of very rapid rates of c o o l i n g .
15. T h e r o c k t y p e of m o s t batholiths found in the continental crust is
A. g a b b r o .
B . obsidian.
C.
D.
granite.
basalt.
16. H o w d o e s a rising m a g m a m a k e s p a c e for itself as it m o v e s t h r o u g h t h e solid crust?

A.
B.
C.
D.
by
by
by
by
b r e a k i n g off large b l o c k s of r o c k that sink into t h e m a g m a c h a m b e r

w e d g i n g open the overlying r o c k
melting surrounding rocks
all these p r o c e s s e s
17. T h e source for m o s t mafic m a g m a s is t h o u g h t to be

A. partial m e l t i n g of felsic and intermediate r o c k s in the u p p e r c o n t i n e n t a l crust.
B. partial m e l t i n g of ultramafic r o c k s within the u p p e r m a n t l e .
C. m e l t i n g of preexisting granites and s e d i m e n t s .
D. the m o l t e n core of the Earth.
18. If lava flows on the slopes of a v o l c a n o are derived from o n e large m a g m a chamber,
w h i c h crystallizes slowly and feeds eruptions over a period of m a n y t h o u s a n d s of years,
h o w w o u l d y o u predict the gross c o m p o s i t i o n of the lava w o u l d c h a n g e as the lava flows
become younger?
A. Younger lava flows w o u l d b e c o m e progressively e n r i c h e d in iron and m o r e mafic.
B. Younger lava flows w o u l d b e c o m e progressively e n r i c h e d in silica and m o r e felsic.
C. L a v a flows w o u l d be the s a m e c o m p o s i t i o n since they all c a m e from the same
m a g m a chamber.
D. L a v a flows w o u l d alternate in c o m p o s i t i o n .
H i n t : U s e B o w e n ' s reaction series in F i g u r e 4.5 and review the t e x t b o o k section
Magmatic
Differentiation.
19. T h e production of basalt can be achieved by the partial m e l t i n g of

A.
B.
C.
D.
gabbro.
ultramafic r o c k s .
a m i x t u r e of g a b b r o and oceanic s e d i m e n t s .
rhyolite.
H i n t : Refer to Figures 4.11 and 4 . 1 3 .

2 0 . A n d e s i t e s i n t e r m e d i a t e m a g m a s a r e typically associated with
A.
B.
C.
D.
divergent plate m a r g i n s , like the m i d - o c e a n i c r i d g e s .

fractures in the crust that allow m a g m a s from the upper m a n t l e to rise to the surface.
h o t spots, like H a w a i i .
convergent plate m a r g i n s , like the western e d g e o f South A m e r i c a t h e A n d e s .
2 1 . A n ophiolite suite contains the following c o m b i n a t i o n o f r o c k s :

A.
B.
C.
D.
granite, gneiss, s a n d s t o n e , l i m e s t o n e , and shale.

d e e p sea sediments, pillow basalts, g a b b r o , and peridotites.
dikes, sills, and plutons of peridotites.
plutonic r o c k s and surrounding s e d i m e n t s characteristic of a m a g m a c h a m b e r .
22. Which flowchart characterizes the m a g m a t i c p r o c e s s e s that occurr at spreading c e n t e r s ?

A. peridotite -> d e c o m p r e s s i o n melting -* basalt
B. ophiolite -* fluid-induced m e l t i n g -* basalt
C. deep ocean s e d i m e n t s -* fluid-induced melting -> andesites
D. basalt
decompression melting
peridotite
23. Which of the following h y p o t h e s e s for the origin of granite is N O T r e a s o n a b l e ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
mixing of m a g m a s with different c o m p o s i t i o n s

d e c o m p r e s s i o n m e l t i n g within a m a g m a p l u m e
partial melting
melting of s e d i m e n t a r y and m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s
24. Which set of c o n d i t i o n s will result in basalt melting at the lowest t e m p e r a t u r e ?

A. dry basalt at low pressure
B. dry basalt at high p r e s s u r e
C. wet basalt at low pressure
D. wet basalt at high pressure
63
CHAPTER
Sedimentation:
Rocks Formed by Surface Processes
Sedimentation: Rocks Formed by Surface Processes
How does plate tectonics relate to s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k ?

Brief answer: E n v i r o n m e n t s of deposition, c o m p o s i t i o n , and texture of s e d i m e n t s , as
well as the s h a p e and d e p t h of s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s , are influenced by plate tectonics.
Refer to Figure 5.4.
What is the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s e d i m e n t s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s on t h e
Earth's s u r f a c e ?
Hint: Refer to F i g u r e 5.5 and Table 5.2.
What are t h e m a j o r t y p e s of s e d i m e n t s a n d s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s ?
Brief answer: siliciclastic ( s a n d s t o n e ) versus c h e m i c a l (evaporites) and b i o c h e m i c a l
(limestone). Study Tables 5.3 and 5.4, and F i g u r e s 5.5, 5.12, and 5.16.

Review Figure 3.24 and p r e v i e w p a g e s 3 7 2 - 3 8 1 in C h a p t e r 16.
During Lecture
Note-Taking Tip: Some features to watch for in
sedimentary rock samples and formations
In this lecture you will be introduced to a variety of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s , formations,
and sedimentary e n v i r o n m e n t s . S i n c e they will p r o b a b l y be n e w to you, it is s m a r t to
prepare. Spend a few m i n u t e s of y o u r preview t i m e b e c o m i n g familiar with the m o s t
important sedimentary r o c k features:
Bedding and other s e d i m e n t a r y structures: p a g e s 1 1 1 - 1 1 3
Bedding s e q u e n c e s (stratigraphy): F i g u r e 5.11 on p a g e 114
Grain size: F i g u r e s 5.3 and 5.15 and Table 5.3
Mineral content and major g r o u p s of s a n d s t o n e s : F i g u r e 5.16 on p a g e 118
Chemical and b i o c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t a r y rocks: F i g u r e 5.17
Fossils: Figure 5.18
One goal for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s to the preview q u e s t i o n s .
To avoid getting lost in the details, k e e p the big picture in mind: C h a p t e r 5 tells the story of
how sedimentary r o c k s are created by the processes of the rock cycle. It m a y be helpful to have
Figure 5.1 with you so that you can refer to it d u r i n g lecture.
Note-Taking Tip: Use abbreviations to speed up your note taking

bed -+ b e d d i n g
carb - c a r b o n a t e
clast -> clastic
chem -+ c h e m i c a l
biochem -+ b i o c h e m i c a l
env - e n v i r o n m e n t
lith -+ lithification
sed - s e d i m e n t or s e d i m e n t a r y
sed r -> s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k
c a r b sed -* c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t
sed b a s e -* s e d i m e n t a r y basin
sed env -* s e d i m e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t
After Lecture
Review Notes
R i g h t after lecture, while the material is fresh in y o u r m i n d , is the perfect t i m e to review your
notes. R e v i e w to be sure you u n d e r s t o o d all the key points a n d w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a form
that will be r e a d a b l e later.

i n c l u d e d the chapter o v e r v i e w ? F i g u r e 5.1 is the "big picture." C o n s i d e r a d d i n g
y o u r o w n version, including the six s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k - f o r m i n g steps.
d e v e l o p e d a chart like the o n e in E x e r c i s e 1 to h e l p y o u learn t h e s e d i m e n t a r y
environments?
Intensive Study Session: Focus on chunking the

information into a solid overview
In earlier c h a p t e r s we h a v e used the m e t a p h o r of building a h o u s e for studying geology.
Chunking is a m e n t a l p r o c e s s that will h e l p you construct a g o o d frame. T h e idea is to group
the important information. Later you h a n g details on this f r a m e w o r k of basic information.
If y o u h a v e s o m e t i m e s w o n d e r e d h o w s o m e of y o u r professors can rattle off tons of complicated material without even looking at their lecture notes, c h u n k i n g (see b o x ) p r o v i d e s an
explanation. O v e r the years they have c h u n k e d ( c o n n e c t e d ) m o r e and m o r e bits of information about geology. C h a p t e r 5 provides a great opportunity for y o u to d e v e l o p y o u r m e m o r y
efficiency. U s e the clues and aids in the b o x to g r o u p the details of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s into a
format that is easy to r e m e m b e r .
Memory and Learning Tip: Chunking

It's easier to r e m e m b e r a three-item list than a 30-item list. If y o u h a v e 30 things to
r e m e m b e r , t h e first thing y o u n e e d to do is to divide the long list into a small n u m b e r of
shorter lists. G r o u p similar i t e m s together, n a m e the g r o u p s , and then associate the i t e m s
in e a c h list with the g r o u p to w h i c h it b e l o n g s . Instead of trying to r e m e m b e r 30 things,
you have r e d u c e d y o u r task to r e m e m b e r i n g a m u c h smaller n u m b e r .
E x a m p l e : F i g u r e 5.5 illustrates the different s e d i m e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t s on Earth.
N o t e that while 11 sedimentary environments are discussed, they are o r g a n i z e d into three
general k i n d s of e n v i r o n m e n t s : continental, shoreline, and m a r i n e . You are likely to
r e m e m b e r the information better if you c h u n k it into t h e three categories rather t h a n
trying to absorb the details of all eleven e x a m p l e s . T h e authors of Understanding Earth
m u s t agree. N o t i c e that they h a v e o r g a n i z e d the information to h e l p y o u think in t e r m s of
just three general categories (continental, shoreline, marine) for sedimentary environments.
N o t e also the color coding. W h y did the authors c h o o s e particular c o l o r s for e a c h
e n v i r o n m e n t . U s e these clues to study m o r e effectively and i m p r o v e y o u r retention of
the information.
First, overview the p r o c e s s e s involved in forming s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s . Study Figure 5.1

and commit the six steps in the figure to m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k on F i g u r e 5.5 on text p a g e 109, w h i c h illustrates c o m m o n s e d i m e n t a r y environments on Earth. N o t e that although 11 s e d i m e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t s are discussed, they are
organized into j u s t three k i n d s of e n v i r o n m e n t s . For n o w focus m o s t of y o u r attention on
understanding the three and d o n ' t get lost in the details of all 11.
Move on to diagenetic p r o c e s s e s on p a g e s 1 1 4 - 1 1 6 . F i g u r e 5.12 provides a great visual
overview. It c h u n k s lots of information. H e r e ' s a little m e m o r y trick: You can recall all the
information in this figure story by r e m e m b e r i n g j u s t t w o w o r d s : process and sediments.
Here's how it w o r k s . First, notice that Steps 1-5 describe the three simple p r o c e s s e s (pressure, compaction, and c e m e n t a t i o n ) that are a part of d i a g e n e s i s . N e x t look at Step 6. O b s e r v e
how pressure transforms different s e d i m e n t s into different k i n d s of r o c k s with very different
textures. T h e r e are four s e d i m e n t s (mud, sand, gravel, and organic matter). So you have t w o
short lists to r e m e m b e r : the list of three p r o c e s s e s and the list of four s e d i m e n t s . If you c a n
remember the s e d i m e n t s ( m u d , sand, gravel, organic matter) you can easily g u e s s the r o c k
that each turns into. So you can c o m m i t the entire table to m e m o r y by m e m o r i z i n g a very
short two-word list: processes (3) and sediments (4). You should be able to r e m e m b e r the rest
of the table by association. Try it!
Move on to classification on p a g e 116. S e d i m e n t a r y rock classification involves many,
many details. N o t i c e , however, that you can r e d u c e all these details to t w o basic categories:
(1) clastic s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s (Table 5.3 and Figure 5.15) and (2) c h e m i c a l / b i o c h e m i c a l sedimentary rocks (Table 5.4 and F i g u r e 5.17). H i n t : If you are a visual or kinesthetic learner, it
may help to w o r k up y o u r o w n simplified version of these tables.
If you w a n t to test y o u r k n o w l e d g e of the chapter, the following materials can be used for
self-testing and applying y o u r new k n o w l e d g e to s o m e very interesting geologic p r o b l e m s .
Practice Exercises a n d R e v i e w Questions. At the very least do Exercise 1. It
gets to the key information y o u need to learn in this chapter.
Text. Read Earth Issues on page 124. Study it to learn more about the formation
of coral reefs. T h i s is a m u s t if you like to scuba dive! A n s w e r E x e r c i s e s 1, 2,
and 5. A l s o w o r k on T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s 3, 5, 7, 10, and 12 (refer to p a g e s
3 7 3 - 3 8 0 in C h a p t e r 16). W h e n y o u visit the G r a n d C a n y o n in A r i z o n a , you
will be able to u n d e r s t a n d the g e o l o g y better and i m p r e s s y o u r traveling partners after c o m p l e t i n g these exercises and questions.
http ://ww w. w h f r e e m a n .com/ u n d e r s t a n d i n g e a r t h 5 e
In the G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercises on the W e b site, you can try y o u r h a n d
at identifying and r e c o n s t r u c t i n g the interesting story told by s e d i m e n t a r y
rocks.
Identifying
Sedimentary Environments,
Common Sedimentary Environments, and Depositional Environments are W e b site exercises that will also provide you an opportunity to practice using information and skills highlighted in
this chapter.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are most useful during y o u r preparation for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e
Chapter S u m m a r y and the Practice Exercises and Review Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
overview that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
68
N e x t , w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises

and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as you w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h question y o u m i s s e d . Identify a n d c o r r e c t the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering
the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What are the major processes in the formation of sedimentary rocks?
W e a t h e r i n g and e r o s i o n p r o d u c e the clastic particles and d i s s o l v e d ions that
c o m p o s e s e d i m e n t . Water, w i n d , and ice transport the s e d i m e n t to w h e r e it is
d e p o s i t e d . Burial and d i a g e n e s i s h a r d e n s e d i m e n t s into s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s .
Refer to F i g u r e 5 . 1 .
How does plate tectonics relate to sedimentary rock?

S e d i m e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t s , the c o m p o s i t i o n and texture of s e d i m e n t s , and the
g e o m e t r y of the b a s i n s in w h i c h s e d i m e n t s a c c u m u l a t e are all related to plate
tectonic settings. For e x a m p l e , the formation of a n e w o c e a n basin by rifting
a l o n g a divergent plate b o u n d a r y creates a rift basin and ultimately a stable
continental margin and o c e a n basin. Refer to F i g u r e 5.4.
What is the relationship between sediments and

environments on the Earth's surface?
S e d i m e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t s are often g r o u p e d into three general l o c a t i o n s : on
the c o n t i n e n t s , near the shoreline, and in the o c e a n .
F a c t o r s that influence the s e d i m e n t s in these e n v i r o n m e n t s include (1) k i n d
and a m o u n t of water, (2) topography, and (3) biological activity.
S e d i m e n t a r y structures and fossils p r o v i d e information about the agent of transport (water, wind, or ice) and the e n v i r o n m e n t of deposition for the s e d i m e n t .
What are the major types of sediments and sedimentary rocks?

T h e t w o major t y p e s of s e d i m e n t s are siliciclastic and c h e m i c a l / b i o c h e m i c a l .
Siliciclastic (also k n o w n as clastic) s e d i m e n t s are f o r m e d from r o c k particles
a n d mineral fragments. C h e m i c a l and b i o c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t s o r i g i n a t e from
the ions dissolved in water. Chemical and biochemical reactions precipitate t h e s e
dissolved ions from solution.
Classification and the n a m e of clastic s e d i m e n t s and s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s (cong l o m e r a t e , sandstone, shale) are based primarily on the size of the g r a i n s within
the rock. T h e classification and n a m e o f c h e m i c a l and b i o c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t s
(evaporites, l i m e s t o n e s , and d o l o s t o n e ) in s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s are b a s e d p r i m a rily on their c o m p o s i t i o n .
How is sediment transformed into hard rock?

Burial and d i a g e n e s i s transform loose s e d i m e n t s into hard rock. Burial p r o m o t e s this transformation b e c a u s e buried sediments are e x p o s e d to increasingly
h i g h e r pressures and t e m p e r a t u r e s . D i a g e n e s i s involves m a n y p h y s i c a l and
chemical processes. For example, cementation is an important chemical
70
PART 11 C H A P T E R 5
Exercise 3: Clastic and chemical sediments and sedimentary rocks

G i v e n the descriptive s t a t e m e n t s in c o l u m n 1, fill in c o l u m n s 2 and 3 of the table with the
a p p r o p r i a t e s e d i m e n t types and rock t y p e s from the list of c o m m o n s e d i m e n t t y p e s and sedimentary rocks.
Sediment types
biochemical
Sedimentary rocks
. arkose
dolostone
limestone
sandstone
clastic
chert
evaporite
peat
shale
chemical
conglomerate
graywacke
phosphorite
siltstone
Descriptive statement
Sediment type
Sedimentary rock example
chemical
dolostone
C o m p o s e d largely of r o c k fragments
P r e c i p i t a t e d in the e n v i r o n m e n t of deposition
I m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of coal
Often f o r m e d by d i a g e n e s i s
F o r m e d from a b u n d a n t skeleton fragments
of m a r i n e or lake o r g a n i s m s , such as coral,
seashells, and foraminifers
Produced by physical weathering
P r o d u c e d from rapidly e r o d i n g granitic and
gneissic terrains in an arid or semi-arid c l i m a t e
and
phosphorite
diagenetic c h a n g e in w h i c h minerals are precipitated in the open spaces within

clastic s e d i m e n t s , forming c e m e n t s that b i n d the s e d i m e n t s together.
Figure 5.12 s u m m a r i z e s h o w diagenetic p r o c e s s e s p r o d u c e c h a n g e s in c o m p o sition and texture.
Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Common sedimentary environments

Using Figures 5.1 and 5.5 as a g u i d e , fill in c o l u m n 2 in the following table with the clastic
or chemical s e d i m e n t (e.g., sand, silt, m u d , salts, c a r b o n a t e , peat) that best m a t c h the environments of deposition.
Environment of deposition
Sediment deposited
Alpine or glacial river c h a n n e l

Dunes in a desert
Flood plain along a b r o a d m e a n d e r b e n d
River delta along a m a r i n e shoreline
Continental shelf
Deep sea adjacent to a continental shelf
Shoreline sand d u n e s
Tidal flats
Organic reef
Exercise 2: Grain sizes for clastic sedimentary rocks

Using the terms for sediments and rocks listed in Table 5.3, fill in the blanks in c o l u m n s 3 and
4 with the appropriate n a m e s of the sediments and rocks that match the typical particle size of
the common object. A few a n s w e r s have been filled in as a reference.
Grain size
Coarse
Common object
Sediment
football or bus
boulder
p l u m or lime
Rock type
gravel
conglomerate
pea or bean
c o a r s e - g r o u n d p e p p e r or salt
fine-ground p e p p e r or salt
Fine
talcum powder or baby powder
sandstone
69
Review Questions
1. W h i c h of t h e following r o c k g r o u p s includes only clastic s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
d o l o m i t e , g y p s u m , and l i m e s t o n e
cherts, s a n d s t o n e , and shale
d o l o m i t e , coal, and l i m e s t o n e
shale, s a n d s t o n e , and c o n g l o m e r a t e
2. W h i c h s e q u e n c e of r o c k n a m e s h a s t h e c o r r e c t a r r a n g e m e n t in o r d e r of d e c r e a s i n g
particle d i a m e t e r s ?
A. c o n g l o m e r a t e , shale, s a n d s t o n e
B. shale, siltstone, s a n d s t o n e
C. s e d i m e n t a r y breccia, shale, s a n d s t o n e , claystone
D. conglomerate, sandstone, claystone
3. T h e grains in a s a n d s t o n e m a y include
A.
B.
C.
D.
r o c k fragments.
quartz.
feldspar.
all of the a b o v e .
4. Sedimentary r o c k s are p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h w h i c h of the following s e q u e n c e s of events?

A.
B.
C.
D.
erosion, w e a t h e r i n g ,
weathering, erosion,
erosion, w e a t h e r i n g ,
w e a t h e r i n g , erosion,
transportation, deposition, burial, and diagenesis

transportation, burial, diagenesis, and deposition
deposition, transportation, and c e m e n t a t i o n
transportation, deposition, burial, and diagenesis
5. D o l o m i t e is the p r i m a r y m i n e r a l found in d o l o s t o n e . It is f o r m e d by
A.
B.
C.
D.
foraminifera extracting m i n e r a l s from seawater.

diagenetic alteration of calcite.
direct precipitation in lake water.
coral reef e x p o s u r e to direct sunlight.
Test-Taking Tip for Multiple-Choice Exams

When taking a multiple-choice test, treat each alternative a n s w e r as a true-false question.
Rule out any alternative that is false. For e x a m p l e in Q u e s t i o n 4, A and C are false
because erosion m u s t follow w e a t h e r i n g . B is false b e c a u s e deposition m u s t p r e c e e d
burial and diagenesis. T h e r e f o r e , D m u s t be the correct answer.
6. W h a t are the t w o m o s t i m p o r t a n t diagenetic p r o c e s s e s that transform loose s e d i m e n t s

into hard s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s ?
A. c o m p a c t i o n , c e m e n t a t i o n
B. transportation, burial
C. erosion, transportation
D. uplift, erosion
72
7 . W h a t are t w o c h e m i c a l o r b i o c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s f o r m e d b y the diagenetic

process?
A. dolostone, phosphorite
B . l i m e s t o n e , chert
C. sandstone, limestone
D . siltstone, g r a y w a c k e
8. W h e r e are m o s t s e d i m e n t s d e p o s i t e d ?
A. on the continental shelf and adjacent o c e a n floor
B. in lakes
C. a l o n g s t r e a m s
D. in deserts
9. In w h i c h of the following materials w o u l d y o u least e x p e c t to find cross-bedding?
A. sand d u n e s
B . delta s e d i m e n t
C. river b a r deposits
D . evaporites
10. T h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d e n v i r o n m e n t of d e p o s i t i o n for c a r b o n a t e s in the world today is
A. the d e e p sea, e.g., the Arctic O c e a n .
B. the tidal flat e n v i r o n m e n t , e.g., the Mississippi Delta.
C. in river c h a n n e l s .
D. a w a r m , s h a l l o w - w a t e r m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t , e.g., the Florida K e y s .
1 1 . A s a n d s t o n e m a d e of p u r e quartz grains is likely to be d e p o s i t e d
A. a l o n g the shore of a continent.
B. in the d e e p sea.
C. in river c h a n n e l s .
D. a l o n g the e d g e s of a coral reef and atolls.
12. C h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is m o s t d o m i n a n t in
A . w a r m , dry c l i m a t e s .
B . w a r m , wet c l i m a t e s .
C. cool, dry c l i m a t e s .
D. cool, wet climates.
E. at the shoreline.
13. T h e c o a s t of A l a s k a is k n o w n for its high m o u n t a i n o u s relief, active v o l c a n o e s , and glaciers that r e a c h to the sea. W h a t t y p e s of s e d i m e n t s w o u l d y o u e x p e c t to be commonly
d e p o s i t e d offshore from this l a n d s c a p e ?
A. arkose
B . c a r b o n a t e sand
C. quartz sand
D. graywacke
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 5.16 and the text that p r e c e d e s it.
~
JL
14. W h e n a granite is subject to intense c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g , it is m o s t likely to result in a

B
s e d i m e n t c o m p o s e d of
R e v i e w C h a p t e r 16,
A. feldspar and clay.
W e a t h e r i n g , E r o s i o n , and
B.
q u a r t z and c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e .
Mass Wasting.
C.
quartz and clay.
D.
quartz and feldspar.
15. Feldspar is the m o s t a b u n d a n t silicate m i n e r a l in the crust of the Earth; the m o s t c o m mon s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k is
A. s a n d s t o n e .
B. c o n g l o m e r a t e .
C. l i m e s t o n e .
D. shale.
16. A coarse s a n d s t o n e with a s y m m e t r i c a l ripples and s m a l l - s c a l e c r o s s - b e d d i n g is e x p o s e d
in a cliff b e t w e e n layers of siltstone a b o v e and gravels below. W h a t is the e n v i r o n m e n t
of deposition for the c o a r s e s a n d s t o n e layer?
A. b e a c h
B. river c h a n n e l
C. lake
D. offshore.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 .
17. Reefs and atolls are built by coral and algae
A. on s u b s i d i n g o c e a n i c v o l c a n o e s and continental m a r g i n s .
B. on islands in the m i d d l e of lakes.
C. in the d e e p o c e a n floor and later uplifted to sealevel.
D. w h e r e d o l o s t o n e is t r a n s f o r m e d to limestone.
18. As seawater e v a p o r a t e s , precipitation of soluble salts occurs in w h i c h o r d e r ?
A. halite, c a r b o n a t e s , c a l c i u m sulfate
B. calcium sulfate, halite, c a r b o n a t e s
C. iron o x i d e , quartz, peat
D. c a r b o n a t e s , c a l c i u m sulfate, halite
19. M e c h a n i s m s by w h i c h plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s p r o d u c e s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s are
A. rifting, thermal sag, and flexure of the lithosphere.
B. heating and c o m p r e s s i o n of the crust.
C. w e a t h e r i n g and erosion.
D. diagenesis and turbation.
Figure 5.14. The relative abundance of the major

sedimentary rock types. In comparison with these types, all
other sedimentary rock typesincluding evaporates, cherts,
and other chemical rocksexist in only minor amounts.
73
CHAPTER
Metamorphism:
Modification of Rocks by
Temperature and Pressure
Metamorphism: Modification of Rocks by Temperature and Pressure
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
What c a u s e s m e t a m o r p h i s m ?
Brief answer: M e t a m o r p h i s m a l t e r a t i o n of preexisting r o c k s in the solid s t a t e
is caused by increases in pressure and t e m p e r a t u r e and by reaction with c h e m i c a l
components introduced by migrating fluids. See F i g u r e 6 . 1 .
What are t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s of m e t a m o r p h i s m ?
Brief answer: R e g i o n a l and c o n t a c t m e t a m o r p h i s m are the m o s t c o m m o n . See F i g u r e
6.3 and Figure Story 6.4.
What are the chief t y p e s of m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s ?
Brief answer: M e t a m o r p h i c rocks fall into t w o major textural classes called foliated
with minerals oriented in s o m e preferred direction such as the grain in w o o d and
nonfoliated with no preferred m i n e r a l orientation. See Table 6 . 1 .
How is m e t a m o r p h i s m l i n k e d to plate t e c t o n i c s ?
Hint: Refer to F i g u r e 6 . 3 .

Review the sections M e t a m o r p h i c R o c k s and T h e R o c k C y c l e . T h e s e sections are short and
well worth your review.
During Lecture
Keeping up with a fast-speaking lecturer can be a c h a l l e n g e .
Take as m a n y notes as you can.
D o n ' t stop w r i t i n g w h e n y o u b e c o m e c o n f u s e d a n d y o u w a n t to p o n d e r a
concept. You can do that later.
If you miss s o m e t h i n g , leave a space so that you can fill it in later.

met rock -> m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k
sed rock - s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k
si -+ slate or slaty
si cleave -> slaty c l e a v a g e
shl -> shale
shst -> schist
fol -> foliated
unfol -> unfoliated
gran -> granular
reg m -> regional m e t a m o r p h i s m
con m -* contact m e t a m o r p h i s m
Feel free to m a k e up your o w n abbreviations. T h e important thing is to develop shorthand
that is meaningful to you, while being quick, easy to use, and easy to remember.
75
76
After Lecture
Review Notes
R e v i e w y o u r n o t e s right after lecture w h i l e material is fresh in y o u r m i n d . H e r e is some
m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k m a t e r i a l t o add t o y o u r n o t e s .
added key figures to focus y o u r attention? T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t figures are F i g u r e 6.1

(pressure and t e m p e r a t u r e ) , F i g u r e 6.3 (types of m e t a m o r p h i s m ) , F i g u r e 6.4
(foliation). Table 6.1 (classification) is the m o s t i m p o r t a n t table.
a d d e d helpful s k e t c h e s ? S u g g e s t i o n for C h a p t e r 6: M e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s are classified

in part by texture. D r a w simple s k e t c h e s of textures (slaty c l e a v a g e , phyllite, schist,
g n e i s s ) to help y o u r e m e m b e r the g r a d e s of m e t a m o r p h i s m . C l o s e study of the photo
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c h a p t e r a n d F i g u r e 6.4 will h e l p y o u s e e h o w t o d o this.
a d d e d a s u m m a r y of the g r a p h s ? C h a p t e r 6 c o n t a i n s s o m e i m p o r t a n t information in
g r a p h i c form. R e v i e w P - T F i g u r e s 6.2, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, and 6.10. N o t e that all show
different g r a d e s of m e t a m o r p h i s m resulting from increasing p r e s s u r e and temperature.
C a n y o u s u m m a r i z e all t h e s e figures on a single p a g e of y o u r n o t e s ? W h a t d o e s your
s u m m a r y sketch tell y o u about the formation of m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s ?
created a brief big picture o v e r v i e w of this lecture (a sketch or written o u t l i n e ) ?

S u g g e s t i o n for C h a p t e r 6: F i g u r e 6.3 is k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e t e c t o n i c settings
that drive m e t a m o r p h i s m . Sketch a simplified version that clearly s h o w s six geologic
settings for m e t a m o r p h i s m . W r i t e a c a p t i o n for this figure in y o u r o w n w o r d s .

We r e c o m m e n d giving the highest priority to activities that involve a n s w e r i n g questions.
A n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s w h i l e using y o u r text and lecture notes as reference material is far more
efficient than r e r e a d i n g c h a p t e r s or g l a n c i n g over notes. As a l w a y s , y o u h a v e three sources
from w h i c h to c h o o s e q u e s t i o n s .
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . U s e the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s at the end of this Study G u i d e chapter. E x e r c i s e 1 will help
you sort out the k i n d s of rock d i s c u s s e d in this chapter. N o w that y o u h a v e
studied the three r o c k t y p e s in detail, it's t i m e to integrate the information.
E x e r c i s e 2 will h e l p y o u rise a b o v e the details and gain an o v e r v i e w by c o m p a r i n g i g n e o u s , sedimentary, and m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .
Text. For this chapter, the most important figures are Figure 6.1 (pressure and
temperature), Figure 6.3 (types of m e t a m o r p h i s m ) , and Figure 6.10 (plate tectonics). T h e most important table is Table 6.1 (classification). C o m p l e t e Exercises 1,
6, 8, and 9 and T h o u g h t Questions 5, 6, 8, and 10 at the end of the chapter.
W e b Site O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s a n d S t u d y Tools
C o m p l e t e the G r a d e d O n l i n e Q u i z and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention to the e x p l a n a t i o n s for the hints and a n s w e r s . F l a s h c a r d s will
h e l p y o u learn n e w t e r m s . T h e G e o l o g y i n P r a c t i c e e x e r c i s e s p r o v i d e a n
opportunity t o practice identifying m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s and r e v i e w i n g g e o l o g i c
settings in w h i c h they occur. C o m p l e t e the O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s What
happens
rock,
where?
Metamorphism
and plate
tectonics,
Create
metamorphic
and Before and after: Metamorphic rocks to review and reinforce w h a t
y o u have learned in the text.
78
the three most c o m m o n types of m e t a m o r p h i s m within the Earth's crust. Other

types of m e t a m o r p h i s m are low-grade, high-grade, and shock m e t a m o r p h i s m .
Vhat are the chief types of metamorphic rocks?

M e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s fall into t w o major textural c l a s s e s : foliated (displaying a
preferred orientation of m i n e r a l s , a n a l o g o u s to the grain in w o o d ) a n d t h e n o n foliated. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t r o c k and the g r a d e o f m e t a m o r p h i s m
are the m o s t important factors controlling the mineralogy of m e t a m o r p h i c rock.
M e t a m o r p h i s m usually causes little to no c h a n g e in the b u l k c o m p o s i t i o n of
rock. T h e k i n d s o f minerals and their orientation d o c h a n g e . M i n e r a l a s s e m b l a g e s w i t h i n m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s are u s e d by geoscientists as a guide to the
original composition of the parent rock and the conditions d u r i n g m e t a m o r p h i s m . Refer to 6.7.
M i n e r a l a s s e m b l a g e s in m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s p r o v i d e a b a s i s for r e c o n s t r u c t i n g
the c o n d i t i o n s that c a u s e d m e t a m o r p h i s m and u n d e r s t a n d i n g m o r e a b o u t t h e
associated geologic setting. Figure 6.8 and Table 6.2 s u m m a r i z e major m i n e r a l s
of m e t a m o r p h i c facies. F i g u r e s 6.7, 6.9, and 6.10 illustrate h o w g e o l o g i s t s
study and interpret m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s and reconstruct the c o n d i t i o n s that
formed them.
tHow
is metamorphism linked to plate tectonics?
R e g i o n a l and h i g h - p r e s s u r e m e t a m o r p h i s m o c c u r at c o n v e r g e n t plate b o u n d aries. Refer to F i g u r e s 6.4 and 6.10.

Seafloor m e t a m o r p h i s m o c c u r s at spreading c e n t e r s .
C o n t a c t m e t a m o r p h i s m o c c u r s in a variety of plate tectonic settings w h e r e
m a g m a b o d i e s are g e n e r a t e d .
The
important thing
is not to stop questioning.

A L B E R T EINSTEIN
Figure 6 . 8 . Changes in the mineral composition of mafic rocks, metamorphosed under conditions
ranging from low grade to high grade.
Metamorphism: Modification of R o c k s by Temperature and Pressure
Figure 6.2. Temperatures, pressures, and

depths at which low- and high-grade metamorphic rocks form. The dark band shows
common rates at which temperature and
pressure increase with depth over much of
the continents.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r
Summary and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r chapter
review. Read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin your session. It provides a helpful overview that
should refresh your m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you answer the q u e s t i o n s score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h q u e s t i o n
that you missed. Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
Chapter Summary
What causes metamorphism?
M e t a m o r p h i s m is the alteration in the solid state of preexisting r o c k s , including older m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s . Increases in t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e and reactions with c h e m i c a l - b e a r i n g fluids c a u s e m e t a m o r p h i s m . M e t a m o r p h i s m typically involves a r e a r r a n g e m e n t (recrystallization) of the c h e m i c a l c o m p o n e n t s
within the parent rock. R e a r r a n g e m e n t of c o m p o n e n t s within m i n e r a l s is facilitated by (1) h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s that increase ion mobility in the solid state;
(2) higher confining p r e s s u r e that c o m p a c t s the rock; (3) directed p r e s s u r e
associated with tectonic activity that c a n c a u s e the r o c k to s h e a r ( s m e a r ) ,
which orients m i n e r a l g r a i n s and generates a foliation; and (4) c h e m i c a l reactions with m i g r a t i n g fluids m a y r e m o v e or add materials and i n d u c e the
growth of new m i n e r a l s .
What are the various kinds of metamorphism?

An overview of six types of m e t a m o r p h i s m is provided in Figure 6.3. Regional
metamorphism (associated with convergent plate boundaries), contact m e t a m o r phism (caused by the heat from an intruding body of m a g m a ) , and seafloor metamorphism (caused by seawater percolating at mid-ocean spreading centers) are
77
79
Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Classification of metamorphic rocks by texture

Complete the table by filling in the blank spaces.
Parent rock
Texture
(foliated/granoblastic)
Metamorphic rock
shale
quartz-rich
foliated
sandstone
granulite
granite
limestone
homfels
amphibolites
and
greenstones
migmatite
Study Tip: Putting it all together

Now you have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d to all three major r o c k types, i g n e o u s , sedimentary, and
metamorphic. T h i s is a g o o d t i m e to a s s e m b l e w h a t you have learned into a c o m p a r i s o n
chart. A chart is an excellent w a y to e n s u r e that y o u r e m e m b e r details about these r o c k
types. Exercise 2 will h e l p you do this.
Exercise 2: Comparing igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks

Complete the t a b l e b y filling i n the b l a n k s p a c e s . N o t e that t h e r e m a y b e m o r e t h a n o n e
reasonable a n s w e r for s o m e b l a n k s .
Major mineral
composition
Texture
calcium carbonate
nonfoliated
quartz, K and Na feldspar,
phaneritic
Rock type
(igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic)
Rock name
(granite, sandstone,
marble)
mica, and a m p h i b o l e
clay
fine-grained
clastic
(continued)
80
Major mineral
composition
Texture
Rock type
(igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic)
p y r o x e n e , c a l c i u m feldspar,
Rock name
(granite, sandstone,
marble)
basalt
and olivine
quartz
monfoliated
p e b b l e s and c o b b l e s of a
variety of r o c k t y p e s
f r a g m e n t s of seashells and
sedimentary
fine m u d
quartz, m u s c o v i t e , chlorite,
metamorphic
schist
and g a r n e t
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of t h e S t u d y G u i d e .
1 . W h e n existing r o c k s u n d e r g o m e t a m o r p h i s m , they b e c o m e c h a n g e d b y
A. the w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s at or n e a r the surface.
B . color and h a r d n e s s .
C. m e l t i n g and crystallization from the melt.
D. the application of heat and pressure.
2. M e t a m o r p h i c rocks exposed at the surface are mainly products of processes acting on rocks
A. n e a r the E a r t h ' s surface.
B. at d e p t h s r a n g i n g from the u p p e r to l o w e r crust.
C . within the m a n t l e .
D. within the center of continents.
3. G e n e r a l l y there are t w o types of m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s :
A. regional and contact.
B. foliated and g r a n o b l a s t i c .
C . c o m p a c t e d and c e m e n t e d .
D . clastic and porphyritic.
4. Foliated m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s typically o c c u r in association with regional m e t a m o r p h i s m
b e c a u s e the
A. orientation of r o c k s involved in regional m e t a m o r p h i s m favors t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
foliation.
B. r o c k is softened by heat and s q u e e z e d by c o m p r e s s i v e forces.
C. p a r e n t rock is the correct t y p e to p r o d u c e foliation.
D. p r e s s u r e is very low, w h i c h allows foliation to d e v e l o p .
5. Foliation d e v e l o p s
A. p e r p e n d i c u l a r to c o m p r e s s i v e forces.
B . parallel t o c o m p r e s s i v e forces.
C. d u e to high w a t e r content.
D. d u e to low t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s .
6. Some m e t a m o r p h i c rocks are distinguishable from igneous and sedimentary rocks b e c a u s e

their constituent grains
A.
B.
C.
D.
interlock, f o r m i n g a c o n t i n u o u s m o s a i c .
have quite different c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s .
tend to be lined up in a preferred direction.
are r o u n d e d and c e m e n t e d together.
7. Chemical c o m p o s i t i o n s of m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s are d e t e r m i n e d by the

A.
B.
C.
D.
pressures to w h i c h they h a v e b e e n subjected.

effects of b o t h t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure.
t e m p e r a t u r e to w h i c h they h a v e been raised.
c o m p o s i t i o n of the original r o c k s and fluids that percolate t h r o u g h the r o c k during
metamorphism.
8. M e t a m o r p h i s m affects
A. only older i g n e o u s rock.
B. any y o u n g e r i g n e o u s a n d m e t a m o r p h i c rock.
C. only o l d e r s e d i m e n t a r y rock.
D. any older i g n e o u s , sedimentary, or m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .
9. Which m e t a m o r p h i c s e q u e n c e correctly s h o w s increasing grain size?
A.
B.
C.
D.
schist - gneiss -> phyllite -> slate

slate -> phyllite -> schist -> gneiss
gneiss -> phyllite-"- slate -> schist
phyllite -> slate -> gneiss -> schist
10. Starting with the lowest t e m p e r a t u r e z o n e , w h i c h series of index m i n e r a l s is characteristic of increasing m e t a m o r p h i c g r a d e ?

A. chlorite, biotite, garnet, sillimanite
B. garnet, chlorite, biotite, k y a n i t e
C. biotite, garnet, chlorite, sillimanite
D. chlorite, biotite, sillimanite, kyanite, garnet
Hint: Refer to F i g u r e 6.7.
11. On the M o o n , t h e major c a u s e of m e t a m o r p h i s m is
A.
B.
C.
D.
burial.
subduction.
meteor impacts.
very cold t e m p e r a t u r e s .
12. Of the m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s listed, w h i c h o n e is formed at the h i g h e s t t e m p e r a t u r e ?

A. slate
B. schist
C. phyllite
D. gneiss
Hint: Refer to F i g u r e 6.7.
13. The difference b e t w e e n a gneiss and a granite is that the gneiss
A.
B.
C.
D.
has a different b u l k c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
shows a distinct foliation.
has a different m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
is generally less c o a r s e grained.
14. Schist and slate are distinguishable in that

A.
B.
C.
D.
schist is fine grained, w h e r e a s slate is

schist is foliated, w h e r e a s slate is not
slate is fine grained, w h e r e a s schist is
slate is foliated, w h e r e a s schist is not
c o a r s e grained.
foliated.
c o a r s e grained.
foliated.
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82
15. R e g i o n a l m e t a m o r p h i s m is found in association with

A. lava flows.
B . hot springs.
C. very low pressures.
D . s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s and c o r e s o f m o u n t a i n r a n g e s .
16. If gneiss or a n o t h e r m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k is h e a t e d to a d e g r e e that it b e g i n s to melt,
A. the quartz, K-feldspar, and N a - r i c h p l a g i o c l a s e w o u l d start to m e l t first.
B. N a - C a p l a g i o c l a s e , biotite, and m i n e r a l s (such as garnet) w o u l d m e l t first, leaving a
r e s i d u e rich in felsic m i n e r a l s .
C. all the m i n e r a l s in t h e r o c k w o u l d start to m e l t at essentially the s a m e temperature
to f o r m a m a g m a of the s a m e c o m p o s i t i o n of the g n e i s s .
D. the f e r r o m a g n e s i a n m i n e r a l s w o u l d start to m e l t first.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 4 . 5 .
17. As m a g m a intrudes into a h o s t or c o u n t r y r o c k (the p r e e x i s t i n g r o c k that is in contact
with the intrusion), it is transformed into a new r o c k . W h a t is this p r o c e s s c a l l e d ?
A . regional m e t a m o r p h i s m
C.
recrystallization
B . contact m e t a m o r p h i s m
D.
schistosity f o r m a t i o n
18. In the W e b G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercise, Gravels to Metaconglomerate, oval quartz pebbles apparently b e c o m e converted into cigar-shaped features within a metaconglomerate.
H o w would y o u explain the transformation?
A. T h e c i g a r - s h a p e d features f o r m e d as larger quartz p e b b l e s w e r e t u m b l e d in a stream
c h a n n e l before m e t a m o r p h i s m .
B . A s the oval quartz p e b b l e s b e c a m e e x p o s e d t o elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s , they softened
and stretched out in r e s p o n s e to directed p r e s s u r e . S o m e of the q u a r t z m a y have also
recrystallized along directions p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the directed p r e s s u r e .
C. Q u a r t z is an index mineral for h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i s m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h burial of
s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s . T h e r e f o r e , this c o n g l o m e r a t e m u s t have b e e n uplifted from near
the b o t t o m of the crust.
D. T h e c o n g l o m e r a t e melted and the large cigar-shaped features are large quartz crystals.
H i n t : T h e b o t t o m of F i g u r e 4.5 p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t c l u e to the t e m p e r a t u r e at which
m i n e r a l s begin to melt and solidify (crystallize).
19. You are on a s u m m e r b a c k p a c k i n g trip in A l a s k a with friends and find an o u t c r o p of mica
schist with large garnet p o r p h y r o b l a s t s , like the s a m p l e shown in F i g u r e 6.6. Your friends
quickly s c r a m b l e to collect s o m e garnet crystals. T h e y then ask y o u a b o u t the conditions
u n d e r w h i c h the beautiful garnet crystals formed. W h a t is y o u r r e s p o n s e to their query?
A. G a r n e t - b e a r i n g schists are formed from iron-rich m a g m a s that solidify underground.
B. Garnet is an index mineral for low-temperature and low-pressure m e t a m o r p h i s m associated with meteor impact craters. So we m u s t be within an ancient i m p a c t crater.
C. G a r n e t c o m m o n l y o c c u r s in m i c a schists and is an index mineral for intermediate- to
h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i s m , associated with regional m e t a m o r p h i s m . T h i s r o c k may
h a v e at o n e t i m e b e e n in the roots of a h u g e m o u n t a i n .
D. Garnets occur only in eclogites. Therefore, this rock m u s t have b e g u n at the base of
the crust and b e e n exposed by extensive uplift and erosion occurring in this region.
2 0 . W h i l e studying s o m e m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s a m p l e s for a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e r e s e a r c h project,
y o u discover e v i d e n c e that the rocks w e r e e x p o s e d t o h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i c c o n d i tions. F u r t h e r study reveals that the garnets within the r o c k s h o w a history of p r o g r a d e
followed b y r e t r o g r a d e P - T p a t h s . You c h e c k the f i e l d n o t e s from the g e o l o g i s t w h o collected the s a m p l e s and are not surprised to find m e n t i o n of ophiolites in the region
(refer to F i g u r e s 4 . 1 2 and 6.9). You c o n c l u d e from this i n f o r m a t i o n that m e t a m o r p h i c
rocks formed when
A . c o n t i n e n t s collided.
B. m a g m a intruded into a v o l c a n o associated with a s u b d u c t i o n z o n e .
C. a m e t e o r i t e hit the Earth.
D. h y d r o t h e r m a l fluids altered r o c k in an area with n u m e r o u s hot springs and g e y s e r s .
Metamorphism: Modification of R o c k s by Temperature and Pressure
Figure 6.10. P-T p a t h s a n d rock a s s e m b l a g e s a s s o c i a t e d with (a) o c e a n - c o n t i n e n t plate

convergence a n d ( b ) c o n t i n e n t - c o n t i n e n t plate c o n v e r g e n c e .
lower g e o t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s p r e s e n t i n s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s .
T h e P-T p a t h s differ i n illustrating t h e
R o c k s t r a n s p o r t e d t o similar d e p t h s
and p r e s s u r e s b e n e a t h m o u n t a i n b e l t s b e c o m e m u c h hotter a t a n e q u i v a l e n t d e p t h .
83
CHAPTER
Deformation:
Modification of Rocks by
Folding and Fracturing
Figure 7.19. Last stage in the development of a geologic province. Refer to Figure 7.15 (1)
for a more regional perspective on this type of deformation.
Before Lecture
B e f o r e y o u attend lecture, b e sure t o s p e n d s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g t h e chapter. F o r a n efficient preview, u s e the S t u d y G u i d e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s a s a f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the chapter. P r e v i e w i n g w o r k s b e s t i f y o u d o i t j u s t b e f o r e l e c t u r e . W i t h t h e m a i n
p o i n t s in m i n d , y o u will u n d e r s t a n d t h e lecture better. T h i s in t u r n will r e s u l t in a b e t t e r and
m o r e c o m p l e t e set o f n o t e s .
84
Deformation: Modification of Rocks by Folding and Fracturing
Study Tip
Rock deformation lectures are particularly visual. Slide material on folds and faults can
be confusing if you have never seen these geologic features before. So be sure to preview
the figures before attending lecture. For an overview, start with Figure 7.7. Notice h o w
three kinds of force p r o d u c e three kinds of faults if the material is brittle. W h a t h a p p e n s
if the material is ductile or plastic?
How m u c h t i m e should y o u devote to p r e v i e w i n g ? Obviously, m o r e t i m e is better than less.

But even a brief (five- or t e n - m i n u t e ) p r e v i e w session j u s t before lecture will p r o d u c e a result
that you will n o t i c e . F o r a refresher on w h y p r e v i e w i n g is so important, see Study G u i d e , Part
1, Chapter 3, H o w to Be Successful in G e o l o g y .
Chapter Preview
W h a t are g e o l o g i c m a p s a n d c r o s s s e c t i o n s ?
Brief a n s w e r : G e o l o g i c m a p s represent the r o c k formations e x p o s e d at the E a r t h ' s
surface. G e o l o g i c cross sections are d i a g r a m s s h o w i n g h o w the geologist interprets or
projects t h e g e o l o g y at t h e surface into the subsurface. Refer to F i g u r e 7.4.
How do rocks deform (break or bend)?
Brief a n s w e r : R o c k s typically break (fault) w h e n the t e m p e r a t u r e is low, burial is
shallow, and the force is applied quickly. R o c k s typically b e n d (fold) w h e n the
temperature is higher, burial is deeper, and the force is applied over a long period.
See Figures 7.7 and 7.10.
W h a t g e o l o g i c features are p r o d u c e d w h e n rocks d e f o r m ?
Brief a n s w e r : F o l d s , faults, and j o i n t s are c o m m o n geologic structures p r o d u c e d w h e n
rocks are d e f o r m e d .
W h a t do g e o l o g i c s t r u c t u r e s p r o d u c e d by rock d e f o r m a t i o n tell geologists a b o u t
the g e o l o g i c h i s t o r y of a r e g i o n ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e type(s) of folds, faults, and j o i n t s a n d their spatial orientation
provide g e o l o g i s t s w i t h clues for d e c i p h e r i n g the k i n d s of forces affecting a region
over t i m e . S e e F i g u r e 7.19.

After each lecture y o u n e e d to t h o r o u g h l y master the c o n c e p t s covered before you attend the
subsequent lecture. T h e ideas of g e o l o g y are like a stack of b o x e s . E a c h new idea rests on all
ideas (boxes) stacked b e n e a t h it.
Another l o o k at C h a p t e r 3 w o u l d serve y o u well. S i n c e there is a strong c o n n e c t i o n
between deformation a n d m e t a m o r p h i s m , review Figure 6.4 and t h e section on Plate Tectonics and M e t a m o r p h i s m in C h a p t e r 6.
Web Site Study Resource

The Online R e v i e w E x e r c i s e Tectonic Forces in Rock Deformation introduces you to the
basic t e r m i n o l o g y and c o n c e p t s covered in this chapter.
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86
PART II
CHAPTER 7
During Lecture
O n e goal for lecture is to leave class with g o o d a n s w e r s to the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s .
To a v o i d g e t t i n g lost in d e t a i l s , k e e p t h e b i g p i c t u r e in m i n d . C h a p t e r 7 tells
t h e s t o r y o f t h r e e k i n d s o f forces ( c o m p r e s s i v e , t e n s i o n a l , a n d s h e a r i n g ) a n d
h o w g e o l o g i s t s find e v i d e n c e o f t h e s e forces i n r o c k s t r u c t u r e s (folds a n d
faults).
D e f o r m a t i o n lectures are particularly visual. Slide material on folds and faults
c a n be confusing if y o u h a v e never seen t h e s e g e o l o g i c features before. K e e p
F i g u r e s 7.7 and 7.10 on h a n d during lecture.
Note-Taking Tip
F i g u r e s of faults and folding can be d r a w n very simply o n c e you u n d e r s t a n d t h e m .
B u t until y o u d o , m a k e it easy on yourself. P h o t o c o p y F i g u r e s 7.7 a n d 7.10. T h r e e - h o l e p u n c h t h e m for easy insertion into y o u r three-ring n o t e b o o k . If they are already in y o u r
n o t e b o o k before lecture, you c a n n o t be distracted d r a w i n g t h e m d u r i n g lecture.
Education
is
voyage
in
self-discovery.
LAURENCE M.
GOULD
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following c h e c k l i s t contains
b o t h g e n e r a l review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.

( I a d d e d visual material? S u g g e s t i o n : Test y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of C h a p t e r 7 by a d d i n g to
y o u r notes s i m p l e sketches of important geological features such as n o r m a l , reverse,
and thrust faults, and an anticline, syncline, a s y m m e t r i c fold, and o v e r t u r n e d fold.
A d d c a p t i o n s to help you k e e p things straight. (For e x a m p l e , " A s s o c i a t e the w o r d
' s i n k ' to the V in syncline. ' S i n k ' is w h a t a syncline r e s e m b l e s . " )
created a brief big picture o v e r v i e w of this lecture (a sketch or written o u t l i n e ) ?
S u g g e s t i o n : Figure 7.7 is a g o o d o n e - p a g e s u m m a r y of brittle rock d e f o r m a t i o n .

B e c a u s e t h e r e is a lot to learn in this chapter, be sure to set priorities for s t u d y i n g . T h e r e is
p r o b a b l y m o r e material than y o u will h a v e t i m e to study in o n e intensive study session. We
r e c o m m e n d that y o u give highest priority to activities that involve a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s .
A n s w e r i n g questions w h i l e u s i n g y o u r text and lecture notes as reference m a t e r i a l is far m o r e
efficient than r e a d i n g c h a p t e r s or glancing over n o t e s . As a l w a y s , you have three sources from

which to c h o o s e q u e s t i o n s :
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s Be sure to do E x e r c i s e 1. It
involves the key information y o u n e e d to learn in this chapter.
Text. This is a very visual chapter, so focus y o u r attention on understanding the
figures. M o s t of the really essential material for this chapter is in Figures 7.7
and 7.10, so focus on understanding these illustrations first. A n s w e r Exercises
1, 4, and 5 at the end of the chapter.
C o m p l e t e the O n l i n e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention to the hints if
you get b o g g e d d o w n . T h e G e o l o g y in Practice exercise Folds, Faults, and
Other Records of Rock Deformation provides an opportunity for you to practice
your skills identifying and interpreting classic e x a m p l e s of r o c k deformation.
T h e F l a s h C a r d s will h e l p y o u learn the new terminology. T h e O n l i n e R e v i e w
Exercises Tectonic Forces in Rock Deformation and Types of Folds will help
you organize y o u r k n o w l e d g e about the different features of folds and faults.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r preparation for quizzes and e x a m s . T h e
Chapter S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well you have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review each q u e s tion you missed. Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
Chapter Summary
What are geologic maps and cross sections?
Geologic m a p s represent the r o c k formations e x p o s e d at the E a r t h ' s surface.
The orientation of r o c k layers is m e a s u r e d as strike and dip. Refer to Figure 7.3.
Geologic cross sections are d i a g r a m s s h o w i n g h o w the geologist interprets or
projects the g e o l o g y at the surface into the subsurface. Refer to F i g u r e 7.4.
How do rocks deform (bend and break)?

All rocks m a y b e n d (ductile behavior) and b r e a k (brittle behavior) in r e s p o n s e
to the application of forces. L a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s have revealed that w h e t h e r
a rock exhibits ductile or brittle b e h a v i o r d e p e n d s on its c o m p o s i t i o n , t e m p e r ature, d e p t h of burial (confining p r e s s u r e ) , and the rate with w h i c h tectonic
processes apply force.
Ductile b e h a v i o r is m o r e likely w h e n a r o c k is s e d i m e n t a r y and e x p o s e d to
higher t e m p e r a t u r e s , d e e p e r burial, and slower application of tectonic forces.
Brittle b e h a v i o r is favored w h e n r o c k s are i g n e o u s or h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i c
and cooler, closer to the E a r t h ' s surface, and e x p o s e d to m o r e rapid application of tectonic forces.
88
What geologic features are produced when

rocks deform?
F o l d i n g is a r e s u l t of d u c t i l e d e f o r m a t i o n . F r o m t h e t y p e of fold and its orie n t a t i o n , g e o l o g i s t s c a n interpret t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e t e c t o n i c forces a n d
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r o c k layers d u r i n g d e f o r m a t i o n .
F a u l t i n g and j o i n t i n g are a result of brittle d e f o r m a t i o n . J o i n t i n g o c c u r s w h e n
a r o c k fractures but there is little m o v e m e n t a l o n g the fracture p l a n e s . F a u l t s
are fractures a l o n g w h i c h there i s a p p r e c i a b l e m o v e m e n t (offset). T h e t y p e a n d
orientation of faults and j o i n t s p r o v i d e valuable i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e tectonic
forces and the characteristics of the r o c k layers at the t i m e of d e f o r m a t i o n .
What do geologic structures produced by rock

deformation tell geologists about the history of a region?
T h e t y p e of fold or fault p r o v i d e s a m e a n s for g e o l o g i s t s to i n t e r p r e t t h e t y p e
o f t e c t o n i c force acting o n t h e r o c k d u r i n g d e f o r m a t i o n . T e c t o n i c forces c a n
b e o f three t y p e s : c o m p r e s s i v e , t e n s i o n a l , and s h e a r i n g f o r c e s . T h e s e forces
are active at all t h r e e t y p e s of plate t e c t o n i c b o u n d a r i e s : c o m p r e s s i v e forces
d o m i n a t e at c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s ( w h e r e plates collide or s u b d u c t ) ; t e n s i o n a l
forces d o m i n a t e a t divergent b o u n d a r i e s ( w h e r e plates are p u l l e d a p a r t ) ; a n d
s h e a r i n g forces d o m i n a t e at t r a n s f o r m faults ( w h e r e p l a t e s slide h o r i z o n t a l l y
past each other).
G e o l o g i c structures such as folds, faults, and j o i n t s o c c u r on all scales from
m i c r o s c o p i c to the size of a m o u n t a i n s i d e . G e o l o g i s t s d e d u c e the g e o l o g i c
history of a r e g i o n in part by u n r a v e l i n g the history of d e f o r m a t i o n , t h e r e b y
r e c o n s t r u c t i n g w h a t the r o c k units l o o k e d like before d e f o r m a t i o n .
R e g i o n a l d e f o r m a t i o n a l fabrics (the t y p e s of faults a n d folds in e v i d e n c e ) c a n
h e l p geologists d e c i p h e r the plate tectonic history of the r e g i o n . F o r e x a m p l e ,
n o r m a l faulting suggests that a r e g i o n is b e i n g stretched like a r u b b e r b a n d by
tensional forces. Refer to F i g u r e s 7 . 1 5 , 7.16, 7.17, 7.18, a n d 7.19. C o n s i d e r
h o w t h e g e o l o g i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n F i g u r e 7.16 are similar but also s o m e w h a t
different from t h o s e d e p i c t e d in F i g u r e 7.15 (1 Tensional t e c t o n i c s ) .
Figure 7.16. (b) A rift valley results from tensional forces and normal faulting.
The African Plate, on which Egypt rides, and the Arabian Plate, bearing Saudi Arabia,
are drifting apart. The tensional forces have created a rift valley, filled by the Red
Sea. The diagram shows parallel normal faults bounding the rift valley in the crust
beneath the sea.
D)eformation:
eformation
Modification of Rocks by Folding and Fracturing
89
Practice Exercises
ly G u i d e .
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Silly Putty

at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , it exhibits
Silly Putty is a p o p u l a r teaching aid with geologists b e c a u s e , at r o o m tei
e putty quickly, it will snap into
all three d e f o r m a t i o n characteristics of solids. If y o u pull on the putty qui
molded into m a n y shapes. Plus,
two pieces. H a n d l e d slowly, the putty can be easily b e n t and m o l d e d int
operties of Silly Putty with the
a ball of it t h r o w n on the floor will b o u n c e . C o m p a r e the properties ol
behavior of r o c k s by c o m p l e t i n g the table.
Behavior of
Silly Putty
Behavior of rock
Snaps into pieces
Type of
of force
force
Geologic structure produced

by this style of deformation
tensional
nal
Bends
ductile
Bounces
elastic
essional
compressional
ill ofofputty
The ball
putty is
essed
by
compressed by hthe
with thej
the floor.
impact t with
R o c k s d o e x h i b i t e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r . M o r e o n this w h e n w e s t u d y e a r t hhquakes.
q u a k e s . ((Earthquakes
E
are attributed to the elastic
properties o f r o c k s . )
Exercise 2: Geologic structures

For each of the following five illustrations of deformed rocks, nnaam
mee the
the I(A) geologic structure
(normal fault, syncline); (B) type of force (compressional, tensional,
sional, she
shearing) responsible for
producing each geologic structure; and (C) the plate tectonic boundary
)oundary (i(convergent, divergent,
or shear) with w h i c h the geologic structure is c o m m o n l y associated.
iated.
A. Geologic structure
B. Type of force
C. C o m m o n l y associated plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
D. Geologic structure
E. Type of force
F. C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
90
G . G e o l o g i c structure
H. T y p e of force
I . C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
J.
G e o l o g i c structure
K. T y p e of force
L . C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
M . G e o l o g i c structure
N . T y p e o f force
O . C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
Exercise 3: Anticline versus syncline

A. Briefly d e s c r i b e the d i a g n o s t i c differences b e t w e e n an anticline a n d a s y n c l i n e .
B. D r a w a picture of a typical outcrop pattern for a plunging syncline e x p o s e d at the surface.

Deformation: Modification of R o c k s by F o l d i n g and Fracturing
91
92
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
1. A r o c k that b r e a k s suddenly in r e s p o n s e to the application of forces is
A. elastic.
B . plastic.
C. brittle.
D . ductile.
2. T h e t w o m e a s u r e m e n t s that define the orientation of an e x p o s e d r o c k layer are
A. strike and d i p .
B. strike and slip.
C. slip and d i p .
D. fold axis a n d tilt.
3. T h e s e n s e of m o t i o n a l o n g the San A n d r e a s fault in California is
A. left lateral strike slip.
B. right lateral strike slip.
C. dip slip.
D. thrust.
4. As tensional forces are applied to a c o n t i n e n t a l region, t h e resulting g e o l o g i c feature
will be a(n)
A . anticline.
B. rift valley.
C. thrust fault.
D. dome.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 7.7 and 7.15.
5. W h e n no offset can be detected along a fracture in a rock, t h e fracture is called a
A. stress p l a n e .
B. joint.
C.
fault.
D. rupture.
6. W h i c h of the following c o n d i t i o n s p r o m o t e s ductile d e f o r m a t i o n of r o c k s ?
A. old i g n e o u s r o c k s within the interior of a c o n t i n e n t
B. r o c k s d e f o r m i n g at a relatively low t e m p e r a t u r e
C. stress building up rapidly to a very high level
D . r o c k s subjected t o high confining p r e s s u r e s and t e m p e r a t u r e s
7. W h e n d e f o r m e d , w h i c h of the following r o c k s is m o r e likely to fracture brittlely instead
of flow ductilely?
A . basalt
B.
shale
C. p u r e l i m e s t o n e
D. muddy sandstone
8. As m o l t e n r o c k cools n e a r or at the surface, it c a n d e v e l o p s h r i n k a g e fractures that
e x t e n d vertically d o w n into the r o c k body. T h e s e c r i s s c r o s s i n g , regularly p a t t e r n e d fractures create long thin r o d s of r o c k we call
A . s h r i n k a g e palisades.
B. tension faults.
C. columnar joints.
D. elongate joints.
H i n t : Refer to t h e p h o t o at the b e g i n n i n g of C h a p t e r 4.
9. W h i c h of t h e following g e o l o g i c structures is c a u s e d by tensional forces?

A. thrust fault
B. reverse fault
C. anticline
D. n o r m a l fault
10. Thrust faults c o m m o n l y form
A.
B.
C.
D.
a r o u n d h o t spots.
w h e r e c o n t i n e n t s are colliding.
w h e r e continents are pulling apart.
a l o n g a t r a n s f o r m fault.
11. T h e direction of dip is defined by a line

A. at right angles to the strike line.
B. north of t h e strike line.
C. parallel to the strike line.
D. parallel to p l u n g e .
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 7 . 3 .
12. F r o m an airplane y o u n o t i c e that t h e o u t c r o p s of tilted layers of r o c k m a k e a distinct
zigzag pattern across a plain. You r e a s o n a b l y c o n c l u d e that the
A . a r e a has b e e n cut b y n u m e r o u s n o r m a l faults.
B. layers are folded into a series of p l u n g i n g folds.
C. layers are folded into a series of n o n p l u n g i n g folds.
D. layers h a v e b e e n tilted so that all the layers dip in t h e s a m e direction.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e s 7 . 1 1 .
CHAPTER
Clocks in Rocks:
Timing the Geologic Record
Clocks in Rocks: Timing the Geologic Record
Before Lecture
Time-Management Tip:
Something is always better than nothing
How m u c h time should you devote to previewing? Obviously, the more time, the better.
However, even a brief (five or ten m i n u t e s ) preview session j u s t before lecture will
produce n o t i c e a b l e results. Arrive ten m i n u t e s early for lecture. U s e the time to preview
the c h a p t e r for the d a y ' s lecture. E v e n if you have only a m i n u t e or t w o you can read the
preview q u e s t i o n s a n d brief a n s w e r s and gain a r o u g h idea of w h a t t h e c h a p t e r is about.
The t i m e j u s t before lecture is p r e c i o u s , b e c a u s e w h a t e v e r you preview will r e m a i n in
short-term m e m o r y and h e l p y o u u n d e r s t a n d lecture.
Chapter Preview
H o w c a n t h e relative a g e s of rocks be d e t e r m i n e d from rock o u t c r o p s ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e principles of superposition, fossils, and cross-cutting relationships
provide a basis for establishing the relative age of a s e q u e n c e of rocks at an o u t c r o p .
For e x a m p l e , in Figure 8.4 and Eaith Issues 8 . 1 . the y o u n g e s t s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k layers
are on top and the oldest are at the b o t t o m . A n d in Figure 8.10, m a g m a intrusions
and a fault are y o u n g e r than the rock they cut through.
H o w c a n t h e relative a g e s of rock o u t c r o p s at t w o or m o r e l o c a t i o n s be
determined?
Brief a n s w e r : Stratigraphic and fossil succession, plus radiometric dates of rock units,
provide a basis for establishing how rock outcrops at different localities m a y be
related to e a c h other (correlate), even if they are h u n d r e d s or t h o u s a n d s of miles apart.
See Figure 8.5.
W h a t is t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e a n d h o w is it c a l i b r a t e d ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale is the internationally accepted reference
for E a r t h ' s g e o l o g i c history. U s i n g relative and absolute dating m e t h o d s , geologists
have calibrated (divided) E a r t h ' s history into four e o n s : H a d e a n , A r c h e a n , P r o t e r o z o i c ,
and P h a n e r o z o i c . B e c a u s e m o r e e v i d e n c e is available for the m o s t recent eon, the
P h r a n e r o z o i c , it h a s been possible to divide it m o r e finely into eras, p e r i o d s , and
epochs. See F i g u r e s 8.10 and 8.14.
H o w are t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e a n d g e o c h r o n o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s , like r a d i o m e t r i c
dating, a p p l i e d t o g e o l o g i c p r o b l e m s ?
Brief a n s w e r : We u n d e r s t a n d E a r t h ' s history to the degree to w h i c h we can place the
record of g e o l o g i c events in time. T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale is the accepted standard
for how g e o l o g i c t i m e is subdivided.

Review F i g u r e 1.13 (the r i b b o n of g e o l o g i c t i m e from the formation of the solar s y s t e m to
present). R e v i e w the text section T h e R o c k C y c l e : Interactions b e t w e e n Plate Tectonic and
Climate S y s t e m s in C h a p t e r 3. R e r e a d the A t o m i c Structure of A t o m s section in C h a p t e r 3
before reading about r a d i o m e t r i c dating m e t h o d s . A l s o preview F i g u r e 9.10 on p a g e 198.
95
Time is simply nature's way

from happening at once.
of keeping
everything
G R A F F I T I ON A WALL
During Lecture
H e r e ' s an overview that should h e l p y o u take g o o d notes for this lecture.
B i g P i c t u r e . T h e big picture for this lecture is t h e entire G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e !
G e o l o g i c t i m e is w o n d r o u s l y h u g e . It is so e x p a n s i v e that at first it s e e m s
i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . T h e lecturer will describe the 4.5-billion-year e x p a n s e of
g e o l o g i c t i m e and m a y u s e e x a m p l e s and exercises d e s i g n e d t o h e l p y o u g r a s p
geologic t i m e .
N e w T e r m s . It is difficult to talk about t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale w i t h o u t referring to its t i m e intervals. So you m a y feel b a r r a g e d with n e w t e r m s : e p o c h s ,
periods, eras, e o n s , H o l o c e n e , P l e i s t o c e n e , P l i o c e n e . To avoid getting lost,
k e e p a copy of Figures 8.11 and 8.14 at h a n d . Refer to F i g u r e 8.14 to c h e c k
t e r m s as needed. N o t e h o w different-sized c h u n k s of t i m e are u s e d for different e o n s : h u g e c h u n k s (eons) are u s e d for events early in E a r t h ' s history w h e n
there is less geological e v i d e n c e for w h a t h a p p e n e d , and smaller c h u n k s
(epochs) are u s e d for intervals of t i m e closer to the present. B e c a u s e m o r e evid e n c e is available for the m o s t recent eon, the P h a n e r o z o i c , it h a s b e e n divided
m o r e finely into eras, periods, and e p o c h s . See F i g u r e 8.14.
S u c c e s s i o n of G e o l o g i c E v e n t s . You will w o r k t h r o u g h h o w t h e relative ages
of r o c k s are d e t e r m i n e d . By the end of lecture y o u will be able to u s e t w o basic
principles (superposition and cross-cutting) to d e t e r m i n e t h e relative a g e of a
s e q u e n c e of r o c k s such as that s h o w n in F i g u r e 8.10.
A b s o l u t e D a t i n g . C a r b o n - 1 4 has a short half-life. It w o r k s for dating y o u n g e r
s a m p l e s of tissue attached to b o n e , charcoal, a n d w o o d b e c a u s e these m a t e r i als all c o n t a i n carbon. O t h e r isotopes ( u r a n i u m - 2 3 8 , p o t a s s i u m - 4 0 , r u b i d i u m 87) h a v e m u c h l o n g e r half-lives and are u s e d to date r o c k s that are g e o l o g i cally older. Table 8.1 shows h o w half-life is related to the effective dating
r a n g e of each m e t h o d .
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains

shown clearly h o w superposition and cross-cutting features can be used to s e q u e n c e
rock units and geologic events? Hint: A simple sketch is the best w a y to s h o w this,
s h o w n clearly the characteristics of (1) an unconformity and (2) an a n g u l a r
u n c o n f o r m i t y ? C h e c k Figures 8.6, 8.7, and 8.8 against y o u r notes. A d d sketches to
y o u r notes if you need to.

The two big tasks for this study session are to m a s t e r the skill of dating outcrops using the
principles of superposition and cross cutting and to learn the G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale.
Begin y o u r w o r k on o u t c r o p s with Study G u i d e E x e r c i s e 1. T h e other exercises and t h e
review q u e s t i o n s will allow y o u to test y o u r skills further. Refer to y o u r notes and relevant
text figures to h e l p y o u .
We are like the butterflies who flutter

for a day and think it is forever,
C A R L SAGAN
Unless you h a p p e n t o h a v e spent y o u r s u m m e r w o r k i n g o n a n a r c h e o l o g y d i g , tossing a r o u n d

terms like P a l e o c e n e , E o c e n e , a n d O l i g o c e n e , the e p o c h s of the C e n o z o i c m a y l o o k like a
steep m e m o r y c u r v e . H e r e a r e four different strategies for learning the G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale.
1. M a r k e r e v e n t s are simply interesting things that h a p p e n e d : a n i m a l s or plants that
evolved, creatures that d o m i n a t e d the Earth, large extinction events. L o o k at F i g u r e
8.11. Select s o m e m a r k e r events you already k n o w about. E x a m p l e : C a n you g u e s s o n e
of the p e r i o d s d u r i n g w h i c h d i n o s a u r s w e r e d o m i n a n t ? T h e m o v i e Jurassic Park has
m a d e this an easy q u e s t i o n to answer. W h e n did c o m p l e x life b e g i n ? F i n d s o m e other
m a r k e r events of particular interest to you. You m a y find yourself surprised at h o w early
s o m e events occurred. M a r k e r events will h e l p y o u r e m e m b e r the G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale.
Try E x e r c i s e 3.
2. Logical c h u n k s . G r o u p the information into short lists you can r e m e m b e r . S t u d y the
groupings of the t i m e scale with F i g u r e s 8.11 and 8.14 in front of you. L e a r n it as a
series of short lists. U n d e r s t a n d the following logic.
E o n s ( F i g u r e 8.14) are the b i g g e s t t i m e c h u n k s . T h e r e are only four ( H a d e a n ,
A r c h e a n , P r o t e r o z o i c , P h a n e r o z o i c ) t o r e m e m b e r . O n l y the m o s t recent ( P h a n e r o z o i c
eon) is b r o k e n d o w n further. H a d e a n sound like H a d e s (hell), not a b a d description of
the y o u n g planet w i t h its m o l t e n surface and asteroids crashing into it.
E r a s ( F i g u r e 8.11) are next biggest. You h a v e to learn eras only for the P h a n e r o z o i c
eon. T h a t ' s b e c a u s e g e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e is too limited to justify the division of earlier e o n s . T h e r e are only three P h a n e r o z o i c eras to r e m e m b e r : O l d Life, M i d d l e Life
and N e w Life. T h i n k of t h e m that w a y first; you can tack on the G r e e k stems later.
P e r i o d s ( F i g u r e 8.11) are next. All three eras of the P h a n e r o z o i c eon are further
divided into p e r i o d s . No periods for earlier e o n s : not e n o u g h e v i d e n c e .
E p o c h s are t h e smallest divisions of g e o l o g i c t i m e . You h a v e to learn e p o c h s only for
the m o s t r e c e n t era ( C e n o z o i c , or N e w Life). All e p o c h s of the C e n o z o i c e n d in
-cene (for " C e n o z o i c " ) .
Now that you u n d e r s t a n d t h e divisions, return to F i g u r e 8.14, w h i c h clarifies h o w they all fit
together and adds t h e absolute dates that have b e e n d e t e r m i n e d by r e a d i n g the r a d i o m e t r i c
rock clocks.
97
3. W o r d S t e m s . W o r d stems are clues to m e a n i n g . G r e e k and Latin s t e m s are u s e d a great

deal by scientists. You can look t h e m up in any g o o d dictionary. A few helpful stems for
t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale follow.
,
Eras
Paleo- = G r e e k : " o l d "
Meso- = G r e e k : " m i d d l e "
Ceno- = G r e e k : " n e w "
-zoic = G r e e k : "life"
E p o c h s : D o n ' t worry about the m i d d l e e p o c h s for now. Just r e m e m b e r the first and last
ones.
Paleo - G r e e k : " o l d "
Pleisto = G r e e k : " m u c h . " R e m e m b e r that there w a s much ice in t h e P l e i s t o c e n e .
Holo = Greek: "recent." R e m e m b e r that the H o l o c e n e is the present or most recent epoch.
N o t e that all e p o c h s of the C e n o z o i c e p o c h end in -cene.
4. M n e m o n i c (catch p h r a s e ) . W h e n there are long lists of unfamiliar t e r m s to learn (such
as the e p o c h s of t h e C e n o z o i c ) , m a n y learners find m a k i n g catch p h r a s e s helpful. Try
this. D o E x e r c i s e 4 , G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale m n e m o n i c .
Take the G r a d e d O n l i n e Q u i z and pay particular attention to the f e e d b a c k for answers.
F l a s h c a r d s will h e l p you learn n e w t e r m s . W o r k with Field Relationships for Relative
Time Dating and the Geologic Time Scale Review O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s .
No vestige of a beginning,
no prospect of an
end.
JAMES HUTTON
(1726-1797)
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m i n a t i o n s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
Chapter Summary
How can the relative ages of rocks be determined
from rock outcrops?
T h e principles of superposition and cross-cutting relationships p r o v i d e a basis
for establishing t h e relative age of a s e q u e n c e of r o c k s at an o u t c r o p . U s i n g
these t w o principles, geologists can order ( d e t e r m i n e w h a t h a p p e n e d first, second, third, and so on) the g e o l o g i c events represented by t h e r o c k s a n d g e o logic features in r o c k o u t c r o p s . T h e principle of original horizontality for sedi m e n t a r y layers p r o v i d e s a starting p o i n t for identifying s e q u e n c e s of
s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s affected by tectonic forces after they w e r e deposited.
How can the relative ages of rock outcrops at two

or more locations be determined?
To r e c o n s t r u c t the g e o l o g i c history of the Earth, geologists n e e d to correlate
t h e g e o l o g i c events r e p r e s e n t e d by r o c k s at o n e locality with the g e o l o g i c
events r e p r e s e n t e d by r o c k s at other localities. T h e stratigraphic and fossil succ e s s i o n and the r a d i o m e t r i c dates of rock units show h o w r o c k o u t c r o p s at different localities m a y be related to e a c h other, even if they are h u n d r e s or t h o u s a n d s of m i l e s apart.
What is the Geologic Time Scale and how is it calibrated?

T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e is the internationally a c c e p t e d reference for the
s e q u e n c e o f events r e p r e s e n t e d b y E a r t h ' s r o c k record. G e o l o g i s t s c o n s t r u c t e d
it over a b o u t the last 2 0 0 y e a r s u s i n g m a i n l y fossils, superposition, and c r o s s cutting r e l a t i o n s h i p s to establish the relative a g e s of t h o u s a n d s of r o c k outcrops a r o u n d t h e world. I n a b o u t t h e last 6 0 y e a r s , the G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e
has b e e n calibrated u s i n g r a d i o m e t r i c m e t h o d s derived from the discovery o f
radioactive i s o t o p e s by physicists in the early part of t h e twentieth century.
T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e , like t h e t h e o r y o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s o r a n y o t h e r s c i entific t h e o r y o r t o o l , i s a l w a y s o p e n t o t h e c h a l l e n g e o f n e w e v i d e n c e . B u t
i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d that t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e i s r o o t e d d e e p l y
not j u s t i n g e o l o g y b u t i n p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y , b i o l o g y , a n d p a l e o n t o l o g y . I t
is o n e of s c i e n c e ' s g r e a t f o u n d a t i o n s , a c o n c e p t t h a t if s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d
b y h a r d e v i d e n c e (it h a s n o t b e e n ) w o u l d force r e a p p r a i s a l o f m a n y d i s c i p l i n e s o f solid w o r k i n g s c i e n c e . F o r i t t o b e w r o n g , m u c h o f g e o l o g y w o u l d
have to be wrong, and substantial areas of physics would have to be wrong,
and m o s t of b i o l o g y and p a l e o n t o l o g y w o u l d have to be w r o n g . An error of this
m a g n i t u d e is very unlikely. T h u s (for m o s t practical p u r p o s e s ) the G e o l o g i c
T i m e S c a l e is a s s u m e d as fact by virtually all scientists and scientifically literate p e o p l e .
How are the Geologic Time Scale and geochronological

methods like radiometric dating applied to geologic problems?
We u n d e r s t a n d E a r t h ' s history to the d e g r e e to w h i c h we c a n p l a c e the r e c o r d
of g e o l o g i c events in t i m e . T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale is t h e a c c e p t e d standard
for h o w g e o l o g i c t i m e is subdivided. E a r t h Issues 8.1 p r o v i d e s an e x a m p l e .
Figure 8.12. The radioactive decay of

rubidium to strontium.
99

U s i n g this information, unit 1 is
a. older than unit 12 b u t y o u n g e r than unit 1 1 .
b. y o u n g e r than unit 12 but older than unit 1 1 .
c. older t h a n unit 11 but y o u n g e r than unit 12.
2 . E x p l a i n the logic y o u u s e d t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n E - l .
Exercise 2: Ordering geologic events

In the illustration, a g e o l o g i c o u t c r o p reveals three layers of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s , o n e fault, and
a single i g n e o u s d i k e intrusion.
A. O r d e r t h e s e q u e n c e of g e o l o g i c events from y o u n g e s t to oldest.
Youngest
Oldest
B. Briefly describe the geologic history represented by the rock sequence.
Exercise 3: Marker events for the Geologic Time Scale

A. Enter each event in t h e list in the a p p r o p r i a t e eon b o x in the table. W h e n there is m o r e
than one event in a b o x , order t h e m so that the oldest is at the b o t t o m and t h e y o u n g e s t
is at the top.
Significant ( M a r k e r ) E v e n t s i n E a r t h H i s t o r y
Dinosaur extinction
Earliest evidence of life
End of heavy b o m b a r d m e n t of the Earth
Evolutionary Big B a n g
Humans evolve
Major phase of continent formation completed

M o o n forms
First nucleus-bearing cells develop
O x y g e n buildup in atmosphere
B. Fill in the n a m e s of eras, periods, and epochs in the correct sequence from oldest at the bottom to youngest at the top. Refer to both Figures 1.13 and 8.11 to complete this exercise.
1 01
100
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Determining the succession of geologic events

T h e f o l l o w i n g b l o c k d i a g r a m illustrates t h e g e o l o g y o f a n a r e a i n A r g e n t i n a . A n s w e r the
q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of this area. C i r c l e t h e c o r r e c t a n s w e r when a
choice is provided.
Unit 2 contains clasts of units 3 through 10.

Unit 5 contains clasts of units 6 through 10.
Units 5 through 10 are baked along their contacts with unit 1 1 .
Units 1, 2 , 8 , % and 11 are baked along their contacts with dike 12.
A . W h i c h unit i s the y o u n g e s t r o c k i n this area?
B . W h i c h unit i s the oldest r o c k i n this area?
C. 1. Is unit 3 older than unit 12?
Yes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1
No
12
12
N o t p o s s i b l e to k n o w
2 . E x p l a i n t h e logic y o u u s e d t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n C - l .
D. 1. Is unit 1 y o u n g e r than unit 11 ?
Yes
No
N o t p o s s i b l e to k n o w
2 . E x p l a i n the logic y o u u s e d t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n D - l .
E. 1. In an attempt to further w o r k out the g e o l o g i c age relationships in this area, samples

of units 1, 1 1 , and 12 (igneous rocks) w e r e collected for r a d i o m e t r i c dating. The
resulting counts of radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s and d a u g h t e r a t o m s are listed in the table.
R o c k unit
N o . Parent atoms
No. Daughter atoms
500
500
11
250
750
12
750
250
Period
Epoch
Phanerozoic
Quaternary
Holocene
Humans
Tertiary
Pleistocene
Era
Eon
evolve
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Pennsylvanian
Ordovician
Proterozoic
First
nucleus-bearing
cells
develop
Archeon
Hadean
Earth
accretion
Nothing
begins
lives long but the
earth and the mountain.

CHARLES
BALLARD
Exercise 4: Geologic Time Scale mnemonic

Construct a m n e m o n i c device for r e m e m b e r i n g the Geologic T i m e Scale n a m e s . T h e first letter
of each word must match the first letter of the corresponding period or e p o c h in the proper order.
You m a y use your native language, but be careful not to mix up the words w h e n you do so.
E x a m p l e s (refer to Figures 8.11 and 8.14 for the G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e ) :
Periods of the G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale
Chronically
Justify
Overworked
Contradictory
Student Decks
Test
Monotonous
Physics
Professor
Questions.
E p o c h s of the C e n o z o i c :
Please
Eat
Our Mushroom
Pot Pie
Hot.
N o w invent y o u r o w n m n e m o n i c t o h e l p you r e m e m b e r the G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale.
To
C l o c k s i n R o c k s : T i m i n g the G e o l o g i c R e c o r d
Review Questions
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. T h e p r i n c i p l e of superposition h o l d s that for any unfolded series of s e d i m e n t a r y layers,
A.
B.
C.
D.
overlying strata e x t e n d over a b r o a d e r area than t h e layers b e n e a t h t h e m .

the layer at t h e t o p of the pile is a l w a y s y o u n g e r than the layers b e n e a t h it.
s e d i m e n t s generally a c c u m u l a t e in the vertical s a n d s t o n e - s h a l e - l i m e s t o n e sequence.
t h e layer at the t o p of the pile is a l w a y s older than those b e n e a t h it.
2. F r o m y o u n g e s t to oldest, t h e correct s e q u e n c e of eras dividing the P h a n e r o z o i c eon is

A. Paleozoic, Cenozoic, Mesozoic.
B. Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Paleozoic.
C. Mesozoic, Paleozoic, Cenozoic.

D. Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic.
3. T h e e p o c h s of t h e Tertiary p e r i o d p r o g r e s s from oldest to y o u n g e s t in w h i c h s e q u e n c e ?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Eocene, Oligocene,
Paleocene, Eocene,
Paleocene, Eocene,
Paleocene, Eocene,
Paleocene, Miocene, Pliocene

Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene
Miocene, Pliocene, Oligocene
Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene
4. F r o m oldest to y o u n g e s t , t h e correct order of p e r i o d s for the P a l e o z o i c era is

A . C a m b r i a n , O r d o v i c i a n , D e v o n i a n , Silurian, M i s s i s s i p p i a n , P e r m i a n , P e n n s y l v a n i a n .
B . C a m b r i a n , O r d o v i c i a n , Silurian, D e v o n i a n , M i s s i s s i p p i a n , P e n n s y l v a n i a n , P e r m i a n .
C . C a m b r i a n , Silurian, O r d o v i c i a n , P e n n s y l v a n i a n , M i s s i s s i p p i a n , D e v o n i a n , P e r m i a n .
D. n o n e of the a b o v e .
5. S a n d s t o n e and shale r o c k layers i m m e d i a t e l y b e l o w and a b o v e an a n g u l a r u n c o n f o r m i t y
imply a history of
A. erosion, deposition, and deformation erosion.
B. erosion, deformation, deposition, and erosion.
C. d e f o r m a t i o n , erosion, deposition, and deformation.
D. d e p o s i t i o n , deformation, erosion, and deposition.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 8.8.
6. F r o m t h e d i a g r a m , o n e c a n infer a g e limits for r o c k layer 3 of
A.
B.
C.
D.
b e t w e e n 3 4 a n d 6 0 million y e a r s .
b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 6 0 million y e a r s .
less t h a n 20 million y e a r s .
more than 60 million years.
7. W h a t m a k e s t h e isotopes of a given e l e m e n t different from e a c h other?

A.
B.
C.
D.
their
their
their
their
atomic numbers
n u m b e r of electrons
n u m b e r of n e u t r o n s
n u m b e r of p r o t o n s
1 03
1 04
PART II CHAPTER 8
8. Naturally occurring
that d e c a y ( s ) into other materials at known
rates can be u s e d to estimate the actual age of a rock.
A. organic m a t t e r
B. minerals
C. radioactive e l e m e n t s
D . silicon
9. T h e P h a n e r o z o i c t i m e is divided into three intervals: (1) t h e interval of old life, (2) the
interval of m i d d l e life, and (3) the interval of m o d e r n life. T h e s e intervals correspond
(from oldest to y o u n g e s t ) to the
A . A r c h e a n , M e s o z o i c , and P a l e o z o i c .
B . P a l e o z o i c , P r e c a m b r i a n , and P r o t e r o z o i c .
C. P r e c a m b r i a n , C a m b r i a n , and N e o c a m b r i a n .
D . P a l e o z o i c , M e s o z o i c , and C e n o z o i c .
10. W h i c h r a d i o m e t r i c dating m e t h o d w o u l d be m o s t effective in d e t e r m i n i n g the age of
charcoal at an archeological site?
A. rubidium-strontium
C. uranium-lead
B. radiocarbon
D. potassium-argon
H i n t : Refer to Table 8.1 in y o u r textbook.
1 1 . O n l y geologically y o u n g materials can b e dated using radioactive C - 1 4 isotopes
because
A.
B.
C.
D.
t h e decay rate varies widely over t i m e .

they h a v e a very short half-life.
within d e c a d e s all the C - 1 4 is d e c a y e d away.
they are a very rare isotope.
12. If the half-life of s o m e radioactive e l e m e n t is 1 billion years and a m a s s of r o c k originally c o n t a i n e d 1000 a t o m s of the radioactive e l e m e n t , h o w m a n y a t o m s of the radioactive e l e m e n t w o u l d be left after 3 billion years h a d p a s s e d ?
A. 5 0 0 a t o m s
B. 250 atoms
C. 125 a t o m s
D . n o radioactive a t o m s
13. S m a l l p i e c e s of charcoal from an ancient ruin yield a c a r b o n - 1 4 date of 3 0 0 0 years. This

age best represents the a p p r o x i m a t e interval of t i m e that has e l a p s e d since
A. a fire b u r n e d the w o o d .
B . h u m a n s inhabited the ruin.
C. h u m a n s cut t h e w o o d .
D . t h e w o o d died.
14. Radiometric dates have been attached to the Geologic T i m e Scale by the determination of
r a d i o m e t r i c ages of
A.
B.
C.
D.
i g n e o u s r o c k s y o u n g e r and older than s e d i m e n t a r y formations.

shales.
fossil skeletons.
metamorphosed sediments.
15. F o r t h e m o s t part, r a d i o m e t r i c dates for r o c k s r e p r e s e n t only t h e last t i m e t h e r o c k

A. crystallized from a m a g m a or
was metamorphosed.
C. b e c a m e c e m e n t e d ,
D . w a s deposited.
B . w a s eroded.
16. O n e m e t h o d that geologists u s e to study buried s e d i m e n t s and u n c o n f o r m i t i e s is
A. seismic stratigraphy.
B . r a d i o m e t r i c stratigraphy.
C. depositional stratigraphy.
D . m e t a m o r p h i c stratigraphy.
17. If a r o c k is heated by m e t a m o r p h i s m and t h e d a u g h t e r a t o m s g e n e r a t e d by the d e c a y of

the radioactive parent a t o m s m i g r a t e out of a m i n e r a l that is s u b s e q u e n t l y radiometrically dated, the date will be
the actual age.
A. y o u n g e r than
B. older than
C. the s a m e as
D. n o n e of the a b o v e
18. W h i c h s a m p l e of basalt in the d i a g r a m is likely to yield the m o s t accurate K / A r r a d i o metric date?
A. A
B. B
C.
19. A layer of c o n g l o m e r a t e c o n t a i n s c o b b l e s of an i g n e o u s rock. O n e of the c o b b l e s w a s

dated r a d i o m e t r i c a l l y at 35 million years old. F r o m this r a d i o m e t r i c age, t h e c o n g l o m erate layer can be inferred to be
A. m o r e t h a n 35 million years old.
B. less t h a n 35 million years old.
C. 35 million years old.

D. n o n e of the above.
20. In t h e illustration, w h a t is t h e m o s t r e c e n t geological event d e p i c t e d ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
eruption of the lava

faulting
intrusion of t h e pluton
d e p o s i t i o n of shales, s a n d s t o n e s and l i m e s t o n e s
21. Pieces of c h a r c o a l w e r e found in a paleosoil layer c o v e r i n g an ancient fire pit with stone
tools i n c l u d i n g a r r o w h e a d s and axes. T h e charcoal w a s radiometrically dated u s i n g carb o n - 1 4 and y i e l d e d an a g e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10,500 y e a r s . W h a t c a n y o u infer about the
age of the a r c h e o l o g i c a l site?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The
The
The
The
a r c h e o l o g i c a l site is about 10,500 years old.

a r c h e o l o g i c a l site is y o u n g e r than 10,500 y e a r s .
a r c h e o l o g i c a l site is older than 10,500 years.
a g e of the a r c h e o l o g i c a l site is u n r e s o l v e d but m a y be older than 10,500 y e a r s .
1 05
CHAPTER
Early History of the

Terrestrial Planets
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
H o w did o u r solar s y s t e m f o r m ?
Brief answer: It accreted from gas and dust about 4.5 billion years ago.
Figure 9.2 s h o w s this process beautifully. L o o k it over before lecture.
H o w did the E a r t h form a n d c h a n g e o v e r t i m e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e E a r t h ' s core, mantle, crust, o c e a n s , and a t m o s p h e r e evolved as the
interior of t h e planet heated u p , melted, a n d differentiated. S t u d y F i g u r e s 9.5 a n d 9.6.
106
Early History of the Terrestrial Planets
W h a t a r e s o m e m a j o r e v e n t s i n the h i s t o r y o f o u r s o l a r s y s t e m ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e a g e of the solar s y s t e m as d e t e r m i n e d from meteorites is about
4.56 billion y e a r s . T h e major planets f o r m e d within about 10 million years, and they
differentiated into a c o r e - m a n t l e - c r u s t layering in less than 100 million years. T h e
M o o n formed from a giant impact at about 4.5 Ga. Minerals as old as 4.4 billion years
have survived in t h e E a r t h ' s crust.
W h a t do p l a n e t a r y s u r f a c e s tell us a b o u t their a g e ?
Brief a n s w e r : S a m p l e s from the surface of the M o o n have b e e n dated by isotopic
m e t h o d s . T h e age of other planetary surfaces is estimated from the density of
impact craters.
W h a t have we l e a r n e d f r o m recent p l a n e t a r y p r o b e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Venus is the only planet other than Earth that has active tectonics
controlled by g l o b a l c o n v e c t i o n of its m a n t l e . Water is p r e s e n t on M a r s only as ice at
its poles a n d in the shallow subsurface. In the past, water m a y h a v e b e e n present as
a liquid on t h e M a r i a n surface.
After Lecture
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture, w h i l e the material is still fresh in
your mind. R e v i e w to be sure you noted all the key points and wrote t h e m d o w n in a form that
will be r e a d a b l e later. As y o u review, you can also add useful visual material and a s u m m a r y .

annotated y o u r notes for focused l e a r n i n g ? Usually the m o s t efficient w a y to do this
is by (1) u n d e r l i n i n g or highlighting key points and (2) adding h e a d i n g s or key
words in the m a r g i n (you do set up y o u r notes with a left-hand margin, d o n ' t y o u ? ) .
Hint: P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s m a k e great h e a d i n g s .
For additional ideas a b o u t a n n o t a t i n g notes go to t h e following link:
http://www.csbsju.edu/academicadvising/help/lec-note.htm
added a simple sketch or t w o to clarify the key points?
written a brief ( o n e - p a r a g r a p h ) s u m m a r y of the most important c o n c e p t you learned
from this lecture? Feel free to use y o u r notes and the figures in y o u r text as needed.
Reviewing p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s m a y h e l p .

For this chapter the m o s t efficient study a p p r o a c h is to start with the t w o practice exercises.
Practice Exercise 1 will h e l p y o u m a s t e r the basics of planet formation. T h e n turn to Practice
Exercise 2. W h e n we are learning about a new subject, we all have a tendency to focus on the
"what" (what we k n o w ) rather than the " h o w " (how do we k n o w it)the supporting evidence.
Yet to carry out an intelligent conversation and write a good response to a discussion question
in homework or on an e x a m , we need to be able to explain the evidence for our statements and
observations. T h e observation that there is water on M a r s begs for a detailed explanation. H o w
do we know there is water on M a r s ? Before the next lecture, rough out an answer to Practice
Exercise 2 (also refer to Exercise 6 at the end of Chapter 9 in the textbook). As questions arise
about how a line of evidence serves to support the presence of water on M a r s , write the questions down and ask the instructor about t h e m via e-mail or during the next class meeting.
1 07
108

C h e c k out the study aids available on the W e b site. You will find C o n c e p t Self-Checker, Web
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s , G r a d e d O n l i n e Q u i z , O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s , and Flashcards (to
help y o u learn new t e r m s ) . T h e O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e Mars Field Trip provides an opportunity for y o u to e x p l o r e s o m e of t h e g e o l o g i c features on M a r s . You will learn how the surface features present today tell planetary geologists a b o u t c o n d i t i o n s and processes that have
s h a p e d M a r s during its history.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . The Chapter
S u m m a r y and P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your chapter
review. B e g i n y o u r review with the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y . It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview that
should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
a n d q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter. After
y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h question you
m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How did our solar system form?
O u r solar system p r o b a b l y formed w h e n a c l o u d of interstellar gas and dust
c o n d e n s e d about 4.5 billion years a g o . T h e planets vary in c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i tion in a c c o r d a n c e with their distance from the Sun and with their size.
How did the Earth form and change over time?

E a r t h p r o b a b l y grew by accretion of colliding c h u n k s of matter. Very early
after t h e Earth formed, it is t h o u g h t that our M o o n f o r m e d from material
ejected from the Earth by the i m p a c t of a giant m e t e o r i t e .
H e a t g e n e r a t e d from the M o o n - f o r m i n g i m p a c t and the d e c a y of radioactive
e l e m e n t s p r o b a b l y c a u s e d m u c h of the Earth to melt. M e l t i n g a l l o w e d iron and
other d e n s e m a t t e r to sink t o w a r d the E a r t h ' s center and f o r m the c o r e . L o w e r
density (lighter) m a t t e r floated u p w a r d to form t h e m a n t l e and crust. R e l e a s e
of t r a p p e d gases (mostly water) from within t h e Earth g a v e rise to t h e oceans
and an early a t m o s p h e r e . In this way, t h e Earth w a s t r a n s f o r m e d into a differentiated planet with c h e m i c a l l y distinct z o n e s : an iron c o r e ; a m a n t l e of mostly
m a g n e s i u m , iron, silicon, and o x y g e n ; and a crust rich in o x y g e n , silicon, alum i n u m , c a l c i u m , p o t a s s i u m , s o d i u m , and radioactive e l e m e n t s .
As the E a r t h cooled, an outer relatively rigid shell called t h e lithosphere
f o r m e d on top of a hotter and softer a s t h e n o s p h e r e . Volatiles t r a p p e d within the
m a n t l e e s c a p e d t h r o u g h v o l c a n o e s t o form E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e and o c e a n s .
Life evolved and d e v e l o p e d the capability of extracting c a r b o n d i o x i d e out of
surface e n v i r o n m e n t s and releasing o x y g e n as a b y - p r o d u c t of p h o t o s y n t h e s i s .
Refer t o C h a p t e r 1 1 .
T h e interaction of major c o m p o n e n t s of Earth's system continues to this day.
What are some major events in the history of our solar system?
T h e a g e of the solar system as d e t e r m i n e d from m e t e o r i t e s is a b o u t 4 . 5 6 billion y e a r s . T h e major planets formed within about 10 million years, and they

differentiated into a c o r e - m a n t l e - c r u s t layering in less than 100 million y e a r s .
T h e M o o n f o r m e d f r o m a g i a n t i m p a c t at a b o u t 4.5 G a . M i n e r a l s as old as
4.4 billion years h a v e survived in the E a r t h ' s crust. Refer to F i g u r e 9.10.
What do planetary surfaces tell us about their age?

S a m p l e s from t h e surface of the M o o n h a v e b e e n dated by isotopic m e t h o d s .
T h e a g e of other planetary surfaces is estimated from superposition and t h e
density of i m p a c t craters.
What have we learned from recent planetary probes?

Venus is t h e only planet other t h a n E a r t h that h a s active tectonics controlled by
global c o n v e c t i o n of its m a n t l e . Refer to F i g u r e 9.15.
Water is p r e s e n t on M a r s only as ice at its poles and in the shallow subsurface.
In the past, w a t e r m a y h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t as a liquid on the M a r i a n surface.
The C a s s i n i - H u y g e n s p r o b e f o u n d that S a t u r n ' s rings e x t e n d e d h u n d r e d s of
kilometers from t h e p l a n e t and w e r e m a d e up of billions of particles of ice a n d
r o c k p a r t i c l e s r a n g i n g in size from grains of sand to h o u s e s .
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the end of the Study G u i d e .
Exercise 1: The evolving early Earth

Fill in the b l a n k s in t h e following flowchart, w h i c h characterizes a p o p u l a r h y p o t h e s i s for the
early history of the E a r t h after the S u n and planets h a d f o r m e d (refer to parallel flowchart).
1 09
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PART II
CHAPTER 9
Exercise 2: Evidence of water on Mars

D i s c u s s four lines of e v i d e n c e revealed by recent M a r i a n p r o b e s of w a t e r (past a n d present)
on Mars.
H i n t : Start by m a k i n g a list of lines of e v i d e n c e m e n t i o n e d in this chapter. P i c k the four
that y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e b e s t and t h e n discuss h o w e a c h s u p p o r t s the p r e s e n c e of water on
M a r s , b o t h in the past and at present.
Figure 9 . 2 6 . S t r a t i g r a p h y e x p o s e d a l o n g t h e flank o f E n d u r a n c e Crater, (a) T h e r e c o r d c a n b e read

i n t h e o u t c r o p a n d d e p i c t e d a s a n interpretive drawing t h a t s h o w s e a c h s t a g e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f the
e n v i r o n m e n t , ( b ) T h e vertical s u c c e s s i o n o f layers i n this o u t c r o p p r e s e r v e s a n excellent r e c o r d o f
early M a r t i a n e n v i r o n m e n t s .
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of t h e S t u d y G u i d e .
1. D u r i n g the f o r m a t i o n of o u r solar s y s t e m , w h a t w a s the p r o c e s s that c a u s e d dust and
c o n d e n s i n g m a t e r i a l t o accrete into p l a n e t e s i m a l s ?
A. n u c l e a r fusion
B. rapid spin of the p r o t o s u n
C. h e a t i n g of g a s e s
D . gravitational attraction and m a t e r i a l collisions
2. A major s o u r c e of internal h e a t in the E a r t h today is
A . o c e a n tides.
B . radioactivity.
C. solar energy.
D. volcanoes.
Test-Taking Tip
W h e n taking a test, be alert to items that give away the a n s w e r s to other i t e m s .
E x a m p l e : Q u e s t i o n 12 p r o v i d e s a hint for a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n 3.
Figure 9.6. Early volcanic activity

contributed enormous amounts
of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and
other gases to the atmosphere
and oceans, and it contributed
solid materials to the continents.
Photosynthesis by microorganisms
removed carbon dioxide and added
oxygen to the primitive atmosphere.
Hydrogen, because it is light,
escaped into space.
3. W h i c h of t h e following p r o c e s s e s is t h o u g h t to be r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e formation of the

present E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e ?
A. chemical breakdown of minerals
B . c a p t u r e o f o x y g e n and nitrogen from space
C. b o t h d e g a s s i n g of E a r t h ' s interior and liberation of o x y g e n by p h o t o s y n t h e s i s
D. d e g a s s i n g of E a r t h ' s interior
4. F r o m r a d i o m e t r i c d a t e s of lunar r o c k s a m p l e s a n d m e t e o r i t e s , h o w old is the E a r t h estimated to be?
A. 45 million y e a r s old
B. 4.5 billion y e a r s old
C. 10 billion y e a r s old
D. 100 billion y e a r s old
5. G e o c h e m i s t s have d e t e r m i n e d that differences in the distribution of c h e m i c a l e l e m e n t s
in the p r e s e n t E a r t h ' s crust, m a n t l e , and c o r e i n contrast to the distribution of c h e m i cal e l e m e n t s in the initial solar n e b u l a m a y be d u e in part to
A. i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s within the initial interstellar dust cloud.
B. early m e l t i n g and differentiation of materials of varying density.
C. c o s m i c ray b o m b a r d m e n t over 4.5 billion years.
D . nuclear synthesis w i t h i n o u r S u n .
6. W h y do g e o s c i e n t i s t s think t e c t o n i c plates m o v e across the E a r t h ' s surface?
A. Centrifugal force of E a r t h ' s rotation spins plates a c r o s s the E a r t h ' s surface.
B. Volcanic e r u p t i o n s on the seafloor p u s h tectonic plates apart.
C. Tidal forces drive plate m o t i o n .
D. M o v e m e n t of the plates is the surface manifestation of c o n v e c t i o n in the m a n t l e .
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 9 . 1 5 .
7. Within o u r solar s y s t e m , o n e big difference b e t w e e n the inner and outer p l a n e t s
besides size and position relative to the S u n i s their
A. density.
B. color.
C. rate of formation.
D. t i m e of f o r m a t i o n .
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112
8. E a r t h ' s M o o n is t h o u g h t to h a v e formed by
A. c a p t u r e of a large planetary object traveling p a s t E a r t h .
B . accretion, j u s t like the p l a n e t s .
C. material ejected from E a r t h by volcanic eruptions.
D. the i m p a c t of a M a r s - s i z e d object on E a r t h very early in E a r t h ' s history.
9. T h e nebular origin of our solar system is characterized as
A. a p r o v e n fact.
B. a theory.
C. a h y p o t h e s i s .
D. pure guesswork.
10. B o m b a r d m e n t from space m a y be disastrous for life, but it is also an essential process
in the history of a planet. W h y ?
A. B o m b a r d m e n t is h o w a planet g r o w s , and residual h e a t from i m p a c t s m a y help to
create a d y n a m i c planet.
B. T h e o c e a n s and a t m o s p h e r e f o r m e d on E a r t h as a result of b o m b a r d m e n t .
C. I m p a c t s drive plate tectonics.
D . I m p a c t s k e e p planets from getting too big.
1 1 . T h e i m p a c t i n g object that c a u s e d the extinction of the d i n o s a u r s 65 million years ago is
e s t i m a t e d to h a v e had a radius of about
A. 100 m e t e r s .
B.
1 kilometer.
C.
10 k i l o m e t e r s .
D . 100 k i l o m e t e r s .
H i n t : Refer t o Table 9.2.
12. O x y g e n r e l e a s e d into E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e by p h o t o s y n t h e s i s is vital for o u r existence
not only b e c a u s e we need it to breathe but also b e c a u s e
A. it is essential for all life on Earth.
B. it c o m b i n e s with free h y d r o g e n gas in o u r a t m o s p h e r e to p r o d u c e water.
C. life w o u l d not h a v e evolved w i t h o u t o x y g e n .
D . i t forms a n o z o n e layer i n the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e that p r o t e c t s u s from U V radiation.
It is in the stars.
The stars above
us,
govern our condition.

W .
SHAKESPEARE
King Lear,
IV,
iii
CHAPTER 10
Evolution of the Continents
Figure 10.1. Major tectonic features

of North America: Canadian Shield;
interior platform; Cordilleran orogenic
belt; Colorado Plateau; Appalachian
fold belt; coastal plain.

To u n d e r s t a n d t h e evolution of the continents, y o u will n e e d to d r a w on diverse information
from m a n y c h a p t e r s . W h i l e w o r k i n g on C h a p t e r 10, E v o l u t i o n of t h e C o n t i n e n t s , k e e p t h e following c o n c e p t s in m i n d a n d review t h e m as m u c h y o u need to.
Plate Tectonics
Divergent b o u n d a r i e s ( F i g u r e 2.6)
C o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s (Figure 2.6)
T h e forces that drive plate tectonics (Figure 1.11 and p a g e s 3 7 ^ - 0 )
Igneous Rocks
M a g m a differentiation (Figures 4.5 and 4.11 a n d p a g e s 8 5 - 8 7 in text)
F o r m a t i o n of i g n e o u s r o c k s at divergent and convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s
(Figures 4 . 1 3 and 4 . 1 4 and p a g e s 9 2 - 9 7 )
Rock Deformation
Folding and faulting (Figures 7.7)
Thrust faulting (Figure 7.17)
Folding ( F i g u r e 7.10)
A p p a l a c h i a n Fold belt ( F i g u r e 7.18)
D e v e l o p m e n t of a fictitious g e o l o g i c p r o v i n c e (Figure 7.19)
During Lecture
One goal for lecture should be good answers to the preview questions.
To avoid getting lost in t h e details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 10
e x a m i n e s t h e g e o l o g i c history of the continents.
M a k e a copy of Figure 10.18, the Wilson cycle, and have it handy during lecture.
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general review tips a n d specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.

added notes or sketches of material from p r e v i o u s chapters that y o u n e e d to
understand y o u r class n o t e s ? T h i s is a g o o d idea for this c h a p t e r b e c a u s e t h e c h a p t e r
draws heavily on p r e v i o u s material. H i n t : Refer to the S t u d y G u i d e section Vital
I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m O t h e r C h a p t e r s . T h e r e y o u will find a helpful list of material you
may w a n t t o review o r i n c l u d e a s y o u r e w o r k y o u r n o t e s .
created a brief big picture o v e r v i e w of this lecture? H i n t : T h e W i l s o n cycle p r o v i d e s a
useful o v e r v i e w of this chapter. Refer to F i g u r e 10.18 and c o n s i d e r a d d i n g sketches
and text from that figure to y o u r n o t e s .

Set priorities for studying this chapter. Try to give h i g h e s t priority to activities that involve
answering q u e s t i o n s . We r e c o m m e n d the following strategy for learning this chapter.
P r e v i e w t h e f o l l o w i n g F i g u r e s : 1 0 . 1 , 10.4, 10.8, 1 0 . 1 1 , 10.12, 10.13, 10.15,
10.16, 10.18, 10.20, a n d 10.24. You will n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d these figures to
a n s w e r the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s .
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1 14
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g the chapter. For an efficient
preview, u s e the following q u e s t i o n s .
Chapter Preview
W h a t are t h e m a j o r g e o l o g i c features of N o r t h A m e r i c a ?
Brief a n s w e r : R e v i e w F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 . Pay particular attention to the location and characteristics of the active tectonic belt in western N o r t h A m e r i c a and the relatively stable
c o n t i n e n t of the ancient o r o g e n i c belts, platform, and shield. L o o k for patterns in age
and location.
H o w do continents grow?
Brief answer: T h e silica-rich, iron-poor rocks in continents are produced mostly in
subduction zones by magmatic differentiation and metamorphism of silica-rich sediments. O n c e produced, the continental rocks are difficult to subduct and recycle into the
mantle because they are more buoyant than mantle material. Rifting and transform
faulting typically break continents into small pieces while terrane accretion and continent
collisions assemble pieces into larger continents. Refer to Figures 10.11 and 10.12.
How does orogeny modify continents?
Brief answer: M u c h as a styrofoam float resists being d r a g g e d under water, silica-rich,
low-density continental crust is m o r e buoyant than the mantle, and therefore continents
resist being subducted. Instead, continental crust is d a m a g e d (deformed) and piles up
(thickens) at convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s . Intense folding, faulting, detachment, and
thrust transport of sedimentary w e d g e s and the formation of h u g e granitic batholiths
thicken the overriding continental lithosphere. T h e s e processes can deform continental
crust h u n d r e d s of kilometers from the convergence z o n e . T h i c k e r continental crust
tends to stand higher.
W h a t is e p e i r o g e n y ?
Brief answer: Gradual d o w n w a r d and upward m o v e m e n t s of broad regions of the crust,
without significant folding or faulting, involves a set of processes called epierogeny.
Heat, loading and unloading, and flow within the m a n t l e m a y all cause epierogeny.
W h a t is the W i l s o n c y c l e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e Wilson cycle characterizes the s e q u e n c e of events in the opening
and closing of an ocean basin. A new o c e a n basin forms w h e n a c o n t i n e n t is rifted
apart. As an ocean basin closes due to s u b d u c t i o n of its o c e a n lithosphere, continents
grow. A few times in E a r t h ' s history, the c l o s u r e of a series of o c e a n b a s i n s resulted
in the formation of a supercontinent, like P a n g a e a in the early P e r m i a n . Refer to
F i g u r e s 10.17 and 10.18.
H o w h a v e t h e A r c h e a n c r a t o n s s u r v i v e d billions o f y e a r s o f p l a t e tectonics?
Brief a n s w e r : L i k e giant sailboats, c o n t i n e n t s h a v e cratonic k e e l s that stabilize the
raft of continental lithosphere against the effects of convective currents in the mantle
and plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s . It is h y p o t h e s i z e d that the keels c o n s i s t e d of somewhat
less d e n s e mantle rocks that are about the s a m e a g e as the A r c h e a n crust above
t h e m . Refer to F i g u r e 10.24.
Study Tip
W h e n confronted with n e w scientific t e r m i n o l o g y , s o m e t i m e s t h e d i c t i o n a r y c a n help.
F o r e x a m p l e , if y o u l o o k up the t e r m s epeirogeny and orogeny y o u will find t h e
following origins for the r o o t s of t h e s e t e r m s :
e p e i r o g e n y G k . epeiros, c o n t i n e n t
o r o g e n y G k . oros, m o u n t a i n
116
C o m p l e t e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s 1 a n d 2. T h e s e exercises will h e l p y o u r e m e m b e r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i d e a s i n this chapter.

W o r k in s o m e review time as you study the evolution of the continents.
Reviewing is always a g o o d idea, and it is especially important for this chapter
because it draws on so m a n y ideas in previous chapters. Refer to Vital Information f r o m O t h e r C h a p t e r s for a list of helpful figures to review.
A n s w e r the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Try answering e a c h question to c h e c k your
understanding of the lecture. C h e c k y o u r answers as y o u go, but try to a n s w e r
the questions before y o u look at the answers. Pay attention to the test-taking tips
we provide. They will help you do better on your m i d t e r m .
S o m e t i m e before your e x a m , a n s w e r all the exercises at the e n d of the c h a p ter. T h e y require short answers and w o n ' t take long if y o u k n o w the material. A
helpful animation, Accretion of a Buoyant Fragment of a Continent,
is provided
on the W e b site for Exercises 5 and 6 at the end of Chapter 10 in the textbook.
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r and O n l i n e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention t o the e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e a n s w e r s . T h e G e o l o g y i n P r a c t i c e
E x e r c i s e s a d d r e s s the q u e s t i o n " D o c o n t i n e n t s float o n t h e m a n t l e ? " F l a s h c a r d s will h e l p y o u learn the n e w t e r m i n o l o g y in this chapter.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the Practice Exercises and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify chapter review. B e g i n y o u r session with the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y . It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview
that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w w e l l y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter. After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review each
q u e s t i o n y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering t h e q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What are the major geologic features of North America?
F i g u r e 10.1 s h o w s the m a j o r tectonic features, i n c l u d i n g t h e C a n a d i a n Shield,
interior platform, C o r d i l l e r a a n d A p p a l a c h i a n m o u n t a i n belts, c o a s t a l plain,
and continental shelves.
F i g u r e 10.3 s h o w s the s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s and d o m e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a .
T h e A p p a l a c h i a n fold belt and w e s t e r n C o r d i l l e r a m o u n t a i n belt are c h a r a c t e r ized in F i g u r e s 10.4, 10.5, and 1 0 . 1 1 .
How do continents grow?

M a g m a t i c differentiation. M a g m a s g e n e r a t e d in s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s t e n d to be
m o r e silica-rich b e c a u s e (1) crastal material, like s e d i m e n t s , c a n b e i n c o r p o rated into the melt and (2) partial m e l t i n g and crystal settling differentiate the
iron-rich and silica-rich materials.
C o n t i n e n t a l accretion. Plate m o t i o n s accrete buoyant (silica rich) rocks to continental margins by (1) transfer of fragments from a subducting plate to a continental plate, (2) closure of marginal basins to add thickened island-arc crust to
the continent, (3) lateral transport via strike-slip faulting along continental margins, and (4) suturing of t w o continental margins during their collision. Refer
to Figures 1 0 . 1 1 , 10.12, 10.15, 10.17, and 10.18 for illustrations and e x a m p l e s .
What are epeirogeny and orogeny?

E p e i r o g e n e y refers to s i m p l e u p - a n d - d o w n m o v e m e n t s w i t h o u t significant
folding and faulting. P r o p o s e d m e c h a n i s m s for vertical crustal m o v e m e n t s are
(1) isostatic adjustments c a u s e d by loading or u n l o a d i n g of the crust via accum u l a t i o n and m e l t i n g of glacial ice and (2) heating or c o o l i n g the crust in association with continental rifting or a hot spot. Refer to F i g u r e 10.20.
O r o g e n y u s u a l l y r e s u l t s from p l a t e c o n v e r g e n c e a n d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
sever d e f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d i n g e x t e n s i v e faulting a n d folding. E x a m p l e s o f
orogeny include the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains of the United States.
But the most spectacular example on the planet is the A l p i n e - H i m a l a y a n
belt. R e f e r to F i g u r e s 10.15 a n d 10.16 and t h e related section of text d e s c r i b ing t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e H i m a l a y a s .
How does orogeny modify continents?

Like a styrofoam float, the buoyant continental crust resists being dragged under
water; silica-rich, low-density continental crust is m o r e buoyant than the mantle,
and therefore continents resist being subducted. Instead, continental crust is
d a m a g e d (deformed) and piles up (thickens) at convergent plate boundaries.
Intense folding, faulting, d e t a c h m e n t and thrust transport of s e d i m e n t a r y
w e d g e s and the f o r m a t i o n of h u g e granitic batholiths thicken the overriding
continental lithosphere.
T h e s e p r o c e s s e s can d e f o r m continental crust h u n d r e d s of kilometers from t h e
c o n v e r g e n c e z o n e . T h i c k e r continental crust tends to stand higher.
What is the Wilson cycle?

T h e W i l s o n cycle, n a m e d after J. T u z o Wilson, is a flowchart that s u m m a r i z e s
the general s e q u e n c e of events in the evolution of continental crust. Refer to
Figure 10.18.
T h e cycle begins w h e n the e d g e s of continental cratons are rifted during the
breakup of a supercontinent such as Pangaea. Rifting creates a new ocean basin
with passive m a r g i n s that collect ocean sediment. Eventually convergence
begins, creating an active margin, with a c c o m p a n y i n g subduction, m o u n t a i n
building, and terrain accretion.
F r o m t i m e to t i m e d u r i n g E a r t h ' s history, plate c o n v e r g e n c e p r o d u c e d supercontinents like R o d i n a and P a n g a e a .
How have the Archean cratons survived billions of

years of plate tectonics?
The formation of silica-rich continental crust goes back at least 4.0 billion years.
Cratons (older and m o r e stable parts of the continents) have keels that, like the
hull of a sailboat, extend into the m a n t l e .
117
119
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the end of the Study G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Evolution of the Continents

C o m p l e t e the sentences in the flowchart with w o r d s from the list. Refer to F i g u r e s 10.12,
10.15, and 10.18.
accretion and collision
intrusion of m a g m a s
subducts
continental plate
magmatism
thick
erosion
o c e a n basin
thrust faulting
folding
passive margin
hot
stable craton
118
PART II
C H A P T E R 10
C r a t o n i c keels a p p e a r to consist of s o m e w h a t l o w e r density rock, called peridotite, that is depleted of heavier constituents, s u c h as the e l e m e n t iron and the
m i n e r a l garnet.
Keels a p p e a r to f o r m at a b o u t the s a m e t i m e as t h e c o n t i n e n t a l crust a b o v e it.
It is h y p o t h e s i z e d that the cold, strong, m a n t l e k e e l m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 km thick
h e l p s t o p r e s e r v e t h e c r a t o n s from d i s r u p t i o n b y m a n t l e c o n v e c t i o n and plate
tectonic p r o c e s s e s .
Refer to F i g u r e 10.24 .
Nothing lives long but the earth and the mountain.

C H A R L E S BALLARD
120
PART II
C H A P T E R 10
Exercise 2: Ocean crust versus continental crust

Using information in Chapters 2, 4, and 10, complete the table.
Characteristics
Ocean crust
Continental crust
Composition
Very
R o c k type(s)
heterogeneouscan
contain
any
rock,
but granitic and gneissic with a cover of

sediments
3
Density
3.0
g/cm
Thickness
10 km
4
Topographic
Abyssal
features
Ridge
dominant.
g/cm
The
Age
are
3
2.7
ages
of continental
crust span
billion years.
floor
with axial rift
Trenches
Seamounts
Hot-spot
island
chains
Plateaus
Structure/Architecture
model for the structure
crust is
the
sediments,
ophiolite
basaltic pillow
and gabbro.
(Note:
of the
suite:
ocean
deep-sea
lavas
and dikes,
Peridotites are part of
the mantle lithosphere,
not the ocean crust.)
The
architecture
complex.
It
accreted
of the
consists
microplates,
arcs,
suture zones,
belts
representing
Sediments
Orogenic
existing
plate
cover basement
of the
crustal
boundaries
A n s w e r s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .

1. T h e m a s s i v e , interior r e g i o n s of c o n t i n e n t s that h a v e b e e n stable for extensive p e r i o d s
A. mountains.
C. cratons.
B. plateaus.
D. plains.
2. I n t e n s e d e f o r m a t i o n and accretion of continental crust o c c u r s at

A . c o n v e r g e n t plate m a r g i n s .
C . h o t spots.
B. transform margins.
D . divergent plate m a r g i n s .
3. W h i c h of t h e following features is not a s s o c i a t e d with o r o g e n y ?

A. thrust faulting
C.
B . intrusion o f p l u t o n s
D. metamorphism
passive c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n
4 . T h e oldest r o c k s found o n the continents are a b o u t

A. 2 0 0 million y e a r s old.
C.
B.
D. 4.5 billion years old.
1 billion y e a r s old.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 10.8 a n d 10.22.
4 billion years old.
and
blocks
Review Questions
of t i m e are called
cratons,
volcanic
arcs,
ophiolite suites,
processes
is
island
ancient
interior platform
Origin
continents
of preexisting
orogenic
rock
in
and
zones.
the
continent.
accretion
along
of pre-
convergent
5. W h i c h of the following p r o c e s s e s p r o d u c e s continental g r o w t h ?

A.
suturing of m a r g i n s d u r i n g a continental collision
B.
C.
transfer of crust d u r i n g subduction

transfer of crust d u r i n g strike-slip faulting
D. all t h e a b o v e
6. T h e W i l s o n cycle is
A.
B.
C.
D.
a m o d e l for the evolution of l a n d s c a p e s .

the s e q u e n c e of events for the differentiation of m a g m a s .
t h e cycle of tectonic events related to continental evolution.
a h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e m o u n t a i n b i k e developed in the A p p a l a c h i a n M o u n t a i n s .
7. M u c h of the crust within the Cordillera of western N o r t h A m e r i c a

over the last 2 0 0 million years.
A. accreted
C. subsided
B. eroded
D. subducted
8. C r a t o n i c and other continental interior r o c k s are typically
those r o c k s f o u n d at active continental m a r g i n s .
A . m u c h y o u n g e r than
B. older than
C . y o u n g e r than
D. the s a m e age as
Test-Taking Tips for Multiple-Choice Exams*

10. A n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s y o u k n o w first. M a r k i t e m s w h e r e y o u get stuck. C o m e
back to h a r d e r q u e s t i o n s later. Often you will find the a n s w e r you are looking for
e m b e d d e d in another, easier question.
9. First try to a n s w e r the i t e m w i t h o u t l o o k i n g at the o p t i o n s .
8. E l i m i n a t e t h e d i s t r a c t e r s . Treat e a c h alternative as a t r u e - f a l s e item. If " F a l s e , "
eliminate it.
7. Use c o m m o n s e n s e . R e a s o n i n g is m o r e reliable than m e m o r y .
6. U n d e r l i n e k e y w o r d s in the s t e m . T h i s practice can be helpful when you are stuck.
It m a y h e l p y o u focus on w h a t q u e s t i o n is really b e i n g asked.
5. If t w o a l t e r n a t i v e s look similar, it is likely that o n e of t h e m is correct.
4. A n s w e r all q u e s t i o n s . U n l e s s points are being subtracted for w r o n g a n s w e r s (rare),
it pays to g u e s s w h e n y o u ' r e not sure. R e s e a r c h indicates that items with the most
w o r d s in t h e m i d d l e of t h e list are often the correct items. B u t be cautious. Your
professor m a y h a v e r e a d the r e s e a r c h t o o !
3. Do not c h a n g e a n s w e r s . Particularly w h e n you are g u e s s i n g , y o u r first g u e s s is
often correct. C h a n g e a n s w e r s only w h e n you have a clear reason for d o i n g so.
2. If the first i t e m is c o r r e c t , c h e c k the last. If it says "all (or n o n e ) of the a b o v e , "
you o b v i o u s l y need to read the other alternatives carefully. M i s s i n g an "all of t h e
a b o v e " i t e m is o n e of the m o s t c o m m o n errors on a m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e e x a m . It is
easy to r e a d carelessly w h e n y o u are a n x i o u s .
1. READ THE DIRECTIONS BEFORE YOU BEGIN!
* For optimal exam performance, review and use the Final Exam Prep Worksheet (Appendix B). The idea is to
organize a systematic review of material divided into short study sessions.
12
9. Interior continental shields, or cratons, are traversed by a n c i e n t o r o g e n i c belts, but

y o u n g e r o r o g e n i c belts are different from ancient o r o g e n i c belts b e c a u s e
A.
B.
C.
D.
their s e d i m e n t s have b e e n subjected to extensive regional m e t a m o r p h i s m .

the crust is m u c h thinner and cooler.
they consist of hotter and thicker crust.
they consist almost entirely of volcanic r o c k s .
10. A large portion of the Cordilleran o r o g e n i c belt m a y consist of

A. accreted terranes.
B . hot-spot v o l c a n i s m .
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 1 .
C. ophiolite suites.
D . a n ancient craton.
11. O r o g e n y is taking p l a c e today

A. along the east coast of N o r t h A m e r i c a .
B. along the w e s t coast of South A m e r i c a .
C. in the center of N o r t h A m e r i c a .
D. in t h e C a n a d i a n Shield.
12. W h i c h of the following statements about o r o g e n i c s y s t e m s is N O T valid?
A.
B.
C.
D.
O r o g e n y is initiated by rifting as e x t e n s i o n begins to open up a n e w o c e a n basin.

O r o g e n y is initiated by subduction and the evolution of an active convergent margin.
L a r g e v o l u m e s of granite are intruded during o r o g e n i e s .
F o l d i n g and thrusting of preexisting r o c k s contributes to crustal t h i c k e n i n g in the
orogen.
13. T h e
w e r e p r o d u c e d b y c o n v e r g e n t plate boundary
p r o c e s s e s , including collision, during t h e P a l e o z o i c .

A. Cascade Mountains of northwestern North America
B. Rocky Mountains of Colorado
C. A p p a l a c h i a n M o u n t a i n s along the eastern m a r g i n of N o r t h A m e r i c a
D. C o r d i l l e r a of w e s t e r n N o r t h , Central, and South A m e r i c a
14. T h e Cordilleran o r o g e n y w a s initiated by f o r m a t i o n of
A. a continental rift in w e s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a .
B. a s u b d u c t i o n z o n e a n d convergent plate b o u n d a r y along t h e w e s t e r n e d g e of North
America.
C. an i m p a c t of a c o m e t - s i z e object in the Pacific O c e a n adjacent to t h e w e s t e r n edge
of N o r t h A m e r i c a .
D. a line of m a n t l e or h o t spots, w h i c h causes d o m i n g a n d rifting t h r o u g h o u t western
North America.
15. T h e w e s t e r n Cordillera of N o r t h A m e r i c a is t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y h i g h e r than t h e Appalachians m a i n l y b e c a u s e
A. o r o g e n y o c c u r r e d m o r e recently in t h e Cordillera, so the crust is thicker.
B. granite batholiths w e r e intruded in the Cordilleran belt.
C. the Appalachians eroded faster because they consist mostly of soft, sedimentary rocks.
D. the A p p a l a c h i a n s never r e a c h t h e elevation of the C o r d i l l e r a b e c a u s e collisions do
not g e n e r a t e h i g h m o u n t a i n s .
16. Your a s s i g n m e n t as a geologist is to m a p o u t ancient o r o g e n i c z o n e s in w h a t is n o w the
stable interior of a continent. R e c e n t epeirogenic uplift has resulted in g o o d exposures of
the ancient b a s e m e n t r o c k s . W h i c h o f t h e following features w o u l d N O T b e evidence
of an ancient o r o g e n i c z o n e ?
A . intensely d e f o r m e d s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s
B. lava flows and thick layers of volcanic tuff
C. m a n y granitic p l u t o n s that are all about t h e s a m e r a d i o m e t r i c age
D. w i d e s p r e a d and relatively thick a c c u m u l a t i o n s of coral-rich l i m e s t o n e , sandstones,
and shales
17. W h y are the Sierra N e v a d a M o u n t a i n s so m u c h higher t h a n the continental surfaces

w e s t and east of t h e m ?
A. T h e crust is proably thicker and/or hotter beneath the Sierra N e v a d a .
B. T h e crust b e n e a t h the Sierra N e v a d a is very thin and hot.
C. T h e crust beneath the Sierra Nevada is probably denser than that to the east and west.
D. T h e Sierra N e v a d a s are m o s t p r o b a b l y part of an ancient s p r e a d i n g center that is no
longer active.
18. M o u n t a i n s are b o t h the source and p r o d u c t of s e d i m e n t s b e c a u s e
A. m o s t s e d i m e n t s are s u b d u c t e d with the o c e a n lithosphere and thereby contribute to
subduction zone magmatism.
B. m o s t s e d i m e n t s shed off m o u n t a i n s end up on the m a r g i n of a c o n t i n e n t and are
eventually accreted to the edge of continental crust by orogenic processes associated
with convergent plate m a r g i n s .
C. the melting of sediments results in mafic igneous rocks characteristic of continental crust.
D. m o s t s e d i m e n t s e n d up on the d e e p o c e a n floor w h e r e they sit for billions of y e a r s .
19. In the context of plate tectonics, a reasonable sequence of events for an orogenic "cycle" is
A. hot spots -> s u b d u c t i o n -> rifting - orogeny.
B. rifting - passive margin -> s u b d u c t i o n -> o r o g e n y - uplift.
C. rifting -> collision -> s u b s i d e n c e -> erosion -+ uplift.
D. transform faulting -> uplift -* v o l c a n i s m - orogeny.
2 0 . T h e E a r t h ' s oldest continental crust can be found
A. in active o r o g e n i c z o n e s .
B. on the o c e a n floor.
C. in continental shield r e g i o n s .
D. along the m a r g i n s of the c o n t i n e n t s .
2 1 . T h e g r o w t h o f continents occurs a t
A. hot spots.
B. s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s .
C. rift z o n e s .
D. transform faults.
22. W h e r e on Earth could you go today to find an orogenic system with strong similarities
to the Cordillera of N o r t h A m e r i c a ? T h e study of this active orogenic s y s t e m w o u l d provide you with a better understanding of the geologic history of western N o r t h A m e r i c a .
A. Andes
B. H i m a l a y a s
C. Appalachians
D. E a s t Africa Rift
2 3 . E p e i r o g e n y is associated with
A. s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s w h e r e c o n v e r g e n c e causes rapid vertical uplift.
B. stable interior platforms within continents w h e r e isostatic adjustments result in gradual uplift or s u b s i d e n c e .
C. continental collisions w h e r e the highest m o u n t a i n s form.
D. t h e W i l s o n cycle for the evolution of continents.
24. Continental cratons s e e m relatively i m m u n e from deformation by plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s
because
A. of d e e p , strong, m a n t l e keels b e n e a t h t h e m .
B. they are always located at the center of the continent far from active plate b o u n d a r i e s .
C. t h e continental crust is very strong.
D. they are covered with s e d i m e n t s .
25. A modern example of how crust can be transported laterally along a continental margin is the
A. a m a l g a m a t i o n of the s o u t h w e s t e r n
Pacific islands.
B. mid-Atlantic Ridge.
C. A p p a l a c h i a n orogeny.
D. San A n d r e a s strike-slip fault.
1 23
126

After e a c h lecture, y o u need to t h o r o u g h l y m a s t e r the c o n c e p t s c o v e r e d before y o u attend the
s u b s e q u e n t lecture. T h e ideas of g e o l o g y are like a stack of b o x e s . E a c h n e w idea rests on all
ideas (boxes) stacked b e n e a t h it.
T h e r e is a g o o d d e a l of g e o l o g i c a l t i m e m a t e r i a l in this c h a p t e r in t h e s e c t i o n Geologic
E v e n t s i n E a r t h ' s H i s t o r y . R e v i e w F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 3 i n t h e c o n t e x t o f F i g u r e s 1 1 . 1 3 , 8 . 1 1 , and
8.14; refer t o F i g u r e s 8.11 a n d 8.14 i n C h a p t e r 8 , C l o c k s i n R o c k s : T i m i n g t h e Geologic
R e c o r d . T h e s e t h r e e figures s u p p l e m e n t e a c h other. I t i s vital t h a t y o u u n d e r s t a n d the
m e t h o d o f r a d i o m e t r i c d a t i n g t h a t h a s s u p p l i e d t h e d a t e s for t h e r i b b o n o f t i m e (review
T a b l e 8.1 a n d t h e s e c t i o n I s o t o p i c D a t i n g M e t h o d s ( p a g e s 1 8 2 - 1 8 3 ) . F o r a t m o s p h e r i c dati n g a n d c l i m a t e w o r k , different m e t h o d s a r e r e q u i r e d . R e v i e w C l o c k i n g t h e C l i m a t e Syst e m o n p a g e 186. R e v i e w p a g e s 1 4 - 1 6 i n C h a p t e r 1 . R e v i e w C h a p t e r 9 , E a r l y H i s t o r y o f
t h e T e r r e s t r i a l P l a n e t s . P a g e s 1 9 4 - 1 9 5 a n d 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 are p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t .
During Lecture
T h i s lecture is likely to c o v e r a series of p r o c e s s e s . Listen carefully and try to get the key
inputs and outputs of e a c h p r o c e s s into y o u r n o t e s .
Note-Taking Tip
C o p y F i g u r e 11.13 and paste it at the b e g i n n i n g of y o u r C h a p t e r 11 lecture notes. Refer
to it to h e l p y o u stay oriented in geological time. D o n ' t get b o g g e d d o w n w i t h specific
dates of events. W h e n we are talking about a billion years, a difference of a few million
years isn't worth worrying about. Instead, think in t e r m of landmarks, and try to place them
in the correct order. For e x a m p l e , single-celled life occurred a l o n g t i m e before multicelled life. O x y g e n h a d to be present before multicelled life occurred. All extinctions are
in the last 5 0 0 million years.
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s is right after lecture. T h e following c h e c k l i s t contains
b o t h general review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
a d d e d visual material? S u g g e s t i o n : Test y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of C h a p t e r 11 by a d d i n g

simplified sketches of the i m p o r t a n t m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s and E a r t h / o r g a n i s m c y c l e s in
this chapter. H i n t : S e e F i g u r e s 11.5 and 1 1 . 1 1 .
labeled t h e inputs and o u t p u t s of specific p r o c e s s e s that w e r e d i s c u s s e d ? If not, y o u

n e e d to l o o k t h e m up in the text.
indicated events in g e o l o g i c a l t i m e in an o r d e r y o u can m a k e s e n s e of? R e f e r to

F i g u r e 11.13.
created a brief b i g picture o v e r v i e w of the lecture (using a s k e t c h or written o u t l i n e ) ?
Geobiology: Life Interacts with the Earth
Carefully r e w o r k y o u r notes for this lecture with great attention to p r o c e s s e s . For e a c h p r o c e s s

discussed, it m a y be helpful to m a k e a simple flowchart specifying the input, the process, and
the output.
Process
Input
Output
For cycles such as the sulfur cycle (Figure 11.11), it m a y help you to reduce the figure to a very
simple version that will help you r e m e m b e r the essential b i o s p h e r e part of the cycle elements.
D e c o m p o s e r m i c r o o r g a n i s m s digest d e c a y i n g animal/plant matter - h y d r o g e n
sulfide + iron in t h e soil iron pyrite
Be sure to add the figure n u m b e r (in this c a s e F i g u r e 11.11) so that you can review t h e p r o c e s s
in its entirety.

Because there is a lot to learn in this chapter, be sure to set priorities for studying. Q u i t e likely,
there is m o r e material than you will have t i m e to study in o n e intensive study session. We recommend that y o u give h i g h e s t priority to activities that involve a n s w e r i n g questions. A n s w e r ing questions w h i l e u s i n g y o u r text and lecture notes as reference material is far m o r e efficient than r e a d i n g c h a p t e r s or glancing over notes. As always, you h a v e three sources from
which to c h o o s e q u e s t i o n s .
Text. W o r k out p r e l i m i n a r y a n s w e r s to E x e r c i s e s 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10 at the
end of the t e x t b o o k chapter. R e a d each question. T h e n try to a n s w e r it. Finally,
check y o u r a n s w e r against the text. C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s with y o u r fellow students, t e a c h i n g assistant, and instructor.
Practice E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . L e a r n by testing yourself on the
processes c o v e r e d in this chapter. C o m p l e t e the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s , referring
freely to the text and r e c o m m e n d e d figures. Practice Exercise 1 will be a great
help in sorting out s o m e of the most important w a y s the biosphere interacts with
important geological processes. Start there.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during preparation for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e C h a p ter S u m m a r y and P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. Read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w
Next w o r k o n t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e t h e exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d the chapter.
After you a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t of all, review e a c h
question that y o u m i s s e d . Identify a n d correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r
answering the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What is the biosphere?
T h e E a r t h ' s b i o s p h e r e i s t h e p a r t o f o u r p l a n e t t h a t c o n t a i n s all its l i v i n g
o r g a n i s m s . I t i n c l u d e s all t h e p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s a s w e l l a s w h o l e k i n g d o m s o f n e a r l y i n v i s i b l e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s s u c h a s fungi a n d b a c t e r i a t h a t
1 27
128
are astronomically m o r e n u m e r o u s than h u m a n s or the creatures that m a k e

u p o u r v i s i b l e w o r l d . S o m e m i c r o o r g a n i s m live i n t h e m o s t e x t r e m e e n v i ronments on Earth.
B e c a u s e the b i o s p h e r e intersects with the lithosphere, h y d r o s p h e r e , and a t m o s p h e r e , it c a n influence or even control b a s i c g e o l o g i c and climatic p r o c e s s e s .
G e o b i o l o g y is the study of the interaction of t h e s e b i o s p h e r e o r g a n i s m s with
the Earth.
What is metabolism and how does metabolism

affect the Earth?
O r g a n i s m s c a n be subdivided into p r o d u c e r s (autotrophs) or c o n s u m e r s (heterotrophs) a c c o r d i n g to the w a y they obtain their food. A u t o t r o p h s m a k e their
o w n food u s i n g s o u r c e s of energy and nutrients. H e t e r o t r o p h s feed directly or
indirectly on a u t o t r o p h s .
M e t a b o l i s m is t h e p r o c e s s that all o r g a n i s m s u s e to c o n v e r t i n p u t s ( e n e r g y
a n d n u t r i e n t s ) t o o u t p u t s (stored e n e r g y a s c a r b o h y d r a t e s o r fat a n d w a s t e
products). For example, a photosynthetic plant uses sunlight, carbon dioxide,
a n d w a t e r to p r o d u c e c a r b o h y d r a t e s a n d o x y g e n gas as a b y p r o d u c t . R e f e r to
T a b l e 11.2.
As their m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t e ,
organisms continuously exchange
e n e r g y and m a t t e r w i t h their e n v i r o n m e n t . B i o c h e m i c a l cycles are p a t h w a y s

that d e s c r i b e this e x c h a n g e or flow. I m p o r t a n t b i o c h e m i c a l c y c l e s i n c l u d e the
c a r b o n c y c l e (Figure 11.4 a n d Table 11.2), the p h o s p h a t e cycle (Figure 11.5),
and the sulfur c y c l e (Figure 11.11).
How important are microbes?

Single-celled o r g a n i s m s i n c l u d i n g bacteria, s o m e fungi a n d algae, a n d p r o t o z o a are k n o w n as m i c r o b e s . W h e r e there is water, there are m i c r o b e s .
M i c r o b e s are the m o s t a b u n d a n t and diverse g r o u p of o r g a n i s m s on E a r t h .
M i c r o b e s w e r e the first o r g a n i s m s to inhabit the Earth, and all other o r g a n i s m s
are d e s c e n d e d from t h e m . Refer to F i g u r e 11.6.
E x t r e m o p h i l e s are m i c r o b e s that live in e n v i r o n m e n t s that w o u l d kill other
o r g a n i s m s . Refer to Table 11.3.
M i c r o b e s play a critical r o l e in m a n y g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s , s u c h as m i n e r a l
precipitation, m i n e r a l dissolution, and the flow of i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s t h r o u g h
E a r t h ' s crust.
How did life originate, and what signs do we

have of life on the young Earth?
G e o s c i e n t i s t s c o n t i n u e to e x p l o r e the m e c h a n i s m s for h o w life o r i g i n a t e d on
the primitive E a r t h . L a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s , like t h o s e b y Stanley M i l l e r (Figu r e 11.14), and studies of meteorites (Figure 11.24), the fossil r e c o r d (Figure
11.15), r o c k chemistry, and m o d e r n o r g a n i s m s (Figure 11.16) are all filling in
p i e c e s of this p u z z l e .
T h e fossil r e c o r d tells us that m i c r o b e s originated first on E a r t h and that they
evolved into all multicelled o r g a n i s m s . We c a n find fossil m i c r o b e s in r o c k s
3.5 billion y e a r s old.
Where did the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere originate?

E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e is t h o u g h t to have b e e n o x y g e n a t e d by c y a n o b a c t e r i a that
gave off o x y g e n gas as a b y p r o d u c t of p h o t o s y n t h e s i s . T h e fossils and the
o c c u r r e n c e s of b a n d e d iron formations and red b e d s in the g e o l o g i c r e c o r d
p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e for i m p o r t a n t m i l e p o s t s in the history of interactions b e t w e e n
life and e n v i r o n m e n t .
An o x y g e n - r i c h surface e n v i r o n m e n t set the stage for the evolution of E u k a r y a ,
including all multicellular a n i m a l s .
What is the difference between radiation and extinction?

A radiation is the relatively rapid d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w types of o r g a n i s m s that
derive f r o m a c o m m o n ancestor. In contrast, extinction o c c u r s w h e n g r o u p s of
o r g a n i s m s are no l o n g e r able to a d a p t to c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s
or c o m p e t e with a superior g r o u p of o r g a n i s m s . Refer to F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 1 .
T h e C a m b r i a n e x p l o s i o n , w h i c h m a r k s the origination of all major a n i m a l
groups, is an e x a m p l e of a radiation. Refer to F i g u r e 11.19.
W h e n m a n y g r o u p s of o r g a n i s m s b e c o m e extinct at the s a m e time it is called
a m a s s extinction. Refer to F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 1 , E a r t h Issues 1 1 . 1 , F i g u r e 9.18, and
Table 9.2.
How do we search for life on other planets?

The p r e s e n c e of liquid w a t e r over l o n g p e r i o d s of t i m e ( h u n d r e d s of millions
of years) is c o n s i d e r e d to be a p r e r e q u i s i t e for life.
On a p l a n e t t o o c l o s e to its star w a t e r will boil and b e c o m e a gas, w h i c h can
be lost to s p a c e over t i m e . On a planet too far from its star, w a t e r will freeze
into a solid. F o r every star, there is a h a b i t a b l e z o n e , m a r k e d by the distance
away from the star to the p o i n t w h e r e w a t e r is stable as a liquid. If a planet is
within the h a b i t a b l e z o n e , there is a c h a n c e that life m i g h t have originated
there. Refer to F i g u r e 11.25.
Figure 11.25. S t a r s have h a b i t a b l e z o n e s where life on an o r b i t i n g p l a n e t c o u l d exist if t h e temperature were n o t

too warm (too c l o s e t o t h e star) o r t o o c o l d ( t o o far away from t h e s t a r ) . T h e width o f t h e z o n e i s t h e d i s t a n c e
over which water w o n ' t boil away or freeze.
1 29
130
Extinction is a difficult concept to grasp. It is an eternal concept. It's not

at all like the killing of individual life forms that can be renewed through
normal processes of reproduction. Nor is it simply diminishing numbers.
Nor is it damage that can somehow be remedied or for which some
substitute can be found. Nor is it something that simply affects our own
generation. Nor is it something that could be remedied by some supernatural power. It is rather an absolute and final act for which there is no
remedy on earth or in heaven. A species once extinct is gone forever.
T H O M A S BERRY
Practice Exercise
T h e a n s w e r and an e x p l a n a t i o n are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Exercise: How organisms and the Earth interact

Life p r o c e s s e s influence w e a t h e r i n g , precipitate m i n e r a l s , a n d m o d i f y the composition of the
a t m o s p h e r e a n d o c e a n s . R e v i e w s o m e w a y s life p r o c e s s e s affect t h e E a r t h by filling in
the table.
Life's impact
on Earth
Life process(es)
generating the impact
Description of the
interaction and impact
0 i n Earth's
2
atmosphere
Greenhouse
Extraction
effect: C o o l i n g
oceans
of carbon from
and
atmosphere
by
shell-producing
and
photo synthetic
organisms
Greenhouse
Respiration
and
effect:
of anaerobic
microbes
Warming
Table
in
metabolism
Refer
to
11.2 and page 246
textbook.
Mineral
precipitation
Mineral
dissolution
"Sulfate-eating
"
microbes
Hydrogen,
methane
hydrogen
gases
may
sulfide,
and
be produced.
Review Questions
1. A u t o t r o p h s are o r g a n i s m s that
A.
B.
C.
D.
m a k e their o w n food.
get food by feeding directly or indirectly on p r o d u c e r s .
are multicellular.
live only in a n a e r o b i c (oxygen-free) e n v i r o n m e n t s .
2. Living cells are c o m p o s e d primarily of t h e e l e m e n t s

A. c a r b o n , h y d r o g e n , o x y g e n , and nitrogen.
B. silicon, o x y g e n , h y d r o g e n , and iron.
C. carbon, p h o s p h o r o u s , iron, and c a l c i u m .
D. silicon, nitrogen, iron, and m a g n e s i u m .
3. Photosynthesis is a m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s that
A.
B.
C.
D.
releases energy, C 0 , and water.

stores energy, releases water, and precipitates c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e .
stores e n e r g y as c a r b o h y d r a t e s (sugars) and uses C 0 , and water.
b u r n s o x y g e n t o create e n e r g y and releases water and C 0 .
2
4. E u k a r y o t i c cells are
A. very s i m p l e cells w i t h o u t nuclei.
B. cells with a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d internal structure, including a nucleus.
C. the earliest life form to a p p e a r in the fossil record.
D. p h o t o s y n t h e s i z i n g .
5. The earliest r e c o r d of e u k a r y o t e s o c c u r r e d during the
A. P h a n e r o z o i c .
B. P r o t e r o z o i c .
C. Late A r c h e a n .
D. Early A r c h e a n .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 8.14 and 11.6, and the section C h e m o f o s s i l s and E u k a r y o t e s in
Chapter 1 1 .
6. Deposition of s e d i m e n t a r y b a n d e d iron formations correlates with the a p p e a r a n c e of
A. iron-rich basaltic lavas.
B. animal life.
C. coal s w a m p s .
D. a b u n d a n t stromatolites.
H i n t : Refer to t h e t e x t b o o k sections M i c r o b i a l M a t s , Stromatolites, and Origin of
Earth's O x y g e n a t e d A t m o s p h e r e .
7. Banded iron f o r m a t i o n s ( B I F s ) are
A.
B.
C.
D.
a b u n d a n t in the P h a n e r o z o i c .
precipitated by reacting with nitrogen.
rare in the A r c h e a n .
precipitated by reacting with o x y g e n .
8. Stromatolites r e p r e s e n t s e d i m e n t a r y structures constructed by

A. single-celled algae (cyanobacteria).
B . h o r n corals.
C. snails.
D. b u r r o w i n g trilobites.
9. E x t r e m o p h i l e s are m i c r o b e s that
A.
B.
C.
D.
have a strong preference for o x y g e n - r i c h e n v i r o n m e n t s .

are exclusively E u k a r y o t e s .
precipitate a b u n d a n t c a l c i u m carbonate.
live in e n v i r o n m e n t s with h i g h salinity, acidity, t e m p e r a t u r e , or no o x y g e n .
131
132
10. L i v i n g t h i n g s are able to g r o w and

A. eat food.
B. reproduce.
C. calculate.
D . precipitate.
1 1 . W h a t d o t h e M u r c h i s o n m e t e o r i t e and the M i l l e r e x p e r i m e n t h a v e i n c o m m o n ?
A. B o t h w e r e e x p o s e d to nitrogen gas, a b y p r o d u c t of life p r o c e s s e s .
B . B o t h c o n t a i n e d a b u n d a n t a m o u n t s o f water.
C. B o t h p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e for an a t m o s p h e r e rich in o x y g e n on the primitive Earth.
D. A m i n o acids, the f u n d a m e n t a l building b l o c k s of p r o t e i n s , are a b u n d a n t in the meteorite and the p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d by the Miller e x p e r i m e n t .
Figure 11.14. This simple experiment design was used to convert ammonia ( N H ) , hydrogen ( H ) , water vapor ( H 0 ) , and small carbon-bearing
molecules such as methane ( C H ) into amino acidsa key component of
living organisms.
3
12. T h e C a m b r i a n E x p l o s i o n is
A. the greatest m a s s extinction event in Earth history.
B. a surprising r a p i d radiation of every m a j o r a n i m a l g r o u p .
C. the first a p p e a r a n c e of life on Earth.
D. t h e rapid radiation of stromatolites a c r o s s t h e E a r t h ' s surface.
13. As a planetary scientist studying potentially h a b i t a b l e planets outside o u r solar system,
y o u w o u l d get very excited about finding e v i d e n c e for
A. a p l a n e t a r y a t m o s p h e r e rich in nitrogen and a m m o n i a g a s e s .
B. a b u n d a n t o x y g e n gas and traces of m e t h a n e in a p l a n e t ' s a t m o s p h e r e p l u s w a t e r ice
on the surface.
C. an a t m o s p h e r e rich in h y d r o g e n and h y d r o g e n sulfide g a s .
D. a surface c o v e r e d with lava flows and few i m p a c t craters.
CHAPTER 12
Volcanoes
136

R e a d y to w o r k ? Set priorities for studying this chapter.
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . B e sure t o d o E x e r c i s e 1 . I t
involves t h e k e y information y o u n e e d to learn in this chapter.
Text. P a y particular attention to F i g u r e s 1 2 . 1 , 1 2 . 1 1 , 12.12, 12.20, 1 2 . 2 3 , a n d
12.25. T h e s e figures p r e s e n t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t ideas i n C h a p t e r 12. A n s w e r
E x e r c i s e s 1 and 5 and T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n 1 at the e n d of the chapter.
D o the O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s W h e r e D o V o l c a n o e s O c c u r ? and F i n d i n g
the Volcanic H o t Spots.
Motivation Tip
C h a p t e r 12 c o n t a i n s material that should be of c o n s i d e r a b l e interest to a n y o n e living or
p l a n n i n g to live in the n o r t h w e s t e r n U n i t e d States. T h e r e is i n f o r m a t i o n in this chapter
that c o u l d literally save y o u r life. A l s o illustrated are l a n d f o r m s in H a w a i i a n d s o m e of
o u r w e s t e r n national p a r k s , for e x a m p l e , M o u n t Rainier, C r a t e r L a k e , and Yellowstone.
Q u i t e possibly y o u have visited o n e of t h e s e p l a c e s and w o n d e r e d at its b e a u t y .
Give yourself permission to enjoy this particularly interesting chapter! B e g i n your
study session by j u s t browsing the artwork in Chapter 12 for ideas that interest you. Start
reading wherever your interest takes you. Give yourself fifteen or twenty m i n u t e s just to
enjoy the interesting illustrations before y o u p l u n g e into studying text and d o i n g exercises
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
chapter review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t w o r k o n t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w w e l l y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t of all, review each
q u e s t i o n that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that c a u s e d y o u to answer
the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
Why does volcanism occur?
V o l c a n i s m o c c u r s w h e n m o l t e n r o c k inside the Earth rises b u o y a n t l y to the
surface b e c a u s e it is less d e n s e than the s u r r o u n d i n g rock. V o l c a n i s m is a surface e x p r e s s i o n o f m a g m a g e n e r a t i o n w i t h i n the E a r t h .
Volcanoes
What are the three major lava types and how do

they relate to eruptive style and volcanic landforms?
Silicate lavas can be classified in three major t y p e s f e l s i c (rhyolite), interm e d i a t e (andesite), and mafic ( b a s a l t ) b a s e d on d e c r e a s i n g a m o u n t of silica
and increasing a m o u n t s of iron and m a g n e s i u m .
Eruption styles, volcanic deposits, landforms, and potential hazards are strongly
linked to t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and gas content of the lava (refer to Exercise 1). B e c a u s e basaltic lavas are relatively fluid and dry, they typically
exhibit less explosive eruptions and erupt as lava flows. R h y o l i t e lavas are very
viscous and usually w e t . T h e r e f o r e , they typically erupt very explosively as
pyroclastic flows or form d o m e s .
How is volcanism related to plate tectonics?

T h e r e is a strong c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n major types of v o l c a n i s m and crustal
plate b o u n d a r i e s . Basaltic lavas o c c u r at divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s and hot
spots. T h e o c e a n crust is created by basaltic v o l c a n i s m at the o c e a n ridge system. Basalt is t h o u g h t to be g e n e r a t e d by partial melting d u e to d e c o m p r e s s i o n
of the ultramafic u p p e r m a n t l e . Basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic lavas erupt at
convergent z o n e s d u e to fluid-induced m e l t i n g . T h e lavas g e n e r a t e d along any
particular c o n v e r g e n t z o n e d e p e n d in large part on w h a t t y p e of r o c k s are b e i n g
subducted and melted within the overriding crust.
How does volcanism interact with human affairs?

There are b o t h benefits and h a z a r d s associated with v o l c a n i s m . G e o t h e r m a l
heat is g r o w i n g in i m p o r t a n c e for electric energy generation. E a r t h ' s o c e a n s
and a t m o s p h e r e are t h o u g h t to have c o n d e n s e d from volcanic d e g a s s i n g of our
planet's interior. Volcanic dust and g a s e s can i m p a c t global c l i m a t e . Volcanic
eruptions and associated m u d f l o w s can have disastrous impacts on a region
and its p e o p l e . I m p o r t a n t ore-forming p r o c e s s e s occur w h e n hot water circulates t h r o u g h the m a g m a c h a m b e r a n d s u r r o u n d i n g rock.
Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Lava typestheir properties, eruption styles, deposits,

landforms, association with plate tectonics, and hazards
Fill in the b l a n k s w i t h t h e typical characteristics of e a c h lava t y p e . K e e p in m i n d that different lavas exhibit a r a n g e of p r o p e r t i e s a n d b e h a v i o r s . G i v e t h e best a n s w e r that generally
characterizes e a c h lava. S o m e a n s w e r s h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d a s g u i d e l i n e s . Bullets m a r k
spaces to fill in.
This table will p r o v i d e y o u with a very useful study g u i d e for m u c h of C h a p t e r 12. It
makes an ideal s u m m a r y of the c h a p t e r that should be very useful w h e n y o u return to this
chapter in preparation for y o u r m i d t e r m e x a m .
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Lava types
Characteristics
Basalt (mafic)
Andesite (intermediate)
Rhyolite (felsic)
intermediate
intermediate
high (~ 70%)
Properties
silica c o n t e n t
gas c o n t e n t
low,
viscosity
low-fluid
t y p i c a l flow velocity
0.7 to
typical flow l e n g t h
10 to 160 km
8 km
less than 1.5 km
typical flow t h i c k n e s s
5 to 15 m
30 m
200 m
eruption temperature
up to a few percent
E r u p t i o n styles
typically
Deposits
flood
magma
30 m/minute
not
basalt
very
explosive
variable
high (up to*> 15%)
intermediate
less than 9 m/day
m/day
lava
obsidian
flow
dome
pyroclastic
tuff and
summit
plate t e c t o n i c s
Hazards
welded
composite
Landforms
A s s o c i a t i o n with
flow
cone
caldera
small
caldera
cinder
hot
spots
tuff
volcano
crater
cinder
explosive
flow
pyroclastic/ash
explosive
hot
cone
lava
dome
flow
blast
gases
hot
blast
gases
mudflow
T h e longest w o r d in the English l a n g u a g e is s u p p o s e d l y

p n e u m o n o u l t r a m i c r o s c o p i c s i l i c o v o l c a n o c o n i o s a lung d i s e a s e c a u s e d by breathing in
particles of volcanic m a t t e r or a similar fine dust.
Exercise 2: Volcanoes at plate tectonic boundaries

C o m p l e t e this exercise by filling in the b l a n k s adjacent to t h e list of v o l c a n i c areas with the
correct m a t c h of m a g m a t i c (plate tectonic) setting and characteristic m a g m a type.
U s e Figures 12.11, 12.12, 12.19, 12.20, and 12.26 and an atlas as a reference. Chapter 2
and W e b site links provided at http://www.whfreeman.com/understandingearth5e will also help
you. S a m p l e answers are provided. N o t e that a volcanic area m a y have hybrid characteristics.
Volcanoes
Volcano or
volcanic area
Type of volcano
(shield, composite,
caldera)
Magma type
(mafic, intermediate,
felsic)
Magmatic
(plate tectonic)
settingdivergent,
convergent, hot spot
composite
intermediate
convergent/'subduction
Hawaii
Tonga Islands
and felsic
mafic
Columbia Plateau
Santorini ( T h e r a ) , G r e e c e
hot
spot
caldera
Mayon, P h i l i p p i n e s
divergent and
Iceland
Yellowstone
Krakatoa, I n d o n e s i a
North Island, N e w Z e a l a n d
Crater L a k e , O r e g o n
Japan
Aleutian Islands, A l a s k a
Mariana Islands
Kilimanjaro, Africa
Pinatubo, P h i l i p p i n e s
Katmai, A l a s k a
composite
and
caldera
Mount Rainier, W a s h i n g t o n
Tambora, I n d o n e s i a
composite and caldera
Vesuvius, Italy
Review Questions
1. Lavas are a l m o s t a l w a y s fine-grained r o c k s b e c a u s e
A. t h e m i n e r a l s they are m a d e up of do not form large crystals.
B. very little w a t e r is in the extruded m a g m a .
C. the lava crystallizes u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o o l o w for large crystals to grow.
D. they cool t o o rapidly for large crystals to grow.
2. W h i c h extrusive r o c k s contain t h e m o s t silica?
A.
B.
C.
D.
andesite
rhyolite
granite
basalt
3. D u r i n g v o l c a n i c eruptions, t h e m o s t c o m m o n gas released is

A.
B.
C.
D.
hydrogen.
water.
nitrogen.
carbon dioxide.
139
convergent
hot
spot
140
4. A c l o u d of s u p e r h e a t e d s t e a m and hot ash that is p r o d u c e d d u r i n g a volcanic eruption

and m o v e s rapidly parallel to t h e g r o u n d is called
A. a w e l d e d tuff.
C . volcanic b o m b s .
B. a pyroclastic flow.
D. a cinder flow.
5. A g o o d e x a m p l e of shield v o l c a n o e s c a n be found in
A. n o r t h e r n California, W a s h i n g t o n , and O r e g o n .
B . the H a w a i i a n islands.
C. the C a r i b b e a n islands, such as M t . P e l e e on M a r t i n i q u e .
D. western South America.
6. C o m p o s i t e v o l c a n o e s (stratovolcanoes) are c o m p o s e d largely of
A. basalt lava flows and basaltic c i n d e r s .
B . pillow a n d p a h o e h o e lava flows.
C. rhyolitic and i n t e r m e d i a t e lavas and pyroclastic flows.
D. dikes and sills.
7. C o m p a r e d to basalt, rhyolite lava flows are very thick and tend to form d o m e s because
rhyolite lava
A. c o n t a i n s less gas than basalt lava and is therefore m o r e fluid.
B. is richer in silica than basalt lava and is therefore less fluid.
C. c o o l s m o r e q u i c k l y than basalt lava.
D. is less d e n s e than basalt lava.
8. On a recent three-day hike up a gently sloping m o u n t a i n , y o u r friends describe to you
features they e n c o u n t e r e d . F r e q u e n t l y they c r o s s e d lava flows and fissures, and occasionally they h a d to d e t o u r a r o u n d large cinder c o n e s . F r o m y o u r f r i e n d s ' description,
y o u tell t h e m they w e r e h i k i n g on a
A . caldera.
C.
g a b b r o pluton.
B. composite volcano.
D . shield v o l c a n o .
9 . C o m p o s i t e v o l c a n o e s are c o m m o n l y associated with w h i c h tectonic setting?

A . passive continental m a r g i n s and d e e p o c e a n b a s i n s
B. c o n v e r g e n t plate b o u n d a r i e s , s u c h as t h o s e of the circum-Pacific
C. o c e a n spreading centers, such as Iceland
D. transfer faults, such as the S a n A n d r e a s fault
10. Of the following states, w h i c h is essentially all volcanic r o c k ?
A. Alaska
C.
Oregon
B. Hawaii
D.
California
1 1 . Typically, explosive volcanic e r u p t i o n s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

A. basalt lavas.
B . shield v o l c a n o e s .
C. m a g m a s that are p o o r in b o t h silica and d i s s o l v e d g a s e s .
D. m a g m a s that are h i g h in both silica and dissolved g a s e s .
12. Shield v o l c a n o e s and c o m p o s i t e v o l c a n o e s differ in s h a p e b e c a u s e of
A. the different c o m p o s i t i o n s of their m a g m a .
B. the particular part of the o c e a n that e a c h o n e forms in.
C. the latitude at w h i c h e a c h o n e f o r m s .
D. factors that are c o m p l e t e l y u n k n o w n to us at present.
Volcanoes
13. C a l d e r a s usually form

A. from m o l t e n material from t h e c o r e that c o m e s very near the E a r t h ' s surface at a thin
p o i n t in t h e crust.
B. after a s t e a m e x p l o s i o n , w h e n m a g m a c o m e s into contact with a b u n d a n t underg r o u n d water.
C. w h e n an eruption literally b l o w s the t o p of a v o l c a n o off.
D. after large v o l u m e s of m a g m a erupt, leaving a void in the m a g m a c h a m b e r into
w h i c h t h e superstructure of a v o l c a n o can collapse.
14. Your friends h a v e d e s c r i b e d to y o u an e r u p t i o n that t o o k p l a c e at an u n d i s c l o s e d location. T h e l a v a t h e y d e s c r i b e d m e r e l y flowed o u t of a fissure a n d s p r e a d r a p i d l y o v e r
a large area. You w o u l d i n f o r m y o u r friends that t h e r o c k t y p e b e i n g f o r m e d w o u l d be
m o s t likely t o b e
A. granite.
B . andesite.
C. basalt.
D . rhyolite.
15. You h a v e b e e n i n f o r m e d that an explosive volcanic eruption h a s t a k e n p l a c e at an u n d i s c l o s e d location and that a h u g e n u e e a r d e n t e (pyroclastic flow) flowed off t h e steepsided v o l c a n o . You c o u l d r e s p o n d that the m a g m a t y p e is likely to be
A. basaltic.
B . rhyolitic.
C. ultramafic.
D. gabbroic.
16. W h e r e are andesitic v o l c a n o e s l o c a t e d ?

A.
B.
C.
D.
w h e r e diverging plate b o u n d a r i e s occur

at t r a n s f o r m b o u n d a r i e s
a l o n g t h e m i d - o c e a n i c ridge crest
a l o n g converging plate b o u n d a r i e s
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1 42
17. A large resort located on a beautiful lake and k n o w n for its hot springs is experiencing
a d r o p in b u s i n e s s d u e to publicity about the recent s w a r m of s m a l l e a r t h q u a k e s in the
area. T h e lake is actually located within a caldera, and beautiful r o c k t o w e r s and spires
of w e a t h e r e d volcanic tuff are found all a l o n g the e d g e of the lake. As the director of
the resort, y o u ' r e c o n c e r n e d about the c h a n g e in b u s i n e s s and the potential risk to your
g u e s t s . W h a t should y o u d o ?
A. You c a n n o t be w o r r i e d b e c a u s e y o u k n o w a v o l c a n o c a n ' t b l o w up on you.
B. You k n o w that e a r t h q u a k e s w a r m s can be a p r e c u r s o r to volcanic e r u p t i o n s and that
very explosive eruptions h a v e h a p p e n e d at the p l a c e in the recent g e o l o g i c past, so
y o u d e c i d e that the resort should c l o s e until the situation is safe.
C. A d v e r t i s e the resort as the best p l a c e to see beautiful basalt lava fountains.
D. E a r t h q u a k e s have o c c u r r e d occasionally a l o n g a nearby k n o w n fault, and there have
b e e n n o historic volcanic e r u p t i o n s , s o y o u ' r e not c o n c e r n e d .
18. W h i c h t y p e of lava is m o s t likely to erupt at the m i d - o c e a n r i d g e ? Refer to F i g u r e 12.20.
A . basalt
C.
B . andesite
D . diorite
rhyolite
19. W h i c h t y p e of lava is m o s t likely to erupt at a hot spot? Refer to F i g u r e 12.20.

A. basalt
C. rhyolite
B . andesite
D . diorite.
2 0 . W h i c h t y p e of lava is m o s t likely to erupt at a c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r y a l o n g the edge of a

c o n t i n e n t a l plate, as s h o w n in F i g u r e 12.20?
A. basalt
C. rhyolite
B . andesite
D . diorite
Volcanoes
2 1 . W h i c h of t h e following volcanic deposits can be f o r m e d from felsic lava?

A. pahoehoe
B . flood basalt
C.
D.
volcanic d o m e
shield v o l c a n o
22. If lava flows of progressively y o u n g e r ages all erupted from a single large m a g m a c h a m ber, h o w w o u l d y o u e x p e c t their c o m p o s i t i o n t o h a v e progressively c h a n g e d ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
e n r i c h e d in iron as they get y o u n g e r

e n r i c h e d in silica as they get y o u n g e r
m o r e mafic as they get y o u n g e r
m o r e fluid as they get y o u n g e r
23. W h i c h of the following statements about mafic r o c k s is true?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Mafic
Mafic
Mafic
Mafic
rocks
rocks
rocks
rocks
are richer in silica t h a n felsic r o c k s .

crystallize at h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s than felsic r o c k s .
are m o r e viscous t h a n felsic r o c k s .
t e n d to be lighter in color than felsic r o c k s .
24. L a r g e v o l c a n o e s c a n potentially affect global c l i m a t e w h e n they erupt b e c a u s e they

release
A. g e o t h e r m a l heat.
B. v o l c a n i c dust, sulfur, and c a r b o n d i o x i d e gas.
C. lahars and lava flows.
D. n i t r o g e n and argon g a s e s .
143
CHAPTER 13
Earthquakes
Figure 13.12. Earthquakes indicate how tectonic plates interact at their boundaries.
144
Earthquakes
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g the c h a p t e r with the following q u e s t i o n s .
Chapter Preview
W h a t is an e a r t h q u a k e ?
Brief a n s w e r : an e a r t h q u a k e is a shaking of the g r o u n d c a u s e d by seismic w a v e s that
radiate out from a fault that m o v e s suddenly. Elastic r e b o u n d explains w h y
e a r t h q u a k e s occur. Refer to F i g u r e 13.1.
W h a t are t h e three t y p e s of s e i s m i c w a v e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : P ( p r i m a r y / c o m p r e s s i o n a l ) w a v e s , S ( s e c o n d a r y / s h e a r ) w a v e s , and
surface w a v e s . Refer to F i g u r e 13.5.
W h a t is earthquake magnitude and how is it measured?
Brief a n s w e r : E a r t h q u a k e m a g n i t u d e is a m e a s u r e of the size of the e a r t h q u a k e .
T h e R i c h t e r m a g n i t u d e is d e t e r m i n e d from the a m p l i t u d e of the g r o u n d m o t i o n .
T h e m o m e n t m a g n i t u d e is closely related to the a m o u n t of e n e r g y radiated by the
e a r t h q u a k e . T h e Mercalli Intensity Scale is a m o r e qualitative m e a s u r e of the
d a m a g e d o n e by an e a r t h q u a k e .
W h e r e do most earthquakes occur?
Brief answer: M o s t but not all earthquakes occur along active plate tectonic boundaries.

A careful review of C h a p t e r 7, D e f o r m a t i o n : Modification of R o c k s by F o l d i n g and Fracturing, will p r o v i d e y o u with i m p o r t a n t prerequisite information. C h a p t e r 7 e m p h a s i z e s brittle
and plastic styles of r o c k deformation. E a r t h q u a k e s are t h o u g h t to be the result of the elastic
behavior of solid r o c k s , a n a l o g o u s to the s n a p - b a c k from a r u b b e r b a n d w h e n it b r e a k s . In particular, r e v i e w p a g e s 1 5 4 - 1 6 3 and F i g u r e 7.7.
145
1 46
PART II
C H A P T E R 13

Tectonic Forces in R o c k Deformation for Chapter 7 and Create an Earthquake for Chapter 13
are O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s worth completing before t h e first lecture on earthquakes.
During Lecture
O n e goal for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with good answers to the preview questions.
t h e story of e a r t h q u a k e s : h o w e a r t h q u a k e activity is m e a s u r e d , t h e seismic
w a v e s that are g e n e r a t e d by e a r t h q u a k e s , and h o w e a r t h q u a k e activity is driven
by plate t e c t o n i c s t h e location and characteristics of e a r t h q u a k e s is greatly
influenced by the t y p e of plate b o u n d a r y .
F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g the differences b e t w e e n the three k i n d s of seismic (P,
S, surface) w a v e s .
Note-Taking Tip: Mark possible test items

As the end of s e m e s t e r a p p r o a c h e s , y o u r instructor m a y m e n t i o n that certain material
will be covered in the e n d - o f - s e m e s t e r e x a m . It will be helpful to have a systematic way
of m a r k i n g such material so that y o u w o n ' t m i s s it w h e n you are s t u d y i n g y o u r notes for
t h e final. You c o u l d tag the material with a standard abbreviation like TQ (test q u e s t i o n ) .
It will o b v i o u s l y save t i m e if y o u r TQ m a r k is very visible. M a r k it in dark, large print
a n d p u t it out in the m a r g i n w h e r e y o u r e y e will easily spot it d u r i n g review. F o r m a t t i n g
tip: If y o u have a d o p t e d t h e strategy of leaving a c o l u m n or the entire left p a g e of y o u r
n o t e b o o k b l a n k for inserting visual material and special notes to yourself, p u t TQ tags in
the b l a n k c o l u m n . See the following e x a m p l e .
Example of How to Mark Your Notes for Possible Test Items
Blank column or page for

visual material, T Q , and other
additions to your notes
Your notes
W h a t is an e a r t h q u a k e ?
ground shakes
Seismic w a v e from a m o v i n g fault -* G r o u n d shakes
TQ
W h a t are the three types of seismic w a v e s ?
( F S 13.5)
P (primary) w a v e
F i n a l M a y 10!
S (secondary) w a v e
surface w a v e s
Earthquakes
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general r e v i e w tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.

identified t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s clearly? H i n t : You should h a v e h e a d e r s in y o u r notes
for e a c h of the q u e s t i o n s in t h e C h a p t e r Preview.
filled in points that you d i d n ' t have time to record during lecture?
C m a r k e d possible test q u e s t i o n s ( T Q ) in the m a r g i n ?
indicated i m p o r t a n t figures to study later?
a d d e d visual m a t e r i a l ? Key visual material for C h a p t e r 13 includes F i g u r e Story 1 3 . 1 ,
Elastic R e b o u n d T h e o r y of an E a r t h q u a k e , Figure Story 13.5, S e i s m i c Waves, and the
figure you will d e v e l o p in Practice Exercise 1 at the end of this Study G u i d e chapter.
You c a n sketch s i m p l e v e r s i o n s of any aspect of these figures that will h e l p y o u
r e m e m b e r the ideas.
m a d e a c o m p a r i s o n chart to h e l p you review key ideas? S u g g e s t i o n ; C o m p l e t e
Practice E x e r c i s e 2, Characteristics of S e i s m i c Waves. A d d a copy of this exercise to
your n o t e s . It will be e x t r e m e l y useful for r e v i e w i n g before an e x a m .

Set priorities for s t u d y i n g this chapter. G i v e h i g h e s t priority to activities that i n v o l v e
answering q u e s t i o n s . W e r e c o m m e n d t h e f o l l o w i n g strategy for l e a r n i n g this chapter.
W h a t i s a n e a r t h q u a k e ? W h a t c a u s e s e a r t h q u a k e s t o o c c u r ? B e sure y o u
have clear, accurate a n s w e r s to these q u e s t i o n s in m i n d before m o v i n g on to
other material. It will be m u c h m o r e difficult to u n d e r s t a n d the discussions of
seismic w a v e s and other e a r t h q u a k e p h e n o m e n a that are the major focus of
C h a p t e r 13 if y o u are at all fuzzy about e a r t h q u a k e basics.
Test yourself. C o m p l e t e Practice E x e r c i s e 1, E a r t h q u a k e focus versus epicenter, and try to a n s w e r R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s 1, 2, 9, and 13 w i t h o u t l o o k i n g at the
a n s w e r s . T h e n c h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s . Finally, and m o s t important, explore the
text m a t e r i a l s u g g e s t e d for any questions y o u m i s s e d or any areas w h e r e y o u
feel u n c l e a r about the c o n c e p t s .
Text. P r e v i e w the key figures in the text: F i g u r e 13.1 (elastic r e b o u n d theory
explains e a r t h q u a k e ) , F i g u r e 13.5 (seismic w a v e s ) , and F i g u r e 13.6 ( d e t e r m i n ing the e p i c e n t e r of an e a r t h q u a k e ) . You have to u n d e r s t a n d these figures to
c o m p l e t e the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d a n s w e r t h e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . S o m e time before the e x a m , a n s w e r all seven of the exercise questions at t h e e n d of
C h a p t e r 13 in t h e text. T h e s e are s h o r t - a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s and w o n ' t take long
if you k n o w the material.
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . You will get the greatest return on
y o u r study t i m e by w o r k i n g on Practice E x e r c i s e s 1 and 2 b e c a u s e they will
h e l p y o u r e m e m b e r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i d e a s i n t h e chapter. T h e n try
147
1 48
a n s w e r i n g e a c h of the review q u e s t i o n s to c h e c k y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the

lecture. C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s as y o u go, but try to a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n before
y o u l o o k at the answer.
http ://w w w. w h f r e e m a n . c o m / u n d e r s t a n d i n g e a r t h 5 e
C o m p l e t e the Concept R e v i e w and W e b R e v i e w Questions. Pay particular
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e a n s w e r s . F l a s h c a r d s will h e l p y o u
learn n e w terms. T h e O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s Identify the Factors Contributing
to
to
Earthquakes
Earthquakes
at
at
Plate
Convergent
Boundaries
Plate
and
Boundaries
Identify
are
Factors
Contributing
interactive
exercises
w o r t h d o i n g . A l s o , c o m p l e t e the G e o l o g y i n P r a c t i c e e x e r c i s e s t o l e a r n
more about earthquakes.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e Chapter S u m m a r y and the Practice E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify y o u r chapter
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview that
should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . To d e t e r m i n e h o w well you
have m a s t e r e d this chapter, c o m p l e t e the exercises and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d a midterm.
After y o u a n s w e r the questions, score t h e m . Finally, review any question y o u missed. Identify
and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
In times of change, learners inherit the earth, while the

learned find themselves beautifully equipped to deal
with a world that no longer exists.
E R I C HOFFER
Chapter Summary
What is an earthquake?
An e a r t h q u a k e is a s h a k i n g of the g r o u n d c a u s e d by s e i s m i c w a v e s that
e m a n a t e from a fault that m o v e s suddenly. W h e n the fault m o v e s , the strain
built up over years of slow d e f o r m a t i o n by tectonic forces is r e l e a s e d in a few
m i n u t e s as s e i s m i c w a v e s .
Elastic r e b o u n d theory explains w h y e a r t h q u a k e s occur. O v e r a p e r i o d of t i m e ,
t h e application of stress c a u s e s r o c k to slowly d e f o r m (bend) elastically until
it b r e a k s , and the r o c k snaps b a c k as the fault m o v e s . T h i s stretching a n d
b r e a k i n g is a n a l o g o u s to stretching a r u b b e r b a n d until it b r e a k s and s n a p s
b a c k t o sting y o u r hand.
What determines the depth of an earthquake?

T h e focus is a point a l o n g the fault at w h i c h the e a r t h q u a k e initiates.
E a r t h q u a k e s o c c u r only in brittle rock, w h i c h can b r e a k and snap b a c k elastically. At high t e m p e r a t u r e s and confining pressures found at g r e a t e r d e p t h s ,
r o c k s are ductile and do not break to g e n e r a t e e a r t h q u a k e s .
Earthquakes
E a r t h q u a k e s o c c u r within cold, brittle s u b d u c t i n g o c e a n i c lithosphere to a

d e p t h of about 7 0 0 k m . B e l o w this depth, the r o c k is t o o hot and soft to break.
Where do most earthquakes occur?

M o s t but n o t all e a r t h q u a k e s o c c u r a l o n g crust plate b o u n d a r i e s . E a r t h q u a k e s
at d i v e r g e n t p l a t e b o u n d a r i e s are usually shallow, h a v e l o w e r m a g n i t u d e , a n d
are a c o n s e q u e n c e of tensional stress. C o n v e r g e n t p l a t e b o u n d a r i e s p r o d u c e
shallow and d e e p e a r t h q u a k e s o f low t o h i g h m a g n i t u d e s and are c o m m o n l y
c a u s e d b y c o m p r e s s i v e stress. T r a n s f o r m faults p r o d u c e shallow t o m o d e r ately d e e p e a r t h q u a k e s of l o w to h i g h m a g n i t u d e , usually in r e s p o n s e to shear
stress. Refer t o F i g u r e 13.12.
What governs the type of faulting that occurs in an earthquake?

T h e stress applied to the lithosphere is largely d e t e r m i n e d by t h e t y p e of plate
b o u n d a r y . Tensional, c o m p r e s s i o n a l , and shear stresses d e t e r m i n e the type of
fault. Refer to F i g u r e 13.10.
What is earthquake magnitude and how is it measured?

E a r t h q u a k e m a g n i t u d e is a m e a s u r e of the size of the e a r t h q u a k e . T h e R i c h t e r
m a g n i t u d e is d e t e r m i n e d from the a m p l i t u d e of the g r o u n d m o t i o n . T h e m o v e m e n t m a g n i t u d e is closely related to the a m o u n t of energy radiated by the
e a r t h q u a k e . T h e modified Mercalli intensity scale is a qualitative m e a s u r e of
the d a m a g e d o n e b y a n e a r t h q u a k e .
What are the three types of seismic waves?

T h e r e are three major types of seismic waves (Figure 13.5). Two types of waves
travel through the E a r t h ' s interior: P (primary/compressional) waves, which
m o v e through all forms of matter and m o v e the fastest, and S (secondary/shear
waves) waves, w h i c h m o v e through solids only and at about half the speed of P
waves. T h e third type, surface waves, need a free surface like the E a r t h ' s surface
to ripple across, like waves on the ocean. T h e y m o v e m o r e slowly than the interior w a v e s but cause m o s t of the destruction associated with earthquakes.
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150
What causes the destructiveness of earthquakes?

T h e destructiveness of an e a r t h q u a k e does not d e p e n d on its m a g n i t u d e alone.
In addition to g r o u n d m o t i o n , the duration of the e a r t h q u a k e , a v a l a n c h e s , fires,
liquefaction, t s u n a m i s , p r o x i m i t y to p o p u l a t i o n centers, and the c o n s t r u c t i o n
design of buildings can all amplify the destructiveness of an e a r t h q u a k e . Refer
to Earth I s s u e s 1 3 . 1 .
What can be done to mitigate the damage of earthquakes?

T h e d a m a g e c a u s e d by e a r t h q u a k e s c a n be mitigated by regulating the c o n struction d e s i g n of buildings in e a r t h q u a k e z o n e s ; b o l t i n g h o u s e s to their foundation; s e c u r i n g a p p l i a n c e s and tall furniture to walls and k e e p i n g h e a v y items
at low levels; and h a v i n g a c o m m u n i t y plan for d e a l i n g with e m e r g e n c i e s g e n erated by e a r t h q u a k e s . G e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a t e s e i s m i c risk m a p s to aid p u b l i c
authorities with their evaluations. Refer to Earth Issues 13.2.
Can scientists predict earthquakes?

Scientists c a n characterize the d e g r e e of risk in a region, but they c a n n o t c o n sistently predict e a r t h q u a k e s .
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of this S t u d y G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Earthquake focus versus epicenter

L a b e l the d i a g r a m by filling in the b l a n k s with the following t e r m s : fault scarp, earthquake
focus, fault zone, earthquake epicenter. U s e arrows to s h o w the relative m o t i o n a l o n g the fault
z o n e . T h e star m a r k s the location from w h i c h fault m o v e m e n t p r o p a g a t e d .
W h a t t y p e of fault is this?
Earthquakes
151
Exercise 2: Characteristics of seismic waves

C o m p l e t e t h e table b e l o w by filling in the b l a n k b o x e s . F i g u r e 13.5 and the S e i s m i c W a v e s
section of the t e x t b o o k will be helpful.
Characteristic
Relative speed
P (primary) waves
S (secondary) waves
second
Surface waves
fastest
Motion of m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h
rolling/elliptical
which w a v e p r o p a g a t e s
sideways
Medium through which wave

will p r o p a g a t e
confined to
surface
Analogy with c o m m o n
wave propagation
is
wave forms
difficult to visualize. It is
somewhat analogous to the
way cards in a deck of playing
cards slide over each other
as you shuffle the deck.
and
motions
the
Earth's
152
It often happens that the wave flees the place of its

creation, while the water does not; like the waves made
in a field of grain by the wind, where we see the waves
running across the field, while the grain remains in place.
L E O N A R D O D E VINCI
Exercise 3: Factors that amplify the damage caused by an earthquake

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Review Questions
1. Elastic r e b o u n d t h e o r y says that e a r t h q u a k e s are p r o d u c e d w h e n
A. r o c k s d e f o r m plastically a l o n g a fault to p r o d u c e anticlines a n d s y n c l i n e s .
B. r o c k s abruptly slip past e a c h other after an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h elastic
d e f o r m a t i o n is built up in the r o c k s .
C. m a g m a w i t h i n the Earth abruptly b e g i n s to flow and elastically d e f o r m s the surrounding rocks.
D . abrupt m o v e m e n t along faults are c a u s e d b y tidal forces.
2. T h e actual r u p t u r e p o i n t within the crust that results in an e a r t h q u a k e is called t h e
A. tsunami.
B.
focus.
C.
epicenter.
D . static release.
3. T h e o r d e r of arrival of seismic w a v e s at a r e c o r d i n g station is
A. P w a v e s , S w a v e s , surface w a v e s .
B. S w a v e s , surface w a v e s , P w a v e s .
C. P w a v e s , surface w a v e s , S w a v e s .
D . simultaneous.
4. To locate an e a r t h q u a k e epicenter, a m i n i m u m of
s e i s m i c stations is r e q u i r e d .
A. one
B. two
C. three
D . b e t w e e n f i v e and t w e l v e , d e p e n d i n g o n the location o f the e a r t h q u a k e
Earthquakes
5. T h e R i c h t e r scale for e a r t h q u a k e m a g n i t u d e m e a s u r e s t h e
A. damage caused by the earthquake.
B. a m o u n t of e n e r g y released by the e a r t h q u a k e .
C. amount of ground motion.
D. d u r a t i o n of t h e e a r t h q u a k e .
6. T h e g r o u n d m o t i o n g e n e r a t e d by a R i c h t e r m a g n i t u d e 8 e a r t h q u a k e is a factor of
t i m e s greater than a R i c h t e r 4 e a r t h q u a k e .
A. 2
B.
C.
D.
100
1000
10,000
7. P r i m a r y seismic w a v e s (P w a v e s ) , like s o u n d w a v e s ,
A. travel only t h r o u g h solid material.
B. travel only t h r o u g h liquids and gas.
C. travel t h r o u g h solid, liquid, and gas.
D. are t h e slowest seismic w a v e s .
8. S e c o n d a r y seismic w a v e s (S waves)
A.
B.
C.
D.
travel parallel to P w a v e s (parallel waves).

travel only t h r o u g h solid material.
travel t h r o u g h solid, liquid, and gas.
are the fastest seismic w a v e s .
9. A significant finding that supports the theory of plate tectonics is that m o s t e a r t h q u a k e s

occur
A. r a n d o m l y in t h e m i d d l e of tectonic plates.
B. at all active tectonic plate b o u n d a r i e s .
C. only at tectonic plate b o u n d a r i e s that m o v e toward each other.
D. only at tectonic plate b o u n d a r i e s that slide past each other.
10. You j u s t started a j o b as a c o u n t y p l a n n e r in C o l o r a d o w h e n t h e B o a r d of S u p e r v i s o r s
m a n d a t e s e a r t h q u a k e risk a s s e s s m e n t . Your first task is to assess the potential for a
major s e i s m i c event in an area that has e x p e r i e n c e d only a few m i n o r e a r t h q u a k e s . You
d e c i d e to
A. install a state-of-the-art seismic r e c o r d i n g station to m o n i t o r e a r t h q u a k e activity.
B. d e v e l o p a s e i s m i c risk m a p s h o w i n g the likelihood of an e a r t h q u a k e b a s e d on t h e
n u m b e r that have o c c u r r e d in the past.
C. d e v e l o p an e a r t h q u a k e protection p l a n with local and state officials.
D. investigate the r e c o r d s for t s u n a m i s .
11. Given four structures all built identically, the o n e built on
w o u l d sustain
t h e M O S T d a m a g e d u r i n g a n e a r t h q u a k e w h e n all four are located t h e s a m e distance
from its epicenter.
A. a hillside c o m p o s e d of unfractured granite
B. a q u a r t z - c e m e n t e d s a n d s t o n e formation
C. solid unfractured granite b e d r o c k
D. a water-saturated s t r e a m delta
H i n t : Refer t o the section H o w E a r t h q u a k e s C a u s e Their D a m a g e i n y o u r textbook.
12. Your seismograph has j u s t recorded an earthquake. You are curious whether the earthquake occurred in North A m e r i c a or s o m e w h e r e else in the world. Given the arrival t i m e
of 5 m i n u t e s for the first P waves and 10 m i n u t e s for the first S waves, you determine that
the a p p r o x i m a t e distance b e t w e e n you and the earthquake is
kilometers.
A. 100
C. 3 0 0 0
B. 1000
D. 7000
H i n t : U s e the g r a p h i n F i g u r e 13.6 t o m a k e the estimate.
153
1 54
13. W h i c h of the following features d o e s N O T c h a r a c t e r i z e a divergent plate boundary?

A . shallow-focus e a r t h q u a k e s
B . basalt e r u p t i o n s
C. d e e p - f o c u s e a r t h q u a k e s
D. a rift valley
14. W h i c h of the following states has the lowest potential for s e i s m i c h a z a r d ?
A. Washington
B.
Utah
C. Texas
D . N e w York
15. T h e first m o t i o n s of an e a r t h q u a k e as r e c o r d e d at four different stations are displayed
on the strike-slip fault s h o w n below. U s i n g this first m o t i o n data and Figure 13.11,
d e t e r m i n e the direction of relative m o t i o n along the fault at the t i m e of the earthquake.
Bird's-eye view of a fault zone with the first motion data for P waves
arriving at four seismograph stations during an earthquake. The star
marks the epicenter. The dashed line is a north-south reference line
plotted perpendicular to the fault (solid line).
A. T h e north side m o v e d east (right) and south side m o v e d w e s t (left).
B . T h e n o r t h side m o v e d w e s t (left) and south side m o v e d east (right).
C . T h e north side m o v e d d o w n and south side m o v e d u p .
D . T h e north side m o v e d u p and south side m o v e d d o w n .
16. W h a t t y p e of fault p r o d u c e d the first m o t i o n s h o w n in q u e s t i o n 15?
H i n t : M a t c h the illustrations in F i g u r e 13.10 and 13.11 to d e t e r m i n e the t y p e of fault.
CHAPTER 14
Exploring Earth's Interior

(a) The pattern of P-wave paths through Earth's interior
(solid blue lines). The dashed blue lines show the progress
of wave fronts through the interior at 2-minute intervals.
Distances are measured in angular distance from the earthquake
focus. The P-wave shadow zone extends from 105 to 142.
P waves cannot reach the surface within this zone because
of the way they are bent when they enter and leave the core.
(b) S-wave paths through Earth's interior (solid green

lines). The larger S-wave shadow zone extends from
105 to 180. Although S waves strike the core, they
cannot travel through its fluid outer region and
therefore never emerge beyond 105 from the focus.
Figure 14.2. Earth's core creates P-wave and S-wave shadows.

-
Before Lecture
P r e v i e w i n g will greatly increase y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture. F o r an efficient p r e v i e w
u s e the following q u e s t i o n s .
155
156
Chapter Preview
W h a t d o s e i s m i c w a v e s reveal a b o u t t h e E a r t h ' s i n t e r i o r ?
Brief a n s w e r : S e i s m i c w a v e s reveal that the E a r t h has a c o n c e n t r i c a l l y z o n e d internal
structure. T h e felsic crust lies on a d e n s e r ultramafic m a n t l e c o m p o s e d mostly of
peridotite. T h e crust and u p p e r m a n t l e m a k e u p t h e rigid lithosphere. B e n e a t h the
lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, the w e a k layer of the m a n t l e across w h i c h the lithos p h e r e slides in plate tectonics. T h e liquid outer c o r e and solid i n n e r c o r e are mostly
iron. Refer to F i g u r e s 1.7 and 14.6.
W h a t has seismic tomography revealed about structures in the mantle?
T o m o g r a p h i c i m a g e s s h o w h o w tectonic plates vary from very thin u n d e r the
m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s to very thick u n d e r continental c r a t o n s . M a n y features of mantle
c o n v e c t i o n a r e also revealed. Refer to F i g u r e 14.9.
H o w h o t d o e s it get in E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r ?
W h a t d o e s E a r t h ' s gravity field a n d isostatic r e b o u n d tell us a b o u t t h e interior?
Brief answer: T h e o b s e r v e d gravity field is in a g r e e m e n t with the pattern of mantle
convection inferred from seismic t o m o g r a p h y . M e a s u r i n g the rate of post-glacial
isostatic r e b o u n d provides information on the viscosity of the m a n t l e a n d h o w it affects
rates of uplift and subsidence of the b u o y a n t lithosphere. Refer to E a r t h Issues 14.1.
W h a t d o e s E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field tell us a b o u t t h e fluid o u t e r c o r e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field is p r o d u c e d by convective m o t i o n s of
electrically c o n d u c t i n g iron-rich fluid in the outer c o r e .
W h a t is p a l e o m a g n e t i s m a n d w h a t is its i m p o r t a n c e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d flips b a c k a n d forth over g e o l o g i c time.
P r e s e r v e d in s o m e r o c k s is a r e c o r d of past c h a n g e s in the orientation of E a r t h ' s
m a g n e t i c f i e l d . Refer t o F i g u r e 14.15.

It is very important to review the information on seismic waves presented in the text section
Studying Earthquakes at the beginning of Chapter 13. Pay particular attention to the section Seism i c W a v e s a n d Figure 13.5, and be sure y o u u n d e r s t a n d the distinctions b e t w e e n P waves and
S w a v e s . A quick review of m o d e l s for m a n t l e convection will also be helpful. T h e key inform a t i o n is covered in Figures 1.11, 2.14, and 12.23. Finally, take another look at Figure 2.10,
w h i c h w a s y o u r first e x p o s u r e to p a l e o m a g n e t i s m in the text.
During Lecture
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the b i g p i c t u r e in m i n d : C h a p t e r 14 tells
the story of the interior of the Earth, its structure and c o m p o s i t i o n , and h o w
E a r t h ' s interior supplies h e a t energy to drive g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . Key p o i n t s :
E a r t h ' s interior is a concentrically z o n e d structure.
C o n t i n e n t s float on the m a n t l e .
M a n t l e b e h a v e s like a v i s c o u s fluid.
P and S w a v e s reveal a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
H e a t transfer o c c u r s via convection.
E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field is best u n d e r s t o o d as a g e o d y n a m o : C o n v e c t i v e m o v e m e n t (driven by E a r t h ' s internal heat) generates an e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c field.
F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e s 14.2, 14.5, 14.6, and 14.8. If y o u have l o o k e d

at t h e m before c o m i n g to lecture, it will be easy to follow the lecture: You can
s i m p l y a n n o t a t e t h e figures with i m p o r t a n t n e w material p r o v i d e d b y y o u r
instructor a n d u n d e r l i n e material in the captions.
Note-Taking Tip
We all have m o m e n t s when we d o n ' t understand a point being m a d e in lecture. W h e n
momentarily confused, continue taking notes. Hopefully, the necessary insight will
c o m e to you. If it does not, the notes you take will provide a clue to what you need to
investigate further in y o u r text or in a conversation with y o u r instructor.
After Lecture
Review Notes
a n n o t a t e d figures in the text with important material discussed by y o u r instructor?
Figures 14.2, 14.5, 14.6, and 14.8 are the important figures in C h a p t e r 14.
a d d e d visual m a t e r i a l ? Since this c h a p t e r d e p e n d s heavily on material from
C h a p t e r s 1, 2, and 13, it m a y be useful to quickly sketch key ideas about P and S
w a v e s and m a n t l e convection in y o u r n o t e s . See the Vital Information from O t h e r
C h a p t e r s section on Study G u i d e p a g e 156 for suggested material.
n a d d e d a brief big picture overview of this lecture in y o u r o w n w o r d s ?

Set priorities for studying this chapter. Give highest priority to activities that involve answering
questions. We r e c o m m e n d the following strategy for learning this chapter.
Text. Study figures 1 4 . 2 , 1 4 . 5 , 1 4 . 6 , 1 4 . 8 , 1 4 . 9 , 1 4 . 1 2 , and 14.15, and Earth Issues
14.2. You h a v e to u n d e r s t a n d these figures to a n s w e r the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s .
S o m e t i m e b e f o r e y o u r n e x t e x a m c o m p l e t e t h e text exercises a t t h e e n d o f
t h e chapter. T h e s e are s h o r t - a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s and w o n ' t take long i f y o u
k n o w t h e m a t e r i a l . N o t i c e that helpful a n i m a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d o n t h e W e b
site for s o m e of t h e c h a p t e r exercises.
P r a c t i c e Exercises. C o m p l e t e Exercises 1 and 2. W o r k i n g on these exercises
will h e l p y o u r e m e m b e r the m o s t i m p o r t a n t ideas in the chapter.
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . A n s w e r e a c h of the review questions to c h e c k y o u r understanding of the lecture. C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s as y o u g o , but do try to a n s w e r t h e
q u e s t i o n before y o u l o o k at t h e answer. N o t i c e the test taking-tips that are
i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . T h e y are d e s i g n e d t o h e l p y o u d o better o n
your next exam.
C o m p l e t e t h e C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r a n d O n l i n e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular attention to t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s . D i d y o u k n o w that
Cleopatra adored peridot, a gemstone from the upper mantle? Check out G e o l o g y
i n P r a c t i c e t o f i n d out m o r e about " C l e o p a t r a ' s e m e r a l d s " (peridot) and t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e u p p e r ultramafic m a n t l e . F l a s h c a r d s will help y o u review
t h e n e w t e r m i n o l o g y in this chapter.
157
158
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y
and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r chapter review. Read
the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w that should
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the questions, score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h question
y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What do seismic waves reveal about the layering of Earth's
crust and mantle?
S e i s m i c w a v e s reveal that t h e E a r t h h a s a c o n c e n t r i cally z o n e d internal structure. Felsic c o n t i n e n t a l and
mafic o c e a n crusts lie on a d e n s e r ultramafic m a n t l e
consisting of iron-rich silicates, like peridotite. Refer
to F i g u r e 14.6.
T h e M o h o o r M o h o r o v i c i c discontinuity i n s e i s m i c
w a v e velocities m a r k s the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e crust
and t h e m a n t l e . Refer to F i g u r e s 1.7 and 14.5.
E a r t h ' s tectonic plates are large fragments of t h e lithosphere, w h i c h i n c l u d e s the crust and the u p p e r m o s t ,
rigid m a n t l e . B e l o w the l i t h o s p h e r e in the u p p e r
m a n t l e is a w e a k (soft) z o n e called the a s t h e n o s p h e r e .
A b r u p t increases i n s e i s m i c w a v e velocities c o u p l e d
with laboratory studies on h i g h - p r e s s u r e m i n e r a l s suggest that there are zones at progressively greater d e p t h s
within the mantle where the crystal structures of
m i n e r a l s c o l l a p s e ( c h a n g e p h a s e ) u n d e r t h e intense
p r e s s u r e t o f o r m m o r e c o m p a c t a t o m i c structures and
therefore different m i n e r a l s .
What do seismic waves reveal about the

layering of Earth's core?
P-wave and S-wave shadow zones reveal a liquid
o u t e r c o r e a n d a solid i n n e r c o r e . R e f e r t o F i g u r e
14.2.
P - w a v e v e l o c i t i e s in t h e c o r e , t h e n a t u r a l a b u n d a n c e
Figure 14.6. T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m a n t l e s h o w i n g t h e
S - w a v e v e l o c i t y t o a d e p t h o f 9 0 0 km. C h a n g e s i n v e l o c i t y
mark t h e s t r o n g l i t h o s p h e r e , t h e weak a s t h e n o s p h e r e ,
a n d two z o n e s i n w h i c h c h a n g e s o c c u r b e c a u s e i n c r e a s i n g
of i r o n in n a t u r e , t h e e x i s t e n c e of i r o n - n i c k e l m e t e o r i t e s , t h e E a r t h ' s s t r o n g m a g n e t i c field, a n d t h e n e e d
for a v e r y d e n s e c o r e to a c c o u n t for t h e o v e r a l l m a s s
p r e s s u r e f o r c e s a r e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e a t o m s into d e n s e r
o f the E a r t h all s u p p o r t a n i r o n - n i c k e l c o m p o s i t i o n
and more c o m p a c t crystalline structures.
for t h e E a r t h ' s c o r e .
CHAPTER 11
Geobiology:
Life Interacts with the Earth
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture be sure to spend s o m e t i m e previewing the chapter. For an efficient
preview use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions, w h i c h constitute the framework for understanding the chapter. P r e v i e w i n g w o r k s best if you do it j u s t before lecture. With the main points in
mind you will u n d e r s t a n d the lecture better. T h i s in turn will result in g o o d and c o m p l e t e notes.
Study Tip
To u n d e r s t a n d this chapter, focus on s y s t e m s and cycles. Study inputs and outputs:
w h a t g o e s into a n d w h a t c o m e s out o f e a c h p r o c e s s described.
How m u c h t i m e should y o u devote to p r e v i e w i n g ? Obviously, m o r e t i m e is better than less.

But even a brief (five- or t e n - m i n u t e ) preview session j u s t before lecture will p r o d u c e a result
you will notice. F o r a refresher on w h y p r e v i e w i n g is so important, see Part 1, C h a p t e r 3, H o w
to Be Successful in G e o l o g y .
Chapter Preview
H o w do organisms and the Earth interact?
Brief answer: Life processes influence weathering, precipitate minerals, and modify the
composition of the atmosphere and oceans. Geobiology is the study of these interactions.
W h a t is t h e b i o s p h e r e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e b i o s p h e r e is t h e part of o u r planet that c o n t a i n s all living
o r g a n i s m s . It is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s that influence and even control
geologic processes.
W h a t is m e t a b o l i s m ?
Brief a n s w e r : M e t a b o l i s m is the process that all o r g a n i s m s use to convert inputs into
o u t p u t s . F o r e x a m p l e , p h o t o s y n t h e s i s by plants u s e s three inputs (sunlight, c a r b o n
d i o x i d e , a n d water) t o p r o d u c e t w o outputs, sugar and o x y g e n gas.
H o w i m p o r t a n t are m i c r o b e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : M i c r o b e s are the m u s t a b u n d a n t and diverse o r g a n i s m s on Earth. T h e y
regulate g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s such as w e a t h e r i n g of m i n e r a l s and r o c k s , precipitation of
certain s e d i m e n t a r y m i n e r a l s , and p r o d u c t i o n of gases such as o x y g e n and c a r b o n
dioxide.
H o w d i d life o r i g i n a t e , a n d w h a t signs d o w e h a v e o f life o n the y o u n g E a r t h ?
Brief a n s w e r : S i m p l e m o l e c u l e s o f m e t h a n e , a m m o n i a , and water o n t h e primitive
Earth are t h o u g h t to have c o m b i n e d to form a m i n o acids, w h i c h then c o m b i n e d to
form p r o t e i n s . T h e oldest signs of life on E a r t h are s h o w n in F i g u r e 11.15.
W h a t is t h e difference b e t w e e n r a d i a t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n ?
Brief answer: R a d i a t i o n is the relatively rapid d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w types of organisms.
W h e n g r o u p s of o r g a n i s m s are no longer able to adapt to c h a n g i n g environmental
conditions or to c o m p e t e with a superior g r o u p of o r g a n i s m s , they b e c o m e extinct.
C a n life exist on o t h e r p l a n e t s ?
Brief a n s w e r : F o r every star, there is a habitable z o n e w h e r e w a t e r will be stable.
If a p l a n e t is within a h a b i t a b l e z o n e , there is a c h a n c e that life m i g h t h a v e originated
there. Refer to F i g u r e 11.25.
125
134
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
W h y d o e s v o l c a n i s m o c c u r ? S e e F i g u r e 12.1 ( S t u d y G u i d e p a g e 1 3 3 ) .
Volcanism o c c u r s w h e n m a g m a rises b u o y a n t l y t o the surface.
W h a t a r e t h e t h r e e m a j o r l a v a t y p e s a n d h o w d o t h e y relate t o e r u p t i v e style and
volcanic landforms?
Mafic (basalt), i n t e r m e d i a t e (andesite), and felsic (rhyolite) lava t y p e s p r o d u c e
e r u p t i o n s that r a n g e from relatively gentle basaltic flows to h i g h l y e x p l o s i v e rhyolitic
eruptions. See Figure 12.11.
H o w is v o l c a n i s m related to p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ?
Volcanism is c o n c e n t r a t e d at convergent and divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s and hot spots.
S e e F i g u r e 12.20.
W h a t are s o m e of t h e beneficial effects of v o l c a n i s m ?
Volcanic p r o c e s s e s create new o c e a n floor, o u r o c e a n s a n d a t m o s p h e r e , o r e deposits,
and g e o t h e r m a l energy.

R e v i e w the following sections in C h a p t e r 4: H o w Do I g n e o u s R o c k s Differ from O n e Another?
and I g n e o u s Activity and Plate Tectonics.
Previewing Tip
S e e the flowchart H o w to S t u d y G e o l o g y on S t u d y G u i d e p a g e 3 for a d d i t i o n a l ideas on
p r e v i e w i n g . T h e m o s t useful a n s w e r to a p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n is o n e that y o u will actually
r e m e m b e r d u r i n g lecture. Simplify t o s o m e t h i n g y o u c a n c o m m i t t o m e m o r y .
P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s are like a fresh, u n d e c o r a t e d C h r i s t m a s tree. D u r i n g lecture you
d e c o r a t e the tree.
During Lecture
O n e g o a l for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s to the p r e v i e w questions.
F o c u s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w v o l c a n o e s w o r k . W h e r e the m a g m a c o m e s from
(for e x a m p l e , iron-rich o c e a n crust or silica-rich c o n t i n e n t a l crust) h a s everything to do with the explosiveness of the eruption and the s h a p e of t h e resulting volcanic landform.
F o c u s particularly on u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e s 12.1 ( h o w a v o l c a n o s y s t e m
w o r k s ) and 12.11 (volcanic eruptive styles and l a n d f o r m s ) . It m a y be helpful
to b o o k m a r k t h e s e figures and have t h e m h a n d y d u r i n g lecture for q u i c k refe r e n c e . D o a n n o t a t e text figures w i t h c o m m e n t s m a d e b y y o u r instructor.
W a n t ideas on taking g o o d n o t e s ? If y o u h a v e n ' t already d o n e so, r e a d t h e d i s c u s s i o n of n o t e taking in Part I, C h a p t e r 3, of the S t u d y G u i d e . You c a n u s e the
N o t e - T a k i n g C h e c k l i s t before y o u go to lecture as a o n e - m i n u t e r e m i n d e r of
w h a t to do to i m p r o v e y o u r note-taking skill. After lecture, u s e the c h e c k l i s t as
a quality c h e c k .
Volcanoes

ig r o c k * i g n e o u s r o c k
strat > s t r a t o v o l c a n o
c o m p c o m p o s i t e v o l c a n o
H P - * h o t spot
V -* v o l c a n i s m or v o l c a n o
sh v -* shield v o l c a n o
B - basalt
rhy -* rhyolite or rhyolitic
m a g m a g m a
Put t h e s e abbreviations in the m a r g i n to d r a w y o u r attention to t h e m later.
T Q (test q u e s t i o n )
?
areas w h e r e y o u feel lost or u n c l e a r about the material. U s e these ? flags as a

r e m i n d e r that y o u n e e d to follow up v i a further study or a conference w i t h y o u r
instructor, tutor, or study partner.
After Lecture
Review Notes
Right after lecture, w h i l e t h e material is fresh in y o u r m i n d , is the perfect t i m e to review and
improve y o u r n o t e s .

clearly identified i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s ? E x a m p l e : You should have clear descriptions of
t h e t h r e e lava t y p e s , information about the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and explosiveness
of e a c h t y p e , a n d legible sketches of e a c h l a n d f o r m discussed d u r i n g t h e lecture.
u a d d e d sketches of the l a n d f o r m s associated with each eruptive style? Refer to F i g u r e
1 2 . 1 1 . E x a m p l e : C o m p a r e the slope of a shield v o l c a n o with that of a c o m p o s i t e
v o l c a n o by d r a w i n g a simplified sketch of each o n e s h o w i n g h o w steep e a c h v o l c a n o
is and t h e relative area e a c h v o l c a n o is likely to cover. No fancy a r t w o r k is n e e d e d ,
j u s t a steep inverted V for o n e and a flattened inverted V for the other. T h e shield
v o l c a n o w o u l d be flattened and spread out and the c o m p o s i t e (stratovolcano) steeper.
S k e t c h i n g p r o v i d e s a g o o d c h e c k on h o w well y o u u n d e r s t a n d the differences.
i n c l u d e d a sketch of t h e basic features of a volcanic g e o s y s t e m ? U s e Figure 12.1
as a r e f e r e n c e .
i n c l u d e d a sketch similar to F i g u r e 12.20 that s h o w s h o w v o l c a n i s m relates to
plate t e c t o n i c s ?
d e v e l o p e d a table that s u m m a r i z e s t h e three lava types in t e r m s of r o c k c o m p o s i t i o n
a n d a s s o c i a t e d l a n d f o r m s ? C o m p l e t i n g the table in Practice E x e r c i s e 1 will give y o u a
s u m m a r y of C h a p t e r 12.
135
What has seismic tomography revealed about structures

in the mantle?
T h e s e C A T s c a n - l i k e i m a g e s of the E a r t h ' s interior reveal h o w tectonic plates
vary from very thin u n d e r the m i d - o c e a n ridges to very thick u n d e r continental
cratons. A l s o revealed are features associated with m a n t l e convection, such as
sinking slabs of lithosphere a n d s u p e r p l u m e s . Refer to F i g u r e 14.9.
How hot does it get in Earth's Interior?

Within n o r m a l continental crust, temperature increases at a rate of 20 to 30 C
per kilometer. T h e rate of t e m p e r a t u r e increase slows w a y d o w n in the m a n t l e
and core. T h e m o s t rapid c h a n g e in t e m p e r a t u r e (steepest g e o t h e r m a l gradient)
occurs in the o u t e r m o s t layer of o u r planet. T h i s is not surprising, if you c o n sider h o w rapidly t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s from the outside to the inside of a
kitchen oven door. Refer to F i g u r e 14.8.
Seismic a n d laboratory studies suggest that the t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e outer liquid
core is h i g h e r t h a n 3 0 0 0 C , and at the E a r t h ' s center the t e m p e r a t u r e m a y reach
6000 to 8 0 0 0 C . Refer to F i g u r e 14.8.
What does Earth's gravity and isostatic rebound

tell us about the interior?
M e a s u r i n g t h e rate of postglacial isostatic r e b o u n d p r o v i d e s information on
the viscosity of t h e m a n t l e and h o w it affects rates of uplift a n d s u b s i d e n c e of
the b u o y a n t lithosphere. Refer to Earth Issues 1 4 . 1 .
T h e o b s e r v e d gravity field is in a g r e e m e n t with the pattern of m a n t l e c o n v e c tion inferred from seismic t o m o g r a p h y . E a r t h Issues 1 4 . 1 .
What does Earth's magnetic field tell us about the

fluid outer core?
E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field b a s i c a l l y l o o k s like a d i p o l a r b a r m a g n e t . Refer to
F i g u r e 1.12.
A g e o d y n a m o e x p l a i n s h o w E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field is generated. R a p i d conv e c t i o n in t h e m o l t e n o u t e r c o r e is t h o u g h t to stir up electrical c u r r e n t s in t h e
c o n d u c t i n g iron to create the major c o m p o n e n t of t h e m a g n e t i c field.
T h e m a g n e t i c field c h a n g e s strength, position, and polarity over t i m e . T h e r e is
a n o n d i p o l e c o m p o n e n t . B o t h the dipole a n d n o n d i p o l e c o m p o n e n t s exhibit
secular variations over t i m e spans of d e c a d e s . Reversals in polarity also occur
over t i m e s p a n s of t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s . Refer to F i g u r e 14.15.
What is paleomagnetism and what is its importance?

P r e s e r v e d in s o m e r o c k s is a clear r e c o r d of past c h a n g e s in t h e orientation of
E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d . T h e c h r o n o l o g y o f m a g n e t i c f i e l d reversals has b e e n
w o r k e d out so that the direction of r e m n a n t m a g n e t i z a t i o n of a r o c k formation
is often an indicator of its stratigraphic age. Refer to F i g u r e s 14.14 and 14.15.
N o t e : T h e pattern o f m a g n e t i c a n o m a l i e s p r o d u c e d b y p a l e o m a g n e t i c reversals
r e c o r d e d by o c e a n floor r o c k p r o v i d e d i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e for seafloor spreading. Refer to F i g u r e 2.10.
159
160
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Exercise 1: The Earth's interior layers

It is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d E a r t h ' s layered c o m p o s i t i o n . L a b e l t h e E a r t h layers in the foll o w i n g figure, taking special note of the information a b o u t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of each. Refer to
F i g u r e s 1.7, 14.5, and 14.6 a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g text section T h e L a y e r i n g and Composition of the Interior.
Exercise 2: Characteristics of Earth's internal layers

C o m p l e t e the table by filling in t h e b l a n k s and c o m p l e t i n g the s e n t e n c e s . S h a d e d boxes
r e m a i n b l a n k . Refer to text and figures in C h a p t e r s 1, 4, and 14. K e y figures i n c l u d e 1.5, 1.7,
1.8, 4 . 2 , 4 . 1 1 , 14.6, and 14.8.
1 62
Exercise 3: Evidence for the asthenosphere and its significance

A. Briefly discuss o n e line of e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g the p r e s e n c e of an asthenosphere in
the upper mantle.
B. W h a t is the significance of the a s t h e n o s p h e r e to plate tectonic t h e o r y ?
H i n t : Information in both C h a p t e r s 2 and 14 will h e l p y o u c o m p l e t e this assignment.
Review Questions
1. E a r t h ' s c o r e has a r a d i u s that is about
A.
B.
1/8
1/4
of the E a r t h ' s r a d i u s .
C. 1/2
D . 3/4
2. T h e t h i c k n e s s of E a r t h ' s tectonic plates is
A. the s a m e on the continents as u n d e r the o c e a n s .
B. at its thinnest u n d e r the o c e a n s .
C. at its thinnest in the c o n t i n e n t s .
D. completely unknown.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 1.7 and 14.6.
3. T h e likely c o m p o s i t i o n of the u p p e r m a n t l e is
A. felsic.
C.
B . mafic.
D. carbon (diamonds).
ultramafic.
4. W h i c h of the following constitutes the rigid, outer layer of E a r t h ' s tectonic plates?
A. a s t h e n o s p h e r e
C. crust
B. lithosphere
D. mantle
5. C o n t i n e n t a l crust h a s an overall c o m p o s i t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g closely to that of

A. ultramafic.
C.
B . mafic.
D . peridotite.
6. T h e lithosphere is a
felsic to i n t e r m e d i a t e .
layer, as o p p o s e d to the a s t h e n o s p h e r e .
A. plastic
C.
B . fluid
D . rigid
weak
7. T h e inference that E a r t h ' s outer core is liquid is s u p p o r t e d by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n that

A. P w a v e s do not p a s s t h r o u g h it.
B. S w a v e s do not p a s s t h r o u g h it.
C. P w a v e s travel m o r e rapidly t h r o u g h it.
D. S w a v e s travel m o r e slowly t h r o u g h it.
8. T h e h i g h e s t density c o m p o n e n t of the Earth is
A . the m a n t l e .
C . the c o r e .
B . continental crust.
D . the w h o l e Earth.
9. E a r t h ' s north m a g n e t i c p o l e is located

A. at the north g e o g r a p h i c p o l e .
B. in A l a s k a .
C. b e t w e e n G r e e n l a n d and Baffin Island.
D. in C h i n a .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 14.10 and an atlas.
10. T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field is t h o u g h t to be g e n e r a t e d by
A . p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t i s m o f m i n e r a l s within the m a n t l e .
B . p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t i s m o f the solid iron-rich inner c o r e .
C. electrical currents generated by m o v e m e n t of the liquid outer c o r e .
D. electrical currents g e n e r a t e d by c o n v e c t i o n in the a s t h e n o s p h e r e
1 1 . As o p p o s e d to t h e lithosphere, the a s t h e n o s p h e r e is a
A. brittle
B. weak
layer.
C. m o l t e n
D . rigid
12. M i n e r a l grains in s e d i m e n t s b e c o m e m a g n e t i z e d by the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field w h e n

A. they are struck a sharp b l o w by a meteorite.
B . iron-rich m i n e r a l s align parallel t o the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d .
C. t h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field reverses itself.
D. electricity from lightning strikes passes through the lava b e d s .
13. W h i c h layer of the E a r t h experiences t h e m o s t rapid increase in t e m p e r a t u r e with
increasing d e p t h ?
A. lithosphere
C.
mantle
B. asthenosphere
D.
liquid outer c o r e
14. On w h i c h b o u n d a r y in the E a r t h ' s interior does the greatest c h a n g e in composition occur?
A.
B.
C.
D.
lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary
crust-mantle boundary
mantle-core boundary
b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the outer and inner c o r e
Test-Taking Tips: Test taking and learning style

K n o w i n g y o u r learning style can h e l p d u r i n g e x a m s . C o n s i d e r the following.
Visual L e a r n e r s
If y o u are a visual learner you probably pay better attention to directions that are
written o u t (visual) than to s p o k e n directions. Rely on written directions w h e n they
are available. If y o u r e x a m proctor gives the directions verbally w i t h o u t a visual y o u
m u s t c o m p e n s a t e . M a k e yourself listen and d o n ' t hesitate t o ask a s m a n y q u e s t i o n s a s
y o u n e e d to to get the directions straight.
W h e n y o u get stuck on an item, activate y o u r visual m e m o r y . C l o s e y o u r eyes a n d
picture flow charts, pictures, field e x p e r i e n c e s or even lines of text.
Auditory Learners
You p r o b a b l y pay better attention to directions that are s p o k e n t h a n to directions that
are written out. R e l y on s p o k e n directions w h e n they are available. If the directions
are on a slide, c o m p e n s a t e ! M a k e yourself read t h e m .
R e p e a t written directions quietly to yourself ( m o v i n g y o u r lips is often e n o u g h ) .
W h e n you get stuck, r e m e m b e r y o u r lecturer's voice covering this section.
Kinesthetic Learners
You p r o b a b l y do best w i t h directions that allow y o u to w o r k an e x a m p l e .
Unfortunately, it is a rare c l a s s r o o m e x a m that p r o v i d e s e x a m p l e s or s a m p l e s as part
of t h e d i r e c t i o n s . So y o u will n e e d to m a k e up you o w n . Take a m i n u t e to translate the
directions into s o m e t h i n g y o u can d o , or a s k the instructor for a s a m p l e or e x a m p l e .
B e sure t o interact. R e m e m b e r that you learn b y doing.
T h e r e a r e a v a r i e t y of t h i n g s k i n e s t h e t i c l e a r n e r s find helpful w h e n t h e y g e t s t u c k on a
test i t e m .
W h e n you get stuck, m o v e in y o u r chair or tap y o u r foot, to trigger m e m o r y .
Feel yourself d o i n g a l a b p r o c e d u r e .
Sketch a flowchart to u n l o c k m e m o r y of a p r o c e s s .
Stuck on a g e o l o g y p r o b l e m ? S k e t c h i n g w h a t is b e i n g described ( w h a t is " g i v e n " in
the p r o b l e m ) m a y u n l o c k y o u r m e m o r y and get y o u started.
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1 64
15. T h e crust is typically thickest b e n e a t h

A . h i g h m o u n t a i n r a n g e s and plateaus o n the c o n t i n e n t s .
B. ocean-spreading centers.
C. c o n t i n e n t a l interiors like the G r e a t P l a i n s in N o r t h A m e r i c a .
D. passive m a r g i n s of c o n t i n e n t s w h e r e t o p o g r a p h y is very flat.
16. Significant increases in S-wave velocity at about 4 0 0 and 6 5 0 k i l o m e t e r s depth are
e x p l a i n e d by
A. c h a n g e s in the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the m a n t l e .
B. a c o l l a p s e of the crystal structures to m o r e c l o s e by p a c k e d f o r m s .
C. c h a n g e s in the d e g r e e of partial melting within the m a n t l e .
D. r a p i d increases in t e m p e r a t u r e .
17. T h e E a r t h ' s c o r e is inferred to be c o m p o s e d of m o s t l y iron b e c a u s e
A. iron is naturally very a b u n d a n t .
B. m o s t m e t e o r i t e s r e p r e s e n t i n g the interstellar m a t t e r from w h i c h the planets formed
are rich in iron.
C. iron is very d e n s e , so its p r e s e n c e in the c o r e w o u l d a c c o u n t for the E a r t h ' s average
density.
18. W i t h o u t any k n o w l e d g e of w h a t seismic w a v e s tell us a b o u t the E a r t h ' s interior, why is
it u n r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that a large p o r t i o n of the l o w e r m a n t l e is m o l t e n ?
A. Actually, it could be m o l t e n . We j u s t d o n ' t see e v i d e n c e for it b e c a u s e silicate magm a s are trapped within the Earth d u e to the confining p r e s s u r e s .
B. D i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o w that the t e m p e r a t u r e at the c o r e / m a n t l e b o u n d a r y is not
high e n o u g h t o m e l t t h e l o w e r m a n t l e .
C. T h e m a g n e t i c field strength w o u l d be greatly r e d u c e d if m o r e of t h e E a r t h ' s interior
was molten.
D . Silicate m a g m a s are less d e n s e and w o u l d rise t o the surface, s o w e s h o u l d observe
w i d e s p r e a d volcanic activity across the E a r t h ' s surface. T h e m o l t e n iron-rich outer
c o r e is too d e n s e to rise.
19. As r o c k s e x p e r i e n c e increased p r e s s u r e with depth, P w a v e s in g e n e r a l will
as
they m i g r a t e t h r o u g h t h e m .
A. travel faster
B . travel s l o w e r
C. travel at the s a m e velocity
D. rapidly die out
2 0 . W h e n a reversal of the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field o c c u r s ,
A. the sense of rotation of the Earth is also reversed.
B. the Earth flips over in its orbit.
C. the m a g n e t i c polarity of the E a r t h reverses so that the north e n d of a m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s n e e d l e p o i n t s toward the south g e o g r a p h i c p o l e .
D. a l m o s t all the i g n e o u s s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s of the o c e a n floor reverses in m a g n e t i z a tion to m a t c h the n e w orientation of the m a g n e t i c field.
2 1 . T h e M o h o , o r M o h o r o v i c i c discontinuity b e t w e e n t h e crust and t h e m a n t l e , w a s f i r s t
detected from
A. the abrupt d e c r e a s e in seismic velocities as they cross the discontinuity.
B. the abrupt increase in seismic velocities as they cross the discontinuity.
C. the S-wave s h a d o w z o n e t h r o u g h w h i c h S w a v e s do not p a s s .
D . the o b s e r v a t i o n that n o e a r t h q u a k e s o c c u r b e l o w the M o h o .
22. S u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e for heat transfer by convection within the m a n t l e c o m e s from

A. t o m o g r a p h y a n d E a r t h ' s gravity field.
B. the b u l k density of the Earth.
C. postglacial isostatic r e b o u n d .
D. Earth's magnet field.
23. T h e " C r e t a c e o u s quiet z o n e " is a n a m e for a(n)
A. p e r i o d w h e n d i n o s a u r s w e r e very sedate.
B . t i m e w h e n plate m o t i o n s slowed w a y d o w n .
C. b r e a k in v o l c a n i c activity on E a r t h d u e to a lack of m a n t l e s u p e r p l u m e activity.
D. especially l o n g p e r i o d of n o r m a l polarity of E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field.
24. T h e P - w a v e s h a d o w z o n e is caused by the w a y the E a r t h ' s c o r e
A. refracts t h e s e i s m i c w a v e s .
B. reflects t h e s e i s m i c w a v e s .
C. a b s o r b s t h e P w a v e s .
D. b l o c k s the P w a v e s .
25. As the l i t h o s p h e r e cools slowly by the c o n d u c t i o n of heat, it b e c o m e s
A. less d e n s e and rises.
B. soft and w e a k .
C. d e n s e r a n d rises.
D. d e n s e r and s u b s i d e s .
26. E a r t h ' s tectonic plates are located in the
A. c o r e , w h e r e their m o v e m e n t is driven by intense heat and pressure.
B. m a n t l e , w h e r e their m o v e m e n t is driven by convection.
C. l i t h o s p h e r e , w h e r e their m o v e m e n t is driven by gravity.
D. a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e their m o v e m e n t is driven by the prevailing westerlies.
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CHAPTER 15
The Climate System
The Climate System
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, spend s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g the chapter. For an efficient preview,
use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions.
Chapter Preview
W h a t is t h e c l i m a t e s y s t e m ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e major c o m p o n e n t s of the climate system are the a t m o s p h e r e ,
h y d r o s p h e r e , lithosphere, and b i o s p h e r e . It is important to understand how these
s y s t e m s interact with each other via feedback m e c h a n i s m s . Refer to Figure 15.1.
W h a t is t h e g r e e n h o u s e effect?
Brief a n s w e r : C a r b o n d i o x i d e and other trace a t m o s p h e r i c gases are transparent to
sunlight but a b s o r b heat (infrared radiation), which w a r m s E a r t h ' s surface
e n v i r o n m e n t s . Refer to Figure 15.7.
How has Earth's climate changed over time?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e largest c h a n g e s are the 100,000-year glacial cycles. But there are
also significant short-term climate cycles that average 1.000 and 10,000 years. Refer
to F i g u r e 15.10. T h e r e are also r a n d o m c l i m a t e events, like El N i n o . N o t e that we are
currently living in an exceptional t i m e , the m o s t p r o l o n g e d stable w a r m period in the
last 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s .
W h a t is t h e c a r b o n c y c l e ?
Brief a n s w e r : G e o c h e m i c a l cycles trace the flux of E a r t h ' s e l e m e n t s like carbon
from o n e reservoir to another. T h e carbon cycle describes the m o v e m e n t of carbon
b e t w e e n four m a i n reservoirs: (1) the a t m o s p h e r e ; (2) the global ocean, including
m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s ; (3) t h e land surface, including terrestrial a n i m a l s , plants, and soils;
and (4) t h e d e e p e r lithosphere. T h e carbon cycle is particularly i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e of
its strong link to life p r o c e s s e s and climate c h a n g e . Refer to Figure 15.14.
H o w c a n internal g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s c a u s e c l i m a t e c h a n g e ?
Brief a n s w e r : O v e r the short t e r m of a few years, sulfuric acid aerosols and volcanic
ash ejected from large volcanic eruptions can absorb solar radiation before it r e a c h e s
the l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e a n d thus d e c r e a s e global t e m p e r a t u r e s . O v e r the long term of
millions of years, plate tectonic m o v e m e n t s can shift continents over the poles,
stabilizing p o l a r ice c a p s ; b l o c k or o p e n g a t e w a y s to o c e a n currents; and c a u s e uplift,
which alters w e a t h e r i n g s y s t e m s and rates of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g that d r a w d o w n
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Was the t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y w a r m i n g c a u s e d by h u m a n activities?
Brief a n s w e r : Global w a r m i n g of about 0.6C d u r i n g the twentieth century correlates
with the significant rise i n a t m o s p h e r i c C 0 and other g r e e n h o u s e gases caused b y
fossil-fuel b u r n i n g , deforestation, and other h u m a n activities.
2

Review the section Classification of C h e m i c a l and B i o l o g i c a l S e d i m e n t s and S e d i m e n t a r y
Rocks i n C h a p t e r 5 . A l s o p r e v i e w p a g e s 5 2 3 - 5 2 8 i n C h a p t e r 2 1 , w h i c h discuss climate
change d u r i n g the last series of ice a g e s .
T h e g e o b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s y o u l e a r n e d in C h a p t e r 11 p l a y a significant r o l e in t h e climate s y s t e m . C a r b o n is r e m o v e d from t h e a t m o s p h e r e via t h e b i o c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s of
photosynthesis ( F i g u r e 11.4) a n d r e t u r n e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e via a n o t h e r b i o c h e m i c a l
167
168
p r o c e s s , a n i m a l respiration. O x y g e n m a k e s up 21 p e r c e n t of E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e . Oxygen is

supplied and m a i n t a i n e d h o m e o s t a t i c a l l y by living o r g a n i s m s via the m e t a b o l i c process of
p h o t o s y n t h e s i s (see F i g u r e 11.4 and the section M e t a b o l i s m on p a g e s 2 4 5 - 2 4 6 ) . Microbes,
s u c h as c y a n o b a c t e r i a , p r o d u c e d E a r t h ' s original o x y g e n a t e d a t m o s p h e r e (see the section
O r i g i n o f E a r t h ' s O x y g e n a t e d A t m o s p h e r e o n p a g e s 2 5 7 - 2 5 8 ) . Finally, methane-producing
m i c r o b e s c o n t r i b u t e d t h e m e t h a n e supplies that " b u r p e d " out of s e d i m e n t s , triggering global
w a r m i n g a n d a n extinction event that m a r k s t h e P a l e o c e n e - E o c e n e b o u n d a r y .
As y o u read C h a p t e r 15, k e e p in m i n d that the c l i m a t e s y s t e m is c o m p o s e d of many subs y s t e m s . C l i m a t e is a tapestry of c o m p l e x and fascinating interactions.
During Lecture
K e e p t h e b i g picture in m i n d as y o u take notes. C h a p t e r 15 tells the story of
E a r t h ' s c l i m a t e s y s t e m and h o w global c l i m a t e results from interactions
b e t w e e n four E a r t h s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s : a t m o s p h e r e , h y d r o s p h e r e , b i o s p h e r e ,
a n d lithosphere. H u m a n activities are b e c o m i n g a n increasingly i m p o r t a n t factor influencing h o w E a r t h s y s t e m s function. F o c u s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the c o m p o n e n t s , fluxes, and f e e d b a c k s in e a c h s y s t e m .
B e c a u s e of the social i m p o r t a n c e of global c l i m a t e , there m a y be o p p o r t u n i t i e s
for d i s c u s s i o n / d e b a t e activities. P r e v i e w i n g the c h a p t e r will p r e p a r e y o u to
take part in t h e s e activities.
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
b o t h g e n e r a l review tips a n d specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
w r i t t e n a s u m m a r y of w h a t is c o v e r e d in this l e c t u r e ? Your s u m m a r y s h o u l d say

s o m e t h i n g significant a b o u t h o w h u m a n activities c h a n g e the g l o b a l e n v i r o n m e n t
and the p o t e n t i a l for g l o b a l w a r m i n g d u r i n g y o u r lifetime. S u g g e s t i o n : W r i t e a brief
p o s i t i o n p a p e r on a C h a p t e r 15 issue that c o n c e r n s y o u . A s k y o u r s e l f w h a t E a r t h
s y s t e m i n f o r m a t i o n in C h a p t e r 15 is relevant to t h e i s s u e . T r y to d e v e l o p a position
that is r e a s o n a b l e and c o n s i s t a n t w i t h e x i s t i n g s c i e n c e .
a d d e d i m p o r t a n t visual material to y o u r n o t e s ? S u g g e s t i o n s : D r a w o v e r v i e w sketches

of the climate s y s t e m (Figure 15.1) and the c a r b o n cycle (Figures 15.14 and 15.15).
To understand h o w climate c h a n g e s over t i m e , pay particular attention to the different
t i m e scales (years, d e c a d e s , centuries, t h o u s a n d s of years) used in F i g u r e s 15.10,
15.16, and 2 1 . 2 5 .

T e x t . Preview the key figures in C h a p t e r 15, Figure 15.7 (the g r e e n h o u s e effect)
and Figure 15.14 (the carbon cycle). You have to understand these figures to
a n s w e r the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Figures 15.2, 15.3, and 15.11 and Earth Issues
15.2, 15.13, and 15.16 also contain important information, relevant to Chapters
15, 2 1 , and 2 3 .
The Climate System
S o m e t i m e before y o u r e x a m , a n s w e r the exercises at the e n d of the chapter.

T h e s e are s h o r t - a n s w e r questions and w o n ' t take long if you k n o w the m a t e rial. F o c u s on E x e r c i s e s 2, 4, and 7 and T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s 2, 4, and 6.
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s . C o m p l e t e Practice E x e r c i s e s 1 and 2. T h e y will help y o u
r e m e m b e r the m o s t i m p o r t a n t ideas in the chapter.
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Try a n s w e r i n g each of the review questions to c h e c k y o u r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture. C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s as you g o , but do try to
a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n before you look at the answer.
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t R e v i e w and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular
attention to the e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s . T h e O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e
Identify the Parts of the Carbon Cycle will h e l p you inventory major c o m p o nents of this g e o c h e m i c a l cycle.
Did you k n o w that it takes about 2 p o u n d s of coal to p r o d u c e the energy
for y o u to c o p y a m e g a b y t e of m u s i c off t h e I n t e r n e t a n d that this r e l e a s e s
4 p o u n d s o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e into the a t m o s p h e r e ? T h e G e o l o g y i n P r a c t i c e
e x e r c i s e s for C h a p t e r 15 e x p l o r e h o w this is possible.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r
S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w well you have m a s t e r e d this c h a p ter. After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h
question y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r ing the question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What is the climate system?
M a j o r c o m p o n e n t s of the E a r t h ' s c l i m a t e s y s t e m are the a t m o s p h e r e , h y d r o sphere, lithosphere, and b i o s p h e r e . Refer to F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 .
E a r t h ' s surface w o u l d be m u c h c o l d e r w i t h o u t the p r e s e n c e of g r e e n h o u s e
g a s e s like water and carbon d i o x i d e in the a t m o s p h e r e .
O c e a n currents play a major role in distributing heat across the E a r t h b e c a u s e
w a t e r h a s a very h i g h capacity for storing heat.
T o p o g r a p h y affects c l i m a t e by influencing the flow of our a t m o s p h e r e .
Volcanic eruptions affect climate by changing the composition of the atmospheric
gases and by adding dust and haze that increase the albedo of the atmosphere.
Various factors m a y exert a positive or negative feedback on the climate syst e m . In s o m e c a s e s , f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m s can act to stabilize E a r t h ' s climate,
and in o t h e r cases they m a y destabilize it by amplifying c l i m a t e c h a n g e .
What is the greenhouse effect?

C a r b o n d i o x i d e and other trace a t m o s p h e r i c g a s e s act like the glass w i n d o w s
in a g r e e n h o u s e . T h e y are transparent to sunlight but absorb heat (infrared
radiation), w h i c h w a r m s E a r t h ' s surface e n v i r o n m e n t s . Refer to F i g u r e 15.7.
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1 70
How has Earth's climate changed over time?

T h e largest c h a n g e s are the 100,000-year glacial cycles.
T h e alternation b e t w e e n glacial and interglacial ages o b s e r v e d d u r i n g the
P l e i s t o c e n e e p o c h is explained best by the M i l a n k o v i t c h c y c l e s . Refer to Figures 15.11 and 2 1 . 2 5 .
T h e r e are also significant short-term c l i m a t e cycles that a v e r a g e 1,000 and
10,000 years. Refer to F i g u r e s 15.10 and 15.16, and note the regularity of
t h e s e c y c l e s . N o t e a l s o that w e a r e c u r r e n t l y living i n t h e m o s t p r o l o n g e d
stable w a r m period in the last 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 years.
S h o r t - t e r m variations of climate are associated with El N i n o events and large
volcanic e r u p t i o n s .
What are geochemical cycles and how can they

impact climate?
G e o c h e m i c a l cycles trace the flux of E a r t h ' s e l e m e n t s , like c a r b o n , from o n e
reservoir to another.
U n d e r s t a n d i n g the c a r b o n and c a l c i u m cycles is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e of their
strong link to life p r o c e s s e s , climate, and the g r e e n h o u s e effect. Refer to F i g u r e s 15.13 and 15.14.
T h e release of c a r b o n d i o x i d e by the b u r n i n g of fossil fuels is h a v i n g a significant i m p a c t on the flux of c a r b o n from the l i t h o s p h e r e into t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
What caused the twentieth-century warming?

B e t w e e n the end of the n i n e t e e n t h century and the b e g i n n i n g of the t w e n t y first, the m e a n surface t e m p e r a t u r e r o s e by a b o u t 0 . 6 C . R e f e r to F i g u r e 15.16.
F r o m a variety of c l i m a t e indicators, scientists have c o n c l u d e d that c l i m a t e
during the t h o u s a n d years that p r e c e d e d the twentieth c e n t u r y e x p e r i e n c e d an
Figure 15.16. Earth heats up.
A comparison of Earth's average annual surface temperature
with C 0 concentrations in the
le
atmosphere, showing that the,
recent warming trend correlates with the increase in C 0
caused by human activities
since the industrial revolution.
re
irregular but steady global c o o l i n g of a b o u t 0.2C and the m a x i m u m fluctuation in m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g any o n e of the n i n e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r i e s w a s
p r o b a b l y less than 0 . 3 C .
C l i m a t e m o d e l s that include c h a n g e s in a t m o s p h e r i c g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s as a
factor m a t c h the global t e m p e r a t u r e rise and also r e p r o d u c e the pattern of t e m perature c h a n g e b o t h g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and w i t h altitude in the a t m o s p h e r e .
The Climate System
fit is virtually impossible
to change one thing
in a complex
system without affecting other parts of the system,

unpredictable
often
in as yet
ways.
ANONYMOUS
How hard to realize that every camp of men or beast has this glorious
starry firmament for a
roof! In such places standing
top it is easy to realize that...

the world with
spaces
without
the firmament for its

leaving
any
alone
on
the mountain
we all dwell in a house of one room

roofand are
sailing
the
celestial
track.
JOHNMUIR, 1890
Practice Exercises
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Conceptual map/Flowchart of a climate factor

Construct a c o n c e p t u a l map/flowchart characterizing o n e other factor besides clouds that can
affect Earth's climate. A l s o provide a brief written explanation, as in the clouds e x a m p l e illustrated. Follow these guidelines.
B e s u r e y o u u n d e r s t a n d a n d c l e a r l y e x p l a i n h o w t h e factor c a u s e s c l i m a t e t o
change.
I n c l u d e in y o u r f l o w c h a r t p o s s i b l e positive and negative f e e d b a c k s y s t e m s .
For e x a m p l e , t h e c o o l i n g effect o f low c l o u d s , like s t o r m c l o u d s , will r e d u c e
e v a p o r a t i o n rate a n d m a y h a v e a s h o r t - t e r m negative f e e d b a c k on a d d i t i o n a l
cloud f o r m a t i o n .
E x a m p l e : T h e following c o n c e p t u a l m a p / f l o w c h a r t s h o w s h o w c l o u d s i m p a c t c l i m a t e .
Climate C h a n g e F a c t o r : C l o u d s
Explanation o f flow c h a r t
In a simple model, as air temperature increases, more moisture is evaporated and held in
the atmosphere. This usually leads to more cloud cover. Clouds increase the albedo of the
atmosphere and may cool the Earth's surface by reducing the amount of sunlight reaching
the surface. Increasing cloud cover potentially would have a negative effect on global warming. Clouds may also have a warming effect on the Earth's surface by reducing the loss of
heat to space during the night.
Note: How clouds affect climate is still debated. High clouds have been shown to cause
warming and low clouds cooling at the Earth's surface. There is growing evidence that
clouds have an overall but not very great net cooling effect.
1 71
1 72
Conceptual Map/Flowchart showing how
impacts climate
Explanation
Exercise 2: Release of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels

A. E x p l a i n w h y the release of c a r b o n d i o x i d e from the b u r n i n g of fossil fuels might lead
to an i n c r e a s e in c l o u d cover
B. W o u l d an increase in c l o u d cover h a v e a positive or negative affect on c l i m a t e ? Explain.

F o r e x a m p l e , w o u l d an increase in cloud c o v e r e n h a n c e or r e d u c e the effect of increasing c a r b o n d i o x i d e in t h e a t m o s p h e r e ? S e e p a g e s 3 5 3 - 3 5 5 in the t e x t b o o k for examples
of f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m s that c a n help to b a l a n c e or stabilize the c l i m a t e s y s t e m .
The Climate System
The balance
influence on
of evidence suggests
global climate.
discernible
1 73
human
U N CLIMATE COMMITTEE, I P C C ,
1995, p . 4
Exercise 3: Flow of carbon through Earth's systems and reservoirs

Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas that can greatly impact Earth's surface temperatures. B e c a u s e the Earth is a closed system, the carbon cycle and distribution of carbon in the
various reservoirs is a very important c o m p o n e n t of any m o d e l for h o w climate c h a n g e s .
C o m p l e t e t h e t a b l e to s u m m a r i z e the flow of c a r b o n through E a r t h ' s s y s t e m s and reservoirs. Flux is t h e a m o u n t of e n e r g y or m a t t e r flowing through a given area or reservoir in a
given time. Refer to F i g u r e s 15.7, 15.13, 15.14, and 15.15, and the a c c o m p a n y i n g text in
Chapter 15.
Carbon fluxes
Photosynthesis
and precipitation
of carbonates
Brief description
of flux
Carbon
is fixed in
organisms,
contribute
sediments,
Sedimentation
which
to
ultimately
and
combine
to produce
carbonate
into
which
ions
can
precipitate
limestone
help
rock particles.
other
Climate
cools.
Carbon dioxide is drawn out
of the oceans and atmosphere.
The loss of CO from the
oceans results in a reduction
of CO in the atmosphere.
calcium
and collect to form

cement
Carbon flows from

the
atmosphere and oceans
rockthe
lithosphere.
and oil.
Calcium
carbonate,
living
organic matter in
coal,
Climatic impact/
implications
Direction of flux
or
Volcanism
Chemical
weathering
C0 in rainwater combines with

minerals in rock to form calcium
carbonate.
Carbon flows from

the
atmosphere and oceans
the crust.
Metamorphism
Heating,
recystallization,
and
decomposition
of rocks
during
metamorphism can release large
amounts of C0
Carbon flows from the rocks

(the crust) into the atmosphere
and oceans.
The burning of fossil fuels

releases large amounts of C0
into the atmosphere.
Carbon flows from the lithosphere (coal, oil, and gas) into
the oceans and atmosphere.
into
Human activities:
Combustion of
fossil fuels
Refer to this W e b site for the latest information on global w a r m i n g :

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/globalwarming/home.html
Climate
cools.
Carbon is being drawn out of
surface
environments
and
stored in the crust. Uplift of
high plateaus
and mountains
may enhance this flux.
Climate
warms.
Increased levels of C0 in
the atmosphere enhance the
greenhouse effect,
which acts
to trap heat energy and slow
down the loss of heat to space.
2
1 74
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of this S t u d y G u i d e .
1. W h i c h of the following gases is m o s t a b u n d a n t in the E a r t h ' s p r e s e n t atmosphere?
A . nitrogen
B. carbon dioxide
C.
water
D. oxygen
2. W h y is c a r b o n d i o x i d e c o n s i d e r e d a g r e e n h o u s e g a s ?
A. It a b s o r b s heat.
B. It reflects radioactivity.
C. It a b s o r b s UV light.
D. It reflects sunlight.
3. E a r t h ' s global t e m p e r a t u r e trend is clearly
A. u p w a r d over the last century.
B. d o w n w a r d over the last century.
C. u n c h a n g e d over the last few d e c a d e s .
D . variable, but there has b e e n n o overall c h a n g e .
4. It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the uplift of the H i m a l a y a n m o u n t a i n s a n d the Tibetan plateau
c o u l d h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to or even c a u s e d a global c o o l i n g . T h e link b e t w e e n the
H i m a l a y a n m o u n t a i n s and climatic c o o l i n g is p r o b a b l y related to
A . t h e collision o f I n d i a with Asia, triggering v o l c a n i s m and i n c r e a s i n g the C 0 con2
centration in t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
B. the uplift intensifying the m o n s o o n and a s s o c i a t e d p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l weathering, w h i c h resulted in a d r a w - d o w n of c a r b o n d i o x i d e from the a t m o s p h e r e .
C. t h e fact that h i g h m o u n t a i n s generate m o r e c l o u d s , a n d their a l b e d o (reflectivity)
cools t h e E a r t h ' s surface.
D . E l N i n o and the N o r t h Atlantic d e e p - w a t e r current.
5. W h i c h of the following is N O T a s s o c i a t e d with El N i n o e v e n t s ?
A. trade w i n d s s l a c k e n i n g or reversing direction
B . volcanic activity
C. c h a n g e in o c e a n circulation p a t t e r n s
D . w o r l d w i d e a n o m a l o u s w e a t h e r patterns
H i n t : Refer to Earth Issues 15.2.
6 . A s the o c e a n s b e c o m e w a r m e r ,
C0
i s r e l e a s e d from t h e o c e a n s into the
a t m o s p h e r e , resulting in a
effect.
A. more/positive
C.
B . less/negative
D . less/positive
more/negative
H i n t : I s C 0 m o r e o r less soluble i n w a r m e r w a t e r ? Refer t o C h a p t e r 2 0 , D e e p - S e a

2
S e d i m e n t a t i o n , and F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 4 .
7. T h e increase of the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e on E a r t h is linked to b u r n i n g fossil fuels
b e c a u s e the
A. burning process consumes oxygen.
B. burning process consumes C 0 .
2
C . b u r n i n g p r o c e s s generates C 0 .
2
D. s m o k e given off by b u r n i n g insulates the E a r t h .
The Climate System
8. T h e surface t e m p e r a t u r e s on Venus, Earth, a n d to a lesser extent M a r s are all well a b o v e

w h a t c a n be e x p l a i n e d by their distance from the Sun. W h a t other factor significantly
contributes to elevated surface t e m p e r a t u r e s for these inner planets?
A. t h e p r e s e n c e of g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s , like c a r b o n d i o x i d e
B . interior heat
C. dust from w i n d s t o r m s and v o l c a n o e s , w h i c h acts to trap heat
D. p r e s e n c e of a r g o n and nitrogen in the a t m o s p h e r e
9. At p r e s e n t t h e greatest flux of carbon d i o x i d e occurs b e t w e e n our a t m o s p h e r e and
A. oceans.
B. volcanoes.
C. living o r g a n i s m s .
D. humans.
10. W h i c h of t h e following contributes the m o s t c a r b o n to the a t m o s p h e r e ?
A . h u m a n deforestation and agriculture
B. p l a n t u p t a k e of c a r b o n
C. o c e a n air g a s e x c h a n g e
D. b u r n i n g of fossil fuel by h u m a n s
11. M o s t of t h e m a s s of the a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e w e a t h e r forms and w h a t c o m m e r c i a l j e t s fly
in, is t h e
A. troposphere.
B . stratosphere.
C. mesosphere.
D. thermosphere.
12. 7 5 % of t h e w o r l d ' s fresh w a t e r is stored in
A.
B.
C.
D.
lakes.
rivers and s t r e a m s .
caves.
continental glaciers a n d ice sheets.
13. T h e r m o h a l i n e circulation refers to

A. c o n v e c t i o n in the l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e .
B. g l o b a l o c e a n i c circulation driven by differences in t e m p e r a t u r e and salinity (salt
content).
C. c h a n g e s in the t r a d e w i n d s that are t h o u g h t to c a u s e El N i n o events.
D. a g l o b a l o c e a n i c current driven by w i n d .
14. T h e g e o c h e m i c a l cycle of c a l c i u m is linked to l o n g - t e r m c l i m a t e c h a n g e by t h e fact that
A. w e a t h e r i n g of c a r b o n a t e r o c k s r e m o v e s carbon d i o x i d e from the a t m o s p h e r e and
lithosphere.
B. c a l c i u m is precipitated as g y p s u m in evaporite deposits.
C. p h o t o s y n t h e s i s precipitates calcium.
D. h e a t r e l e a s e d by the reaction of c a l c i u m with b i c a r b o n a t e ion w a r m s the surface
w a t e r of t h e o c e a n s .
1 75
1 78
H o w does chemical weathering work?

Brief a n s w e r : Water, o x y g e n , acids, and physical w e a t h e r i n g facilitate chemical
w e a t h e r i n g reactions that alter and break d o w n m i n e r a l s to form n e w minerals, oxides,
and salts and release silica.
H o w d o e s physical w e a t h e r i n g w o r k ?
Brief answer: Physical w e a t h e r i n g b r e a k s rocks into fragments. P r o c e s s e s that aid
physical w e a t h e r i n g include c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g , frost w e d g i n g , and the growth
of plant roots.
H o w do soils f o r m as p r o d u c t s of w e a t h e r i n g ?
Brief a n s w e r : Soils form in rock materials by c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g . Soil formation
is influenced by the c o m p o s i t i o n of the rock, stability of the w e a t h e r i n g surface
( t o p o g r a p h y ) , t i m e , and m o s t important, c l i m a t e . Life p r o c e s s e s and their by-products
are also i m p o r t a n t factors in soil formation and soil type.
W h a t is m a s s w a s t i n g ?
Brief a n s w e r : M a s s w a s t i n g , also called m a s s m o v e m e n t , is the d o w n - s l o p e movement
of rock material.
W h y do mass movements occur?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e three m o s t important factors e n h a n c i n g the potential for mass
m o v e m e n t s are the steepness of the slope, the nature of the rock m a k i n g up the slope,
and the w a t e r c o n t e n t of the slope material.
H o w can d a m a g e from mass m o v e m e n t s be minimized?
Brief a n s w e r : Careful e n g i n e e r i n g and the restriction of land use c a n m i n i m i z e the
h a z a r d s associated with m a s s m o v e m e n t s .
When we try to pick up anything by itself,

we find it entwined with
everything
else
in
the
universe.
J O H N MUIR
Learning Warm-Up
S c i e n c e and art are synergistic; that is, e a c h e n h a n c e s the other. F o r e x a m p l e , m a n y
a s p e c t s of n a t u r e that we c o n s i d e r beautiful are the p r o d u c t of a w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s .
B e f o r e lecture s p e n d five m i n u t e s s c a n n i n g t h e text p h o t o s for beautiful features
a n d effects created b y w e a t h e r i n g . A s y o u enjoy the p h o t o s , y o u m i g h t a s k yourself,
" H o w did w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s e s create the c o l o r s and s h a p e s i n this p h o t o ? "

R e v i e w t h e R o c k - F o r m i n g M i n e r a l s section and Table 3.1 and the S e d i m e n t a r y R o c k s section
and F i g u r e 3.24 in C h a p t e r 3.
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n and internal fabric of r o c k s significantly influence the r o c k ' s strength
and the potential for m a s s m o v e m e n t . Therefore, a review of the c o m p o s i t i o n and especially of
the different k i n d s of fabrics (textures) of i g n e o u s , sedimentary, a n d m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s will
p r o v i d e y o u with vital information for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the different c i r c u m s t a n c e s that cause
m a s s m o v e m e n t s . W h i l e reviewing the b a s i c r o c k textures d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r s 4, 5, 6, and
7, ask yourself w h a t textures and d e f o r m a t i o n fabrics m i g h t c o n t r i b u t e to a w e a k e r rock
and an e n h a n c e d potential for m a s s m o v e m e n t .
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
Previewing Tip
It will be very helpful to w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e 2 before g o i n g to lecture.
C o m p l e t e t h e exercise and take it to class w i t h y o u . Your lecturer will p r o b a b l y s h o w
slides to h e l p y o u u n d e r s t a n d the different k i n d s of m a s s w a s t i n g . You will u n d e r s t a n d
these differences better if you h a v e w o r k e d on t h e m before lecture.
During Lecture
As you take n o t e s d u r i n g this lecture, be sure to get details on h o w w e a t h e r i n g w o r k s . O n e
goal for lecture should be to leave class w i t h g o o d a n s w e r s to the C h a p t e r Preview questions.
F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g specific c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s e s such as oxidation and dissolution. Be sure to distinguish clearly b e t w e e n t h e c h e m i c a l
p r o c e s s e s (for e x a m p l e , dissolution, oxidation) and the physical p r o c e s s e s (for
e x a m p l e , frost w e d g i n g , exfoliation, etc).
F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e 16.12, w h i c h s h o w s the t w o basic soil-forming
p r o c e s s e s , translocation and transformation.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p t h e big picture in mind. C h a p t e r 16 tells
the story of w h a t c a u s e s m a s s w a s t i n g . M a s s wasting is about classification,
and y o u r j o b is to u n d e r s t a n d the differences b e t w e e n the types of w a s t i n g . Be
sure to p a y close attention to c o m m e n t s t h e lecturer m a y m a k e about h o w each
k i n d of m a s s w a s t i n g differs from the others. H i n t : In general these differences
will be a b o u t the steepness of t h e slope, the kind of rock in the slope b e i n g
m o v e d , and t h e water content of t h e slope material.
You m a y not be familiar with the k i n d s of m a s s wasting (rock avalanche, creep,
earthflows, and so o n ) . To help y o u visualize this process, the lecturer m a y
s h o w slides of various kinds of m a s s wasting. S o m e of the slides m a y be very
dramatic (for e x a m p l e , pictures of landslides). Enjoy the d r a m a and excitement!
If y o u c o m p l e t e d P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e 2 before class, y o u can refer to it as the
lecturer talks a b o u t the different k i n d s of m a s s w a s t i n g .
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. If you wait even o n e day m o s t
(80 p e r c e n t ) of w h a t y o u h e a r d will h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d from m e m o r y .

clearly identified the important points? E x a m p l e : You should have clear descriptions of
each t y p e of c h e m i c a l and physical weathering.
a d d e d visual m a t e r i a l ? C h u n k i n g material is a g o o d learning strategy. T h e r e are a lot
of c h e m i c a l and physical weathering processes in C h a p t e r 16. It m a y be useful to m a k e
a list of p r o c e s s e s that y o u can l o o k at as a g r o u p all in o n e place in y o u r n o t e b o o k .
U s e a t w o - c o l u m n format for this list, in w h i c h both chemical and physical w e a t h e r
processes are listed in o n e c o l u m n and details you need to r e m e m b e r about each
process are briefly described in a second c o l u m n to the right.
a d d e d s i m p l e s k e t c h e s ? C h a p t e r 16 i n c l u d e s lots of material that is best learned by
visualization. S k e t c h e s will h e l p you r e m e m b e r the key aspect of each kind of m a s s
wasting. H i n t : Your sketch need not be artistic to be useful. Sketch only the features
you n e e d to r e m e m b e r . E x a m p l e : F o r a r o c k a v a l a n c h e y o u could d r a w a steep slope
(one line at 4 5 angle) with a pile of large b l o c k s at the b o t t o m to d e s i g n a t e large
m a s s e s of b r o k e n rock (see F i g u r e 16.19).
1 79
180
PART II
C H A P T E R 16
a d d e d a c o m p a r i s o n chart that will h e l p y o u m a s t e r the classification of different

kinds of mass wasting? Hint: See Exercise 2.
created a brief b i g picture o v e r v i e w of this lecture (using a sketch or written outline)

s h o w i n g h o w w e a t h e r i n g w o r k s ? S u g g e s t i o n for C h a p t e r 16: W r i t e a brief summary
of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t points you have learned from this c h a p t e r that might influence
y o u r c h o i c e of future h o m e sites.

Set priorities for studying this chapter. We r e c o m m e n d giving t h e h i g h e s t priority to activities
that involve a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention to any e x e r c i s e s recommended by
the instructor during lecture and a n s w e r t h o s e first. T h e instructor is a l s o y o u r best resource
if y o u are w o n d e r i n g w h i c h material is m o s t i m p o r t a n t .
A n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s w h i l e u s i n g y o u r text and lecture notes as reference material is far
m o r e efficient than r e r e a d i n g chapters or g l a n c i n g over n o t e s . As a l w a y s , y o u have three
s o u r c e s from w h i c h to c h o o s e q u e s t i o n s .
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Be sure to do the exercises, as they
will focus on the key information y o u need to learn in this c h a p t e r n a m e l y ,
h o w w e a t h e r i n g w o r k s , h o w soils form, factors that e n h a n c e the potential for
m a s s wasting, and the classification of m a s s m o v e m e n t s .
Text. A n s w e r E x e r c i s e s 2, 4, 5, and 8. A l s o c o m p l e t e T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s 1, 2,
4, 6, 9, and 10.
Do the O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s Soils, Rock Mass Movements and Unconsolidated Mass Movement. T h e G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercises will allow y o u to
apply w h a t y o u learned a b o u t w e a t h e r i n g to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the beautiful form a t i o n s of B r y c e C a n y o n N a t i o n a l Park. T h e r e is also a G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e
exercise o n assessing potential h a z a r d s from m a s s w a s t i n g . C o m p l e t e the
G r a d e d O n l i n e Q u i z a n d O n l i n e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular attention
to the e x p l a n a t i o n s of the a n s w e r s .
T h e C h a p t e r 16 I n t e r a c t i v e E x e r c i s e M i n e r a l Stability on t h e W e b site will h e l p y o u review
the susceptibility of c o m m o n m i n e r a l s to c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g . N o t e that the susceptibility of
c o m m o n silicate m i n e r a l s to c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is closely related to their silicate crystal
structure. Q u a r t z , a f r a m e w o r k silicate, is very stable on the E a r t h ' s surface, w h e r e a s olivine,
w i t h an isolated silica tetrahedral crystal structure, is very s u s c e p t i b l e to c h e m i c a l weathering. Refer to F i g u r e 3.9.
As y o u study the m a n y different types of m a s s m o v e m e n t illustrated in the figures, assess
w h a t factors are m o s t i m p o r t a n t in c a u s i n g slope instability. R e m e m b e r that t h e three most
i m p o r t a n t factors e n h a n c i n g the potential for m a s s m o v e m e n t s are the s t e e p n e s s of t h e slope,
the n a t u r e of t h e rock material in the slope, and the w a t e r c o n t e n t of t h e s l o p e material.
Man can
live without gold,
but not without salt.

FALVIUS MAGNUS CASSIODORUS
A R O M A N POLITICIAN OF THE FIFTH CENTURY A . D .
Exam Prep
O r g a n i z a t i o n is key to successful e x a m p r e p a r a t i o n . It b e g i n s with n o t e t a k i n g and t i m e m a n a g e m e n t . Start t h i n k i n g n o w a b o u t h o w to o r g a n i z e y o u r t i m e for y o u r next e x a m . H e r e are a
few tips that s h o u l d m a k e y o u r e x a m p r e p m o r e efficient.
181
Tips for Preparing for Exams

U s e t h e c l u e s t h e instructor p r o v i d e s in lecture about w h a t is i m p o r t a n t . E v e n w h e n
a d e p a r t m e n t a g r e e s on a c o m m o n c o r e of material (rare), e a c h instructor carves out a
c o u r s e that is u n i q u e and has a particular c h a r a c t e r or flavor and distinct areas of
e m p h a s i s . T h e instructor is the ultimate g u i d e to the question " W h a t is i m p o r t a n t ? "
Be sure y o u k n o w the format of the e x a m . Multiple c h o i c e ? T r u e - f a l s e ? E s s a y ?
T h o u g h t p r o b l e m s ? All of the a b o v e ?
R e v i e w t h e n o t e s m a r k e d TQ (test q u e s t i o n ) .
A s k the instructor if e x a m s are available from the previous semester. Review t h e m
to c h e c k the format of q u e s t i o n s , to see what areas of content are stressed, and to see
w h a t types of p r o b l e m solving are included. D o n ' t m a k e the m i s t a k e of a s s u m i n g that
the s a m e q u e s t i o n s will be asked this semester.
Be sure to attend review sessions if they are offered. A t t e n d i n g a review session will
raise y o u r e x a m s c o r e .
If your class has tutors, preceptors, supplemental instruction leaders, or other peer
helpers w h o have taken the class, ask for their suggestions about preparing for the exam.
O n c e y o u are clear a b o u t the n a t u r e of the e x a m , begin y o u r review. C o n d u c t
the review in an orderly, systematic m a n n e r that e n s u r e s focused review of all the
important m a t e r i a l . Be sure to take a look at the E i g h t - D a y S t u d y Plan in A p p e n d i x A.
This plan is a great m o d e l for productive review.
Materials in this section are particularly useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s and

examinations. T h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s
will simplify y o u r c h a p t e r review. Read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It
provides a helpful o v e r v i e w that will refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k o n t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d on an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h q u e s tion that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r ing the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Figure 16.16. Landslide at Turnagain

Heights, Anchorage, Alaska, triggered
by the earthquake of 1964. This is a
classic example of the role of liquefaction in enhancing the potential for
mass wasting.
1 82
Chapter Summary
What is weathering?
Physical weathering breaks rock into smaller pieces, and chemical weathering
alters and dissolves the minerals in the rock. T h e principal factors that influence
weathering are the composition of the parent rock, topography (stability of the
land surface), and climate. T h e r e is a positive feedback b e t w e e n physical and
chemical weathering, w h e r e o n e enhances the other if conditions are favorable.
A g o o d e x a m p l e of this positive feedback is soil formation. As physical and
chemical weathering proceed to alter a stable surface of r o c k material, a soil
forms. T h e formation of soil p r o m o t e s weathering by increasing the availability
of moisture and producing acidic chemical conditions. Soils also p r o m o t e the
growth of plants, w h i c h aid both physical and chemical weathering.
How does chemical weathering work?

H o w c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g w o r k s is well illustrated by three e x a m p l e s . First,
t h e c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g of feldspars, w h i c h are the m o s t a b u n d a n t silicate
mineral in the E a r t h ' s crust, illustrates h o w w a t e r with t h e h e l p of c a r b o n i c
acid can transform feldspars into clay m i n e r a l s and d i s s o l v e silica a n d salts
(cations). Refer to F i g u r e 16.4. S e c o n d , the reaction of o x y g e n w i t h t h e iron in
f e r r o m a g n e s i u m m i n e r a l s like p y r o x e n e illustrates oxidation. Refer to F i g u r e
16.5. Third, the reaction of calcite and other c a r b o n a t e m i n e r a l s that m a k e up
l i m e s t o n e exemplifies the role naturally acidic w a t e r p l a y s in d i s s o l v i n g rock.
How does physical weathering work?

Physical w e a t h e r i n g involves a variety of p r o c e s s e s that b r e a k r o c k into fragments. Physical weathering is promoted by chemical weathering, which weakens grain b o u n d a r i e s within the rock. Physical w e a t h e r i n g also p r o m o t e s
c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g by increasing the surface area of the b r o k e n r o c k fragm e n t s . F r o s t w e d g i n g , mineral crystallization, and life p r o c e s s e s play a m a j o r
role in b r e a k i n g r o c k apart.
How do soils form as products of weathering?

Soils are a p r o d u c t of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g of rock that has r e m a i n e d in p l a c e
for a period of t i m e . Soil formation is m o s t affected by c l i m a t e . T h e c o m p o s i tion of the p a r e n t rock, c l i m a t e , t o p o g r a p h y , life p r o c e s s e s , and t i m e are also
i m p o r t a n t factors in soil formation. Soil formation involves the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
and translocation of materials. Refer to F i g u r e 16.12. Soils, water, a n d t h e air
w e b r e a t h e are the three m o s t basic natural r e s o u r c e s .
What is mass wasting?

M a s s m o v e m e n t s (also called m a s s w a s t i n g ) are slides, flows, or falls of large
m a s s e s of r o c k material d o w n slopes w h e n the pull of gravity e x c e e d s the
strength of the slope m a t e r i a l s . M a s s m o v e m e n t s c a n be t r i g g e r e d by earthq u a k e s , a b s o r p t i o n of large quantities of w a t e r from torrential rainfall, u n d e r cutting by flooding rivers, h u m a n activities, or other g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s .
Why do mass movements occur?

T h e t h r e e m o s t i m p o r t a n t factors i n f l u e n c i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l for m a s s m o v e m e n t s are t h e s t e e p n e s s o f t h e s l o p e , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r o c k m a k i n g u p the
s l o p e , a n d t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t o f t h e s l o p e m a t e r i a l . S e e Table 16.4. A l t h o u g h
steep s l o p e s are p r o n e to m a s s m o v e m e n t s , s l o p e s of o n l y a few d e g r e e s can
also fail c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y b e c a u s e of t h e s e o t h e r factors.
Slopes b e c o m e unstable w h e n they b e c o m e steeper than the angle of repose (the
m a x i m u m slope angle that unconsolidated material will assume). Slopes in consolidated material m a y also b e c o m e unstable w h e n they are oversteepened or
d e n u d e d of vegetation. Erosion by rivers and glaciers and h u m a n activities can
oversteepen slopes and thereby increase the potential for m a s s movement.
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n , texture, and g e o l o g i c structure of the slope material is another i m p o r t a n t factor influencing the potential for slope failure. F o r e x a m p l e ,
rocks with h i g h clay c o n t e n t t e n d to be w e a k and m a y liquefy. Tilted layers of
s e d i m e n t a r y or v o l c a n i c r o c k s are m o r e likely to fail along b e d d i n g planes
w h e n the b e d d i n g parallels the slope. Failure of foliated m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s is
m o r e likely to o c c u r parallel to the direction of foliation.
Water a b s o r b e d by t h e slope material contributes to instability in t w o w a y s : (1)
by l o w e r i n g internal friction (and thus resistance to flow) a n d (2) by lubricating p l a n e s of w e a k n e s s in the slope.
How are mass movements classified?

Material that m a k e s up t h e slope, the w a y it m o v e s , and the rate of m o v e m e n t
are u s e d to classified m a s s m o v e m e n t s . Refer to Figure 16.17 and t h e m a n y
other figures that illustrate types of m a s s m o v e m e n t .
How can damage from mass movements be minimized?

T h e h a z a r d s a n d d a m a g e associated with m a s s m o v e m e n t s can be m i n i m i z e d
by careful g e o l o g i c a l a s s e s s m e n t , e n g i n e e r i n g , and land u s e policies that
restrict d e v e l o p m e n t on u n s t a b l e slopes. Of particular i m p o r t a n c e is the avoidance of s t e e p e n i n g or u n d e r c u t t i n g slopes a n d m i n i m i z i n g the a m o u n t of water
that c a n infiltrate t h e slope material. In s o m e areas particularly p r o n e to m a s s
m o v e m e n t s , d e v e l o p m e n t m a y h a v e t o b e restricted.
Table 16.4 Factors That Influence Mass Movements

Nature of slope
material
Water content
UNCONSOLIDATED
Loose sand or s a n d y silt
Unconsolidated m i x t u r e of sand,
silt, soil, and r o c k fragments
CONSOLIDATED
Rock, j o i n t e d and d e f o r m e d
Rock, m a s s i v e
Steepness
of slope
Stability
of slope
dry
wet
angle of repose
high
moderate
dry
wet
moderate
high
low
dry
wet
steep
high
low
dry or w e t
m o d e r a t e to steep
moderate
dry or w e t
dry or wet
moderate
steep
high
moderate
1 83
184
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Physical and chemical weathering

A n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s in t h e flowchart.
Exercise 2: Inventory of the different kinds of mass wasting

T h e authors discuss eight different kinds of m a s s wasting. As an aid to learning the circumstances
that favor each one, use your textbook to complete the table. Textbook figures and figure captions
will help you.
H i n t : You p r o b a b l y h a v e n ' t seen m a n y o f t h e s e features before, s o b e sure t o examine
t h e p h o t o s a n d figures of e a c h t y p e of m a s s w a s t i n g in y o u r t e x t b o o k . If y o u are a visual learner, this activity m a y be vital. A l s o , to get a kinesthetic feel for t h e s e m o v e m e n t s , imagine
yourself trying to o u t r u n e a c h m o v e m e n t . Indicate in the s p a c e l a b e l e d " S p e e d " w h e t h e r you
c o u l d e s c a p e t h e m a s s m o v e m e n t by w a l k i n g , r u n n i n g , or m o v i n g as fast as a s p e e d i n g auto.
Kind of mass
wasting
Rock
Composition of slope
(consolidated vs. unconsolidated
and wet vs. dry)
185
Characteristics
Speed: Running or a speeding auto
Slope angle: Steep slopes
Triggering event(s): Earthquakes
N o t e s : Occur in mountainous regions where rock
is weakened by weathering,
structural deformation,
weak bedding, or cleavage planes
avalanche
Speed:
Creep
S l o p e angle: Any angle

Triggering event(s): None
Notes:
Earthflows
Speed:
Triggering event(s): Intense rainfall
N o t e s : Fluidlike movement
Debris
Speed:
Triggering event(s):
Notes:
flow
Debris
avalanche
Mostly finer rock materials with some

coarser rock debris with large amounts
of water
Speed:
Slope angle:
Triggering event(s): Intense rainfall or catastrophic
melting of ice and snow by a volcanic eruption.
N o t e s : Contains large amounts of water
Water-saturated
Speed:
Slope angle:
Notes:
soil
and
rock
Speed: Walking
Triggering event(s): Rainfall
Notes:
Slump
Surface layers of soil
Speed: Walking
N o t e s : Occurs only in cold regions when water in the
surface layers of the soil alternately freezes and
thaws; water cannot seep into the ground because
deeper layers are frozen.
Exercise 3: Water's role in mass wasting

Water e n h a n c e s the potential for m a s s w a s t i n g in m a n y w a y s . U s i n g y o u r t e x t b o o k as a g u i d e ,
briefly d e s c r i b e five different w a y s water e n h a n c e s the potential for m a s s m o v e m e n t s .
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
186
A . D i s c u s s three factors that e n h a n c e the p o t e n t i a l for m a s s m o v e m e n t a t the h o m e site in the figure.

1.
2.
2.
B. Given that the h o u s e is already built on this site, briefly discuss t w o p o s s i b l e ways
of r e d u c i n g the risk of d a m a g e to the h o u s e d u e to slope failure.
1.
2.
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of t h e Study G u i d e .
1. Of t h e following a g e n t s , w h i c h is N O T involved in the p r o c e s s of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g ?
A. water
B. oxygen
C. carbon d i o x i d e
D . nitrogen
2 . T h e following p r o d u c t s all result from c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g E X C E P T

A. feldspar.
B . iron o x i d e s .
C. silica in solution.
D . clay m i n e r a l s .
3. W h i c h of t h e following m i n e r a l s does N O T c h e m i c a l l y w e a t h e r into a clay m i n e r a l ?

A. muscovite
B . K-feldspar
C. pyroxene
D . quartz
4. Of t h e following materials, w h i c h o n e w o u l d m a k e the longest lasting t o m b s t o n e ?

A.
B.
C.
D.
limestone
shale
granite
s a n d s t o n e c e m e n t e d with c a l c i u m carbonate.
5. An e x a m p l e of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is
A.
B.
C.
D.
rusty streaks on a r o c k wall.

a n g u l a r b l o c k s of r o c k rubble in the m o u n t a i n s .
p o t h o l e s in p a v e m e n t .
r o c k s w e d g e d apart b y tree roots.
6. A l t h o u g h w a t e r is an i m p o r t a n t agent of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g in its o w n right, it

b e c o m e s m o r e effective if small a m o u n t s of c a r b o n i c acid are present. C a r b o n i c acid is
formed when
A. c a r b o n from coal b e d s or from graphite deposits is pulverized along a fault or fracture and then a d d e d to water.
B. c a r b o n d i o x i d e from the a t m o s p h e r e or from organic d e c o m p o s i t i o n is a d d e d to
water.
C. sulfur from coal-fired p o w e r plants is a d d e d to water.
D. w a t e r c o m e s in contact with the calcite in a l i m e s t o n e layer.
7. T h e potential for c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g can be greatly e n h a n c e d by physical w e a t h e r i n g
b e c a u s e p h y s i c a l w e a t h e r i n g increases
A. the surface area of t h e r o c k particles.
B. t h e availability of c h e m i c a l agents.
C. d r a i n a g e and thereby r e d u c e s c o n t a c t with water.
D. t h e size of the r o c k particles.
8. L i m e s t o n e and other c a r b o n a t e r o c k s w e a t h e r relatively fast in a
A.
B.
C.
D.
dry
dry
wet
wet
/
/
/
/
climate d u e to
oxidation
hydrolysis
p h y s i c a l w e a t h e r i n g reaction
dissolution p r o m o t e d by c a r b o n i c acid
9. G e o r g i a soil, along w i t h that of other w a r m , h u m i d regions, is d e e p red in color. T h i s

color is d u e to
A. iron o x i d e s .
B . quartz.
C. feldspar.
D . clay m i n e r a l s .
187
1 88
10. C l a y m i n e r a l s , like kaolinite, are a p r o d u c t of

and are a r a w material for
w e a t h e r i n g of
minerals
A. c h e m i c a l / silicate / pottery
B. p h y s i c a l / sulfate / c e m e n t
C. c h e m i c a l / sulfide / asphalt
D. physical / c a r b o n a t e / fertilizers
11. W h i c h of the following climatic regions experiences the m o s t rapid chemical weathering?
A. hot, low precipitation
B. e x t r e m e l y cold, low precipitation
C. hot, high precipitation
D. e x t r e m e l y cold, high precipitation
12. Soil p r o d u c t i o n is often d e s c r i b e d as a "positive f e e d b a c k " p r o c e s s . W h y ?
A. C a r b o n d i o x i d e in r a i n w a t e r is u s e d up by o r g a n i s m s , so w e a t h e r i n g of underlying
r o c k is i m p e d e d .
B. R a i n w a t e r b e c o m e s m o r e acidic as it percolates t h r o u g h t h e soil, so weathering of
u n d e r l y i n g rock is p r o m o t e d .
C. O n c e a l a y e r of soil is f o r m e d , t h e u n d e r l y i n g r o c k is p r o t e c t e d f r o m further
weathering.
D. P l a n t g r o w t h r e d u c e s the potential for w e a t h e r i n g and therefore of soil development.
13. Of the following minerals, the o n e m o s t rapidly altered by c h e m i c a l weathering would be
A. m i c a (sheet silicate), such as biotite.
B . a m p h i b o l e ( d o u b l e chain silicate), s u c h a s h o r n b l e n d e .
C. p y r o x e n e (single chain silicate), such as augite.
D. isolated silica t e t r a h e d r a m i n e r a l , such as olivine.
H i n t : Refer to Table 16.2.
14. A c i d rain
the potential for c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g .
A. neutralizes
C.
B. d o e s not affect
D. d e c r e a s e s
increases
H i n t : Refer to p a g e s 5 6 9 - 5 7 0 in C h a p t e r 23 of the textbook.

15. W h a t h a p p e n s c h e m i c a l l y to the q u a r t z sand grains in a c a l c i t e - c e m e n t e d s a n d s t o n e that
is undergoing moderate chemical weathering?
A . T h e y c o m b i n e with water.
B . T h e y dissolve.
C. T h e y oxidize.
D. Virtually n o t h i n g t h e y b e c o m e grains of q u a r t z sand.
16. R o c k material that tends to result in the m o s t fertile soils is
weathered.
A. not at all
B . very w e a k l y
C.
moderately
D . intensely
17. P h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g in the w a r m , w e t climates of the E a r t h ' s surface alter
e x p o s e d granite to
A. q u a r t z and feldspar sand.
B. olivine sand.
C. iron-rich soil.
D. quartz sand and clay.
Figure 16.5. The general course of chemical reactions by which an

iron-rich mineral, such as pyroxene, weathers in the presence of oxygen
and water.
18. In t h e d a y s of t h e p h a r a o h s of E g y p t , a c h e r i s h e d status s y m b o l w a s t h e obelisk, a

s t o n e c o l u m n d e c o r a t e d w i t h h i e r o g l y p h s ( d e s i g n s c a r v e d into t h e s t o n e u s u a l l y
s a n d s t o n e ) . I n 1 8 7 9 t h e o b e l i s k o f T h o t h m e s III from t h e t e m p l e o f H e l i o p o l i s w a s
m o v e d t o C e n t r a l P a r k i n N e w York City. W i t h i n a b o u t sixty y e a r s t h e h i e r o g l y p h s
w e r e b a r e l y v i s i b l e o n t h e obelisk, w h i l e its c o u n t e r p a r t still s t a n d i n g i n E g y p t
r e m a i n s i n n e a r l y perfect c o n d i t i o n i n t h e d e s e r t sun after a l m o s t 4 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . W h y
d i d t h e s t o n e o b e l i s k d e t e r i o r a t e s o q u i c k l y w h e n i t w a s m o v e d t o N e w York C i t y ?
H i n t : Refer to Figures 16.1, 16.11, and 23.18.
19. W h i c h hillside h o m e s i t e is the best l o n g - t e r m i n v e s t m e n t ?
A. site A
B. siteB
C. s i t e C
D. siteD
20. W h a t force drives m a s s w a s t i n g ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
heat
gravity
friction
convection
2 1 . M a s s w a s t i n g tends t o o c c u r w h e n
A.
B.
C.
D.
a slope b e c o m e s steeper d u e to u n d e r c u t t i n g by a river or o c e a n w a v e s .

t h e m a s s on a slope d e c r e a s e s by draining water from the ground.
friction is i n c r e a s e d by draining water from t h e g r o u n d .
friction is d e c r e a s e d by taking water out of the ground.
22. Talus consists largely of

A. clay a n d other very fine r o c k particles.
B. a m i x t u r e of p o w d e r e d r o c k a n d ice.
C. c o a r s e , a n g u l a r r o c k fragments.
D. alternate layers of sand, silt, and clay.
23. T h e a n g l e of r e p o s e is the
A.
B.
C.
D.
a n g l e at w h i c h r o c k material is m o s t stable.
a n g l e at w h i c h lava flows solidify w i t h o u t spreading out.
a n g l e of a slope that will no longer support large b o u l d e r s a n d r o c k pillars.
m a x i m u m slope at which loose material lies without cascading down.
1 89
190
2 4 . An i m p o r t a n t factor in m a s s w a s t i n g is the orientation of r o c k layers, foliation, or jointing. For layered s e d i m e n t a r y and volcanic r o c k s , w h i c h c o n d i t i o n is the least stable?
A. R o c k layers are at right a n g l e s to t h e slope.
B. R o c k layers are parallel to the slope.
C. R o c k layers are horizontal to the slope.
D . R o c k layers stand vertical.
Test-Taking Tip
T i m e p e r m i t t i n g , it is s o m e t i m e s helpful to sketch the alternatives to a test question.
For e x a m p l e , if you a r e n ' t sure about the a n s w e r to R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n 2 4 , then y o u could
sketch r o c k layers at right a n g l e s to the slope, r o c k layers parallel to the slope, and so
o n . S k e t c h i n g can be particularly useful if y o u are a kinesthetic learner, as t h e action
o f d r a w i n g m a y j o g o r u n l o c k y o u r m e m o r y w h e n y o u are stuck.
2 5 . W h i c h o f t h e following w o u l d b e m o s t subject t o m a s s m o v e m e n t s ( a s s u m i n g slope and

c l i m a t e are the s a m e in e a c h c a s e ) ?
A . h i g h - g r a d e gneiss, with highly c o n t o r t e d foliation
B . q u a r t z - c e m e n t e d s a n d s t o n e , with layering p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the slope
C. shale, with b e d d i n g parallel to the slope
D . m a s s i v e granite b e d r o c k
2 6 . Solifluction usually o c c u r s in
A . cold r e g i o n s .
B. very cold r e g i o n s like A n t a r c t i c a .
C. any area w h e r e there is a lot of s u n s h i n e .
D . tropical r e g i o n s .
2 7 . W h i c h of the following options is the m o s t effective w a y to stabilize an active landslide?
A. piling additional r o c k and soil material on the l a n d s l i d e n e a r its top
B. saturating the l a n d s l i d e itself with w a t e r
C. d r a i n i n g t h e w a t e r a w a y from and out of the l a n d s l i d e area
D. cutting a w a y the toe (base) of the landslide
2 8 . R o a d s t h r o u g h m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n s tend t o b e u n s t a b l e and r e q u i r e m o r e maintenance
if they are built on
A. b e d r o c k such as granite.
B . horizontal lava flows.
C. r o c k layers that dip p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the hillslope.
D. r o c k layers that dip parallel to the hillslope.
2 9 . Your beautifully l a n d s c a p e d h o u s e , built on an idyllic G e o r g i a hillside site of small,
irregularly u n d u l a t i n g knolls and d e p r e s s i o n s , with trees tilted at interesting angles, has
d e v e l o p e d a bad case of b r o k e n and shifting foundation. T h e p r o b a b l e c a u s e for the
foundation p r o b l e m is
A . m e l t i n g permafrost.
B. that the h o u s e is built on an active earthflow.
C. m u d f l o w from an active n e a r b y v o l c a n o .
D. r o o t w e d g i n g from the trees.
30. H o m e o w n e r s in California w h o s e houses survived recent wildfires are not quite out of
t h e w o o d s yet. W i t h the a p p r o a c h i n g rainy season their next p r o b l e m will b e
A. increased potential for m u d f l o w s and debris flows.
B . accelerated soil erosion.
C. flash floods.
CHAPTER 17
The Hydrologic Cycle

and Groundwater
Figure 17.2. The hydrologic cycle.
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e time previewing the chapter. For an efficient preview use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions, a framework for understanding the chapter. Previewing
works best if you do it just before lecture. With the main points in mind, you will understand the
lecture better and take better notes.
H o w m u c h t i m e s h o u l d y o u devote t o p r e v i e w ? O b v i o u s l y , m o r e t i m e i s better than less.
B u t even a brief (five- or t e n - m i n u t e ) p r e v i e w session j u s t before lecture b e g i n s will p r o d u c e
191
192
PART li C H A P T E R 17
a result y o u will notice. For a refresher on w h y previewing is important, see Part I, Chapter 3,
H o w t o B e Successful i n G e o l o g y .
Chapter Preview
H o w d o e s w a t e r m o v e a r o u n d a n d i n the E a r t h ?
Brief answer: T h e h y d r o l o g i c cycle is a m o d e l for the m o v e m e n t of water on Earth.
H o w does water move below the ground surface?

Brief a n s w e r : Porosity and permeability are the principle factors that control the
infiltration and How of groundwater. (Skim the textbook section H o w Water Flows.)
W h a t factors g o v e r n o u r use of g r o u n d w a t e r r e s o u r c e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Water, like soil and air, is a basic natural r e s o u r c e . S o m e of the
m o s t i m p o r t a n t factors g o v e r n i n g our ability to use g r o u n d w a t e r are the d e p t h to
the g r o u n d w a t e r table, springs and artesian s y s t e m s , the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r e c h a r g e
and d i s c h a r g e , D a r c y ' s law, and w a t e r quality.
W h a t g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s are affected b y g r o u n d w a t e r ?
Brief a n s w e r : G r o u n d w a t e r is the g e o l o g i c a g e n t r e s p o n s i b l e for c a v e s , karst
t o p o g r a p h y , and the formations that d e c o r a t e caves. G r o u n d w a t e r is a vital component
of g e o t h e r m a l s y s t e m s . S e e F i g u r e s 17.19, 17.20, and 17.23.
Figure 17.1. The distribution of

water on Earth.
During Lecture
Warm-Up Activity
S p e n d 5 to 10 m i n u t e s j u s t before lecture b r o w s i n g Earth I s s u e s 1 7 . 1 , W a t e r Is a
P r e c i o u s R e s o u r c e : W h o S h o u l d G e t It? and 17.2, W h e n D o e s G r o u n d w a t e r B e c o m e
a N o n r e n e w a b l e R e s o u r c e ? W h i c h issue interests y o u the m o s t ? After b r o w s i n g ,
ask yourself w h a t y o u w o u l d m o s t like to learn from this c h a p t e r and lecture.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 17 is a
survey of w a t e r in and a r o u n d the Earth. It tells the story of the h y d r o l o g i c
cycle: h o w w a t e r m o v e s a r o u n d and in the Earth and m a i n t a i n s a b a l a n c e d
waterflow budget.
First focus on u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e 17.2 (the h y d r o l o g i c cycle).
T h e n w o r k on u n d e r s t a n d i n g the factors that govern the flow of g r o u n d w a t e r ,
illustrated in the figures on p a g e s 4 0 8 ^ 1 1 1 .
The Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to r e v i e w y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both general r e v i e w tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.

included a clear representation of the hydrologic cycle s o m e w h e r e in y o u r notes
(see F i g u r e 17.9)?
IZ clearly identified factors that govern our use of g r o u n d w a t e r , for e x a m p l e , depth of
the g r o u n d w a t e r table, springs and artesian s y s t e m s , the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n recharge
and d i s c h a r g e , D a r c e y ' s law?
a d d e d visual material to h e l p you understand the m a t e r i a l ? Suggestion: S k e t c h a
simple version of Figure 17.7 (porosity of rock materials; m a k e a copy of Practice
Exercise 1 after you h a v e c o m p l e t e d the chart and insert it into y o u r notes. (It will be
great aid for e x a m review, it s u m m a r i z e s all you will need to k n o w about porosity.)
created a brief big picture o v e r v i e w of this lecture (using a sketch or written outline)?
Figure 17.2 p r o v i d e s a good visual s u m m a r y of the chapter. Activate kinesthetic
learning by a d d i n g a simplified version to y o u r notes.

Set priorities for studying this chapter. Give the highest priority to activities that involve answering questions. We r e c o m m e n d the following strategy for learning this chapter.
Text. R e v i e w the important figures in Chapter 17. T h e y are Figures 17.2, 17.7,
17.9, 17.10, 1 7 . 1 1 , 17.12, 17.14, 17.15, and 17.20. Insert simple sketches of
these figures into y o u r lecture notes.
S o m e t i m e before the next e x a m , c o m p l e t e the exercises at the end of the
text chapter. T h e exercises require short a n s w e r s and w o n ' t take long if y o u
k n o w the m a t e r i a l . N o t e that helpful a n i m a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d on the W e b site
for E x e r c i s e s 3, 5, and 6.
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e Practice E x e r c i s e s 1
and 2. T h e s e exercises will h e l p y o u r e m e m b e r i m p o r t a n t ideas in the chapter.
T h e n w o r k on a n s w e r i n g each of t h e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s to c h e c k y o u r understanding of t h e lecture. C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s as y o u go, but do try to a n s w e r the
q u e s t i o n before you l o o k at t h e answer. P a y attention to the test-taking tips.
T h e y will h e l p y o u d o better o n q u i z z e s and e x a m s .
C o m p l e t e the O n l i n e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular attention t o t h e explanations for t h e a n s w e r s . Be sure to c h e c k out t h e a n i m a t i o n s of an aquifer and
a confined aquifer and the d y n a m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r e c h a r g e and discharge.
T h e G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercises involve y o u in an o n g o i n g c a s e study
involving g r o u n d c o n t a m i n a t i o n .
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r preparation for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e
Chapter S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
overview that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well you have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
1 93
194
After y o u a n s w e r the questions, score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h question

that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r answering the
Chapter Summary
How does water move around and in the Earth?
T h e h y d r o l o g i c c y c l e is a flowchart or m o d e l for the distribution and m o v e m e n t s of w a t e r on and b e l o w the surface of the Earth. T h e major reservoirs of
the h y d r o l o g i c cycle are o c e a n s , glaciers, g r o u n d w a t e r , lakes and rivers, the
a t m o s p h e r e , and the b i o s p h e r e , in d e c r e a s i n g v o l u m e s . W a t e r m o v e s in a n d out
of t h e s e reservoirs by various p a t h w a y s and at varying r a t e s . O v e r the short
t e r m a b a l a n c e is m a i n t a i n e d a m o n g the major reservoirs at and n e a r the
E a r t h ' s surface. However, c l i m a t e c h a n g e and l o n g e r - t e r m tectonic p r o c e s s e s
such as m o u n t a i n building and h u m a n activity c a n alter the rate of w a t e r m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n reservoirs and c a n affect the size of the r e s e r v o i r s .
How does water move below the ground surface?

T h e infiltration of w a t e r into the g r o u n d and g r o u n d w a t e r flow are largely c o n trolled by the porosity and p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e r o c k materials and t o p o g r a p h y .
A g r o u n d w a t e r aquifer is in d y n a m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r e c h a r g e (the a m o u n t of
w a t e r that infiltrates into the aquifer) and d i s c h a r g e , w h i c h c a n o c c u r from
springs or w e l l s .
What factors govern our use of groundwater resources

D a r c y ' s law describes the g r o u n d w a t e r flow rate in relation to the s l o p e of the
water table and the p e r m e a b i l i t y of the aquifer.
H u m a n d e m a n d for g r o u n d w a t e r has i n c r e a s e d to a level w h e r e p u m p i n g disc h a r g e s from m a n y aquifers e x c e e d s the natural rates of r e c h a r g e . As a result,
aquifers are b e i n g depleted and g r o u n d w a t e r tables are l o w e r i n g to a p o i n t
w h e r e d e p e n d a b l y h i g h - q u a l i t y g r o u n d w a t e r is b e c o m i n g m o r e and m o r e of a
c h a l l e n g e to supply.
W a t e r quality m a y be c o m p r o m i s e d by b o t h natural and h u m a n s o u r c e s of c o n t a m i n a t i o n . Various factors like r e c h a r g e rate and aquifer size influence the
a m o u n t of effort and effectiveness of a t t e m p t s to clean up c o n t a m i n a t i o n .
What geologic processes and features are associated

with groundwater?
C a v e s , s i n k h o l e s , and associated karst t o p o g r a p h y are a result of t h e dissolution of c a r b o n a t e r o c k s (limestone) by g r o u n d w a t e r . K a r s t t o p o g r a p h y is well
d e v e l o p e d in r e g i o n s of high rainfall, a b u n d a n t vegetation, u n d e r l y i n g fractured l i m e s t o n e , and an a p p r e c i a b l e h y d r o l o g i c g r a d i e n t to e n h a n c e g r o u n d w a t e r flow rates. E n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h karst r e g i o n s
include surface s u b s i d e n c e from collapse of u n d e r g r o u n d s p a c e and catastrophic cave-ins and s i n k h o l e formation.
All r o c k s b e l o w the g r o u n d w a t e r table are saturated with water. W i t h i n c r e a s ing depth, porosity and p e r m e a b i l i t y typically d e c r e a s e as confining p r e s s u r e
i n c r e a s e s . W a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e increases progressively with i n c r e a s i n g d e p t h
and, as a result, the w a t e r dissolves m o r e solids. H o t springs and g e y s e r s are
surface e x p r e s s i o n s of the circulation of h y d r o t h e r m a l w a t e r s over a m a g m a
b o d y or a l o n g a d e e p - s e a t e d fault.
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Exercise 1: Evaluating rock materials as potential aquifers

You have recently purchased a rustic country cabin and need to drill a new well for a dependable
water s u p p l y for the c a b i n . T h e g e o l o g y a r o u n d y o u r cabin is c o m p l e x b e c a u s e of ancient
mountain-building events. B e c a u s e the rocks are folded and faulted, it is difficult to predict w h a t
rock might be encountered as the water well is drilled. W h i c h of the rock materials in the table
has the potential of yielding groundwater to your well? Fill in the blank parts of the table. H i n t :
Keep in m i n d that permeability generally, but not always, increases as porosity increases. P e r m e ability also d e p e n d s on the sizes of the pores, h o w well they are connected, and h o w tortuous a
path the water m u s t travel to pass through the material. Refer to Figure 17.7 and Table 17.2.
Rock material
Porosity (high,
medium, low)
Potential as an aquifer
(good, moderate, poor)
Loose, w e l l - s o r t e d , c o a r s e sand
Silt and clay
Low
Granite and g n e i s s
Poor
Highly fractured granite

Sandstone
Medium
Shale
Highly j o i n t e d l i m e s t o n e
Moderate
to
good
Figure 17.7. Pores in rocks are normally filled partly or

entirely with water.
1 95
1 96
Exercise 2: Evaluating groundwater wells
E v a l u a t e t h e potential characteristics of e a c h w e l l as 'high,

Well A p o t e n t i a l for
low,
or
none.
1. pollution
2. artesian flow
3. discharge
Well B p o t e n t i a l for
4. pollution
5. artesian flow
6. d i s c h a r g e
7. l o n g - t e r m supply
Well C p o t e n t i a l for
8. pollution
9. artesian flow
10. discharge
Americans
now
47 gallons
of soda pop
drink
more
to
only
soda
pop
than
water from
37 gallons of water per person
the
kitchen
tap
each year.
WORLD
WATCH,
1990
Review Questions
A n s w e r s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
1. In the h y d r o l o g i c cycle, h o w d o e s the evaporation rate from the l a n d surface c o m p a r e
with t h e evaporation rate from the o c e a n s ?
A . T h e evaporation rate i s m u c h greater from the l a n d t h a n f r o m t h e o c e a n s .
B . T h e evaporation rate i s m u c h greater from the o c e a n s t h a n f r o m t h e land.
C. E v a p o r a t i o n rates from the land and o c e a n s are e q u a l .
D. T h e r e is no r e a s o n a b l e c o m p a r i s o n b e c a u s e it is t o o w e t over the o c e a n s for evaporation to occur.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 .
2. T h e o c e a n s c o n t a i n by far the m o s t a m o u n t of w a t e r on E a r t h . W h a t is the s e c o n d largest
reservoir for w a t e r on E a r t h ?
A. lakes
C. rivers
B. groundwater
D . p o l a r ice and glaciers
3. T h e o c e a n s c o n t a i n about h o w m u c h of the water in the h y d r o s p h e r e ?

A. 9 6 %
C. 5 0 %
B. 80%
D. 3 5 %
4. W h a t h a p p e n s to t h e porosity as the grain size gets smaller?

A. It increases.
C. It d e c r e a s e s .
B. It remains unchanged.
D . n o n e o f the above
5. T h e water table is
A. the top of t h e u n s a t u r a t e d z o n e .
B. t h e top of t h e saturated z o n e .
C. generally p r e s e n t only in moist climates.
D. t h e c o n t a c t b e t w e e n an aquifer and an u n d e r l y i n g , i m p e r m e a b l e layer of rock.
6. T h e ability of a solid, such as rock, to allow fluids to p a s s t h r o u g h it is
A. d i s c h a r g e .
B . capillary fringe
C. p e r m e a b i l i t y
D . porosity.
7. An iciclelike d e p o s i t h a n g i n g from the ceiling of a cave is a

A. stalactite.
C. stalagmite.
B . karst formation.
D . quartzite.
8. Of t h e following r o c k t y p e s , w h i c h is the m o s t susceptible to g r o u n d w a t e r solution,
therefore m a k i n g it t h e formation m o s t likely to h a v e caves?
A. granite
B. sandstone
C. l i m e s t o n e
D . shale
9. A r o c k or soil layer that is water-bearing is a(n)

A. p e r c h e d w a t e r table.
C. stratum.
B. z o n e of aeration.
D. aquifer.
10. T h e potential for g e o t h e r m a l energy is h i g h e s t in a region that has n u m e r o u s
A. surface lakes.
C. h o t springs.
B. caves.
D . sinkholes.
11. An
A.
B.
C.
D.
a q u i c l u d e is
a confined aquifer.
a l w a y s located at the t o p of t h e water table.
a r o c k layer that p r o v i d e s a g o o d flow of water into a well.
an i m p e r m e a b l e r o c k layer that d o e s not allow water to flow t h r o u g h it.
12. W h i c h of the following w o u l d m a k e the best aquifer?
A.
B.
C.
D.
rock A
rockB
rockC
rock D
Porosity
Permeability
5%
10%
30%
35%
high
medium
low
medium
13. If all other c o n d i t i o n s are equal, g r o u n d w a t e r m o v e s faster

A. w h e r e sand grains are very well c e m e n t e d .
B. t h r o u g h l o o s e s a n d t h a n t h r o u g h clay.
C. w h e r e p e r m e a b i l i t y of the aquifer is lower.
D. t h r o u g h clay t h a n t h r o u g h sand.
14. A p e r c h e d w a t e r table will m o s t likely d e v e l o p on top of
A. shale.
C. gravel.
B . highly fractured granite.
D. sandstone.
15. Rivers a n d streams that flow all year long, even during long p e r i o d s w i t h o u t rain, are
p r o b a b l y fed b y
A. sinkholes.
B . springs.
C. w e l l s .
D . karst conditions.
197
198
Test-Taking Tip
W h e n you are u n s u r e about an answer, you c a n s o m e t i m e s m a k e a correct g u e s s just
by looking at the r e s p o n s e s . L o n g r e s p o n s e s are m o r e likely to be correct than short
o n e s . T h i s o c c u r s b e c a u s e p e o p l e w h o write test i t e m s have t o b e sure that t h e correct
alternative is clear and accurate, and that m a y s o m e t i m e s take m o r e w o r d s . Obviously,
this is a strategy to use only as a last resort, w h e n y o u h a v e no c l u e w h a t the correct
a n s w e r is. T h e safer strategy is to learn the material thoroughly.
16. An artesian w e l l will flow if the

A. t o p of t h e well is l o w e r t h a n t h e w a t e r table in the r e c h a r g e area.
B. t o p of t h e w e l l is h i g h e r than t h e w a t e r table in t h e r e c h a r g e area.
C. b o t t o m of t h e well is lower than the land surface in the r e c h a r g e area.
D. b o t t o m of the w e l l is l o w e r than the w a t e r table in t h e r e c h a r g e area.
17. W h i c h w e l l will exhibit artesian flow?
Test-Taking Tip: Leveraging correct answers

Be alert for i t e m s that test the s a m e i d e a or fact. Often an i t e m y o u are s u r e
a b o u t can c l u e a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e for a n o t h e r item y o u are n o t so s u r e a b o u t .
E x a m p l e : I t e m s 1 6 a n d 1 7 b o t h test the s a m e c o n c e p t , n a m e l y , w h a t m a k e s a n
a r t e s i a n well flow. L e t ' s say the p i c t u r e h e l p e d y o u figure o u t i t e m 17 but y o u
had left i t e m 16 b l a n k or w e r e n ' t s u r e of y o u r a n s w e r . N o w , after w o r k i n g
i t e m 17, y o u s h o u l d b e able t o g o b a c k a n d a n s w e r i t e m 1 6 c o r r e c t l y . I n e s s e n c e ,
y o u arc l e a r n i n g as y o u t a k e the test. L e a r n i n g by a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s is o n e of
the best ways to master material. Sound familiar?
18. W h i c h materials w o u l d m a k e the best aquifer?

A. clay and silt
C.
B . gravel and sand
D . highly c e m e n t e d s a n d s t o n e
unfractured granite
19. At a shallow depth, a w e l l will m o s t likely e n c o u n t e r a g o o d w a t e r s u p p l y in which of

the following l o c a t i o n s ?
A. in granite on a r i d g e top
B. in s a n d s t o n e on a r i d g e top
C. in shale in a valley b o t t o m
D. in s a n d s t o n e in a valley b o t t o m
H i n t : M a k e a sketch illustrating e a c h situation.
Test-Taking Tip: Eliminating incorrect answers

Unsure which is the right a n s w e r ? Try going d o w n the alternatives one at a time. Cross
out each a n s w e r that y o u think is incorrect. Hopefully, only one alternative will remain.
It will probably be the correct answer. E x a m p l e : In 19, did you eliminate the two items
that mentioned "ridge top"? If so, you narrowed your choice to shale and sandstone.
If you c o m p l e t e d the Practice Exercises, the choice between shale and sandstone w a s easy.
If not a n d this w e r e a real test, you w o u l d have to guess. But b e c a u s e you eliminated t w o
of the incorrect items, y o u r o d d s of guessing correctly would have doubled!
1 99
200
A. the spring
B.
wellB
C.
wellC
D . the s t r e a m
2 4 . A s s u m e that y o u are dealing with the s a m e aquifer at four different localities and that the
cross-sectional area t h r o u g h w h i c h the w a t e r flows (A) and the h y d r a u l i c conductivity
(K) are the s a m e for e a c h site. Given the following data on vertical d r o p (h) and flow dist a n c e (1), w h i c h well will p r o d u c e w a t e r at the highest rate ( Q ) ? Refer to F i g u r e 17.15.
A. h = 20 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 5 0 0 m e t e r s
B. h = 30 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 1 k i l o m e t e r
C. h = 3 0 0 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 6 k i l o m e t e r s
D. h = 6 0 0 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 100 k i l o m e t e r s
Figure 17.15. Darcy's law describes the

rate of groundwater flow down a slope
between two points, Elevation A and
Elevation B. The volume of water flowing
at a certain time (Q) is proportional
to the difference in height (h) between
the high and low points of the slope
(here shown as the drop in elevation of
the water table between the two points),
divided by the flow distance between
them (the hydraulic gradient, I) and by K
a constant proportional to permeability
of the aquifer. The symbol A represents
the cross-sectional area through which
the water flows.
CHAPTER 18
Stream Transport from

Mountains to Oceans
/ do not know much about gods, but I think that the river
is a strong brown godsullen, untamed, and intractable.
T.
S. ELIOT,
THE DRY SALVAGES
Figure 18.1. A river flows in a

channel that moves over a broad,
flat floodplain in a wide valley
eroded from uplands. Floodplains
may be narrow or absent in steep
valleys.
202
Before Lecture
As y o u p r e v i e w this chapter, k e e p in m i n d the o v e r a r c h i n g q u e s t i o n this c h a p t e r addresses:
H o w d o streams w o r k ?
Chapter Preview
H o w do stream valleys and their channels a n d floodplains evolve?
Brief a n s w e r : As a s t r e a m flows, it c a r v e s a valley. If t h e valley is w i d e e n o u g h , the
c h a n n e l will be s u r r o u n d e d by a floodplain into w h i c h the c h a n n e l will overflow
d u r i n g t i m e s of high water, d r o p p i n g its s e d i m e n t load as the w a t e r s p r e a d s out and
slows. C h a n n e l s m a y be straight, m e a n d e r i n g ( w i n d i n g ) , or b r a i d e d (divided,
interlacing c h a n n e l s ) .
H o w d o d r a i n a g e n e t w o r k s w o r k a s collection s y s t e m s , a n d h o w d o d e l t a s work
a s d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s for w a t e r a n d s e d i m e n t ?
Brief answer: Rivers and tributaries constitute an u p s t r e a m b r a n c h i n g d r a i n a g e network
that collects the runoff for a particular d r a i n a g e basin. T w o notable e x a m p l e s are the
Mississippi River basin and the C o l o r a d o River basin. T h e n a t u r e of a d r a i n a g e pattern
d e p e n d s on the basin topography, r o c k type, and g e o l o g i c structure. S e e F i g u r e 18.7.
Deltas form at the m o u t h s of rivers as the river b r a n c h e s into n u m e r o u s distributaries
and d r o p s (distributes) its load of sediment. S e e Figures 18.7, 18.17, and 18.18.
H o w d o e s f l o w i n g w a t e r in s t r e a m s e r o d e solid rock a n d t r a n s p o r t a n d
deposit sediments?
Brief answer: F l o w i n g w a t e r e r o d e s rock by physical and c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g
p r o c e s s e s . Turbulent flow is r e s p o n s i b l e for transporting s e d i m e n t s . W h e n a stream
flow s l o w s , the stream loses its c o m p e t e n c e to carry s e d i m e n t and d e p o s i t s it. Refer
to F i g u r e 18.15.
H o w d o e s a s t r e a m ' s l o n g i t u d i n a l profile r e p r e s e n t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n
erosion and sedimentation?
Brief a n s w e r : A s t r e a m ' s gradient (slope or longitudinal profile), base level, velocity
( s p e e d ) , d i s c h a r g e ( a m o u n t of water), and the availability of s e d i m e n t (load)
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a stream e r o d e s , d e p o s i t s , or r e a c h e s a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n erosion
and d e p o s i t i o n a n e q u i l i b r i u m , called a graded stream. C h a n g e s in these s t r e a m
characteristics can be used to predict the b e h a v i o r of a stream w h e n it is d a m m e d or
there is s o m e other c h a n g e in the d r a i n a g e .

C h a p t e r s 17 and 18 are a p a c k a g e . Be sure to review material in the first half of C h a p t e r 17.
Pay particular attention to the r o l e that s t r e a m s play in the h y d r o l o g i c c y c l e ( F i g u r e 17.2) and
h o w s t r e a m s interact with t h e g r o u n d w a t e r table (Figures 17.9, 1 7 . 1 1 , and 17.20).
During Lecture
K e e p the big picture in m i n d . D u r i n g this lecture y o u w a n t to learn h o w
s t r e a m s work. You will learn h o w w a t e r flows in c u r r e n t s , h o w s t r e a m s b r e a k
u p and e r o d e solid rock, a n d h o w s t r e a m s , c h a n n e l s , and entire d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s evolve over t i m e .
In this lecture it will be particularly helpful to k e e p the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in
front of y o u d u r i n g the lecture. N o t i c e w h i c h p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n is b e i n g
a d d r e s s e d in e a c h s e g m e n t of the lecture.
It m a y be helpful to b o o k m a r k s o m e of the key figures so that y o u c a n refer to
t h e m and a n n o t a t e y o u r t e x t b o o k a s they are d i s c u s s e d d u r i n g lecture. T h e
Stream Transport from Mountains to Oceans

following are a l m o s t certain to be referred to: F i g u r e 18.1 ( c o m p o n e n t s of a
s t r e a m s y s t e m ) , F i g u r e 18.4 (formation of natural levees by river floods),
F i g u r e 18.7 (typical d r a i n a g e n e t w o r k s ) , F i g u r e 18.15 (velocity versus particle
size), and F i g u r e 18.19 (stream n e t w o r k s ) . A n y figure from the text that is disc u s s e d in detail d u r i n g lecture should be b o o k m a r k e d and p r o m p t l y sketched
in y o u r lecture n o t e s . Be sure to leave s p a c e in y o u r notes to add sketches of
t e x t b o o k figures. If y o u are n o t g o o d at sketching or r u n out of time, cut and
paste a c o p y of t h e figure into y o u r n o t e s .
Note-Taking Tip: Leave plenty of room for visual material

There is a lot of visual material in this lecture. It is important to take notes in a format
that allows plenty of r o o m to go back after lecture and m a k e sketches that will help you
understand what you w r o t e in y o u r notes. If you take notes in a looseleaf n o t e b o o k ,
leaving r o o m is easy. Take notes on the right page, then you can go b a c k after lecture
and add simplified sketches on t h e b l a n k left p a g e . U s e the text figures as m o d e l s . If you
take notes in a spiral n o t e b o o k , you can divide the p a g e into t w o c o l u m n s by d r a w i n g a
vertical line. Take notes in the right c o l u m n and use the left c o l u m n for sketches.
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains

explained h o w s t r e a m valleys and their flood plains evolve'?
explained h o w d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s w o r k ?
explained how sediment loads are m o v e d in w a t e r ?
explained the relationship b e t w e e n stream slope, velocity, discharge, and s e d i m e n t
transport?
I 1 filled in from m e m o r y a n y t h i n g you d i d n ' t have time to write d o w n d u r i n g the
lecture?
added visual material to y o u r notes? Suggestion: Be sure to include simple sketches
of t h e types of d r a i n a g e n e t w o r k s with an annotation about the factor(s) that influence
the formation of each type.

Text. R e v i e w the key figures in Chapter 18. You have to understand these figures
to a n s w e r the review questions. Focus on Figure 18.1 (components of a stream
system), Figure 18.3 (channel patterns), Figure 18.4 (the formation of natural
levees by river floods), Figure 18.7 (typical drainage networks), Figure 18.8
(antecedent stream), Figure 18.9 (superposed stream), Figure 18.22 (the longitudinal profile), and Figures 18.23 and 18.24 (base level changes). This is a long
list of key figures, so feel free to go right to the questions and refer to the figures
as you a n s w e r them. An excellent review strategy is to w o r k through all ten exercises at the end of the chapter s o m e t i m e before y o u r next exam. T h e s e are shorta n s w e r exercises and w o n ' t take long if you k n o w the material.
203
204
P r a c t i c e Exercises and Review Questions. Complete Practice Exercise 1.

T h i s is an easy w a y to m a s t e r o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t ideas in t h e c h a p t e r
(stream velocity). T h e n d o the other Practice E x e r c i s e s and t h e R e v i e w
Q u e s t i o n s . C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s a s y o u go, but d o try t o a n s w e r e a c h q u e s t i o n
before y o u l o o k at the answer.
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t R e v i e w and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular
attention to the e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s . T h e F l a s h c a r d s will h e l p y o u
learn the t e r m s in this chapter. Do the O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s Identify the
Parts of a Marine Delta,
Flooding,
and
Create a Flood.
A l b e r t Einstein o n c e a d d r e s s e d the question, W h y d o r i v e r s m e a n d e r ?

F i g u r e 18.3 illustrates steps in the formation of river m e a n d e r s . W h y m e a n d e r s
form is still d e b a t e d . T h e G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercises e x p l o r e ideas for the
formation of river m e a n d e r s and their characteristics.
Exam Prep Tip

Study C h a p t e r s 17 and 18 as o n e integrated unit. T h i n k of w a y s g r o u n d w a t e r and stream
flow are linked.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
o v e r v i e w that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w w e l l have m a s t e r e d this chapter. After
y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review e a c h q u e s t i o n that
y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
Mark Twain,
noting how muddy the Missouri was,
proclaimed it
"too thick to navigate,
to
but too thin
cultivate."
Chapter Summary
How do stream valleys and their channels and floodplains evolve?
T h e physical features (drainage pattern, stream channel, floodplain, meand e r b e n d s i n t h e c h a n n e l , a l l u v i a l fans a n d d e l t a s ) o f a s t r e a m s y s t e m e v o l v e
over time.
W h e n s e d i m e n t - l a d e n w a t e r o v e r f l o w s t h e b a n k s of a c h a n n e l d u r i n g flood
stage, the water drops sediment, which builds up natural levees and floodplain deposits.
How do drainage networks work as collection

systems and deltas as distribution systems
for water and sediment?
D r a i n a g e n e t w o r k s exhibit different patterns d e p e n d i n g
on t o p o g r a p h y , r o c k type, and g e o l o g i c structure in the
d r a i n a g e area. N e a r its m o u t h , a river tends to b r a n c h
d o w n s t r e a m into distributary c h a n n e l s forming a delta.
Deltas are major sites of sediment deposition. W h e r e
waves, tides, and shoreline currents are strong, deltas m a y
be modified or even absent. Tectonics controls delta formation by uplift in the drainage basin and subsidence in
the delta region.
How does flowing water in streams erode solid

rock and transport and deposit sediments?
Streams
erode,
transport,
and
deposit
sediments.
Turbulent stream flow allows water to e r o d e and transport

s e d i m e n t by suspension, saltation, rolling, and sliding.
T h e tendency for particles to be carried in suspension is
c o u n t e r e d by gravity, pulling t h e m to the b o t t o m and
m e a s u r e d by the settling velocity. Refer to F i g u r e 18.14.
D e p o s i t i o n of s e d i m e n t s occurs w h e n the velocity of the
s t r e a m d e c r e a s e s . Refer to F i g u r e 18.15.
How are the stream's gradient (slope),

velocity (speed), discharge (amount of water),
and sediment transport linked?
W h e t h e r a s t r e a m is d o m i n a n t l y e r o d i n g or d e p o s i t i n g
its l o a d ( s e d i m e n t s ) is d e t e r m i n e d by s t r e a m velocity.
S t r e a m v e l o c i t y i n turn d e p e n d s o n t h e s t r e a m ' s g r a d i ent ( s l o p e ) , d i s c h a r g e ( a m o u n t o f w a t e r i n t h e s t r e a m ) ,
load (sediment in transport), and channel characteristics. A s t r e a m ' s d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s , t h e s t r e a m c h a n n e l ,
and t h e f l o o d p l a i n e v o l v e in r e s p o n s e to c h a n g e s in
s t r e a m velocity, g r a d i e n t , s e d i m e n t load, and d i s c h a r g e
and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l a n d s c a p e o v e r w h i c h the
s t r e a m f l o w s . A l l u v i a l fans f o r m at m o u n t a i n fronts in
r e s p o n s e t o a n a b r u p t w i d e n i n g o f t h e s t r e a m valley a n d
a c h a n g e in s l o p e .
T h e longitudinal profile represents the stream gradient. It is
a plot of the elevation of the stream channel bottom at different distances along the stream's course. T h e longitudinal
profile is controlled by local (the river into which the
stream flows or a lake) and regional (the ocean) base levels. Refer to Figure 18.23. Streams cannot cut below base
level, because b a s e level is the b o t t o m of the hill.
205
Review Questions
1. W h e r e do rivers obtain the p o w e r to e r o d e and transport s e d i m e n t s ?
A. heat
B. gravity
C. electricity
D. friction
2. T h e v o l u m e of water that flows past a given point along a s t r e a m c h a n n e l in a given

interval of t i m e is the
A. velocity.
C. capacity.
B . discharge.
D . gradient.
3. If the gradient (slope) of a s t r e a m is increased, w h a t h a p p e n s to the velocity of the

water?
A.
B.
C.
D.
increases
decreases
r e m a i n s unaffected
m a y increase o r d e c r e a s e
4. S t r e a m erosion and deposition are primarily controlled by a river's

A. width.
B . velocity.
C. depth.
D. channel shape.
5. You are c a n o e i n g a river in r e m o t e A l a s k a and y o u r G P S s h o w s an elevation of 2500

feet. After p a d d l i n g for five d a y s , you calculate that you h a v e traveled 2 0 0 miles. Your
G P S n o w s h o w s an elevation of 2 3 0 0 feet. W h a t is t h e s t r e a m ' s gradient in feet/mile for
the stretch y o u j u s t c a n o e d ?
A. 1 foot/mile
B. 2 feet/mile
C. 5 feet/mile
D. 10 feet/mile
6. A trellis d r a i n a g e pattern forms on

A. horizontal lava flows.
B. folded and tilted s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k layers of varying resistance.
C. a d o m e .
D . horizontal s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 18.7 (3).
7. S t r e a m c o m p e t e n c e is m e a s u r e d by the
A.
B.
C.
D.
largest particle size the s t r e a m can transport.

a m o u n t of material in t h e dissolved load.
m a x i m u m w i d t h of the c h a n n e l along the floodplain.
total a m o u n t of s u s p e n d e d and b e d load.
8. Particles t e n d to settle out of the s u s p e n d e d load in w h i c h o r d e r ?

A. clay, sand, p e b b l e s
B. p e b b l e s , sand, silt
C. sand, p e b b l e s , c o b b l e s
D. clay, p e b b l e s , sand
9. Active erosion in a m e a n d e r b e n d takes p l a c e

A. in t h e center of the stream.
B. along the outer b a n k of a b e n d .
C. along the inside b a n k of a b e n d .
D. near a s t r e a m ' s h e a d w a t e r s .
10. E n t r e n c h e d m e a n d e r s like those s h o w n for t h e S a n J u a n River in F i g u r e 18.2 are evid e n c e of a
A.
B.
C.
D.
d e c r e a s e in stream gradient.
d e c r e a s e in discharge.
c h a n g e such that the river has r e n e w e d ability to e r o d e .
d e c r e a s e in stream velocity.
1 1 . If a d a m is p l a c e d across a stream that has b e e n carrying a large v o l u m e of sediment,

the s t r e a m w o u l d probably
A . d e p o s i t d o w n s t r e a m and e r o d e u p s t r e a m from the d a m .
B . e r o d e d o w n s t r e a m and not c h a n g e u p s t r e a m from the d a m .
C . e r o d e d o w n s t r e a m and gradually deposit u p s t r e a m from the d a m .
D . n o t c h a n g e d o w n s t r e a m but deposit u p s t r e a m from the d a m .
12. T h e regular d u m p i n g of c r u s h e d r o c k and coal w a s t e into a s t r e a m leads to
A.
B.
C.
D.
erosion u p s t r e a m a n d deposition d o w n s t r e a m from the d u m p .

erosion both u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m from the d u m p .
deposition both u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m from the d u m p .
d e p o s i t i o n u p s t r e a m and erosion d o w n s t r e a m from the d u m p .
13. If flood control engineers straighten out a meandering stream channel, the stream probably
A. flows m o r e slowly in the straightened stretch.
B. deposits in t h e straightened stretch.
C. d o w n c u t s in the straightened stretch.
D. d o w n c u t s and flows m o r e rapidly in t h e straightened stretch.
14. If a flood is classified as a fifty-year flood,
A.
B.
C.
D.
it h a s b e e n fifty years since the last flood that large occurred.

a flood at least that large h a s o c c u r r e d every year within the last fifty years.
the flooded area is safe from a serious flood for at least fifty years.
a flood that large occurs on t h e average of o n c e every fifty years but also has a
c h a n c e of o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g any year.
15. S t r e a m velocity generally increases d o w n s t r e a m even t h o u g h stream gradient decreases

because
A.
B.
C.
D.
the river c h a n n e l typically b e c o m e s r o u g h e r d o w n s t r e a m .

c h a n n e l s typically m e a n d e r less d o w n s t r e a m .
t h e a m o u n t of s e d i m e n t d e c r e a s e s d o w n s t r e a m .
stream discharge typically increases d o w n s t r e a m as tributaries contribute their water.
16. If t h e regional b a s e level of a s t r e a m is lowered,

A. the s t r e a m will d e p o s i t to raise the b a s e level to its former position.
B. the s t r e a m will begin to d o w n c u t at its h e a d w a t e r s .
C. the s t r e a m will begin to d o w n c u t at its d o w n s t r e a m end, and d o w n c u t t i n g will
p r o g r e s s u p s t r e a m until the s t r e a m c h a n n e l is graded with the n e w b a s e level.
D. it will h a v e no effect on the stream.
17. W h e r e streams e m e r g e from a n a r r o w m o u n t a i n c a n y o n onto a flat plain, alluvial fans
form b e c a u s e
A. the increase in the a m o u n t of water from tributary c a n y o n s results in deposition.
B. s t r e a m velocity d e c r e a s e s d u e to a w i d e n i n g of the stream c h a n n e l and a d e c r e a s e
in gradient.
C. s t r e a m velocity increases d u e to a d e c r e a s e in gradient.
D. all of t h e a b o v e .
18. W h a t s t r e a m feature(s) can d e v e l o p as a result of regional uplift and e r o s i o n ?
A. accelerated d o w n c u t t i n g in s t e a m s
B . s t r e a m terraces
C . incised m e a n d e r s
D. all of t h e a b o v e
209
210
PART II
C H A P T E R 18
CHAPTER 19
Winds and Deserts

The wind grew stronger, whisked under stones, carried up straws and old
leaves, and even little clods, marking its course as it sailed across the
fields. The air and sky darkened, and through them the sun shone redly,
and there was a raw sting in the air.
J O H N STEINBECK, THE GRAPES OF WRATH,
1939
212
PART II
C H A P T E R 19
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture be sure to spend s o m e time previewing the chapter. For an efficient
preview, use the questions below. C h a p t e r Preview questions constitute the basic framework
for understanding the chapter. Preview w o r k s best if you do it just before lecture. With the main
points in m i n d , y o u will understand the lecture better. This will in turn result in a better and more
c o m p l e t e set of notes.
Chapter Preview
W h e r e d o w i n d s f o r m a n d h o w d o t h e y flow?
Brief a n s w e r : W a r m air rises at the equator, c a u s i n g c l o u d i n e s s and a b u n d a n t rain in
the tropics. A i r flows t o w a r d t h e p o l e s a n d at a b o u t 30 d e g r e e s n o r t h and 30 degrees
south the c o o l e d air sinks, w a r m s up, a b s o r b s m o i s t u r e , and often p r o d u c e s
d o m i n a n t l y clear skies and deserts. Refer to Figures 19.1 and 19.15.
H o w do winds erode and transport sand and finer-grained sediments?
Brief a n s w e r : Turbulent airflow and forward m o t i o n c o m b i n e to lift finer particles into
t h e w i n d and carry t h e m b y s u s p e n s i o n , sliding, rolling, and saltation.
H o w do winds deposit sand dunes and dust?
Brief a n s w e r : A d e c r e a s e in w i n d velocity and gravity c a u s e s d e p o s i t i o n of sediment
b e i n g transported by w i n d . T h e formation and shape of sand d u n e s d e p e n d s on the
supply of sand and the strength and variability of w i n d direction.
W h a t f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e t o the e x i s t e n c e o f d e s e r t r e g i o n s o n E a r t h ?
Brief a n s w e r : G l o b a l a t m o s p h e r i c circulation patterns, distance from w a t e r (oceans),
t o p o g r a p h i c barriers like m o u n t a i n s , cold o c e a n c u r r e n t s , and polar c l i m a t e s contribute
to the formation of desert c o n d i t i o n s on Earth.
W h a t features are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of d e s e r t l a n d s c a p e s ?
S u g g e s t i o n : M a n y d i a g n o s t i c features of deserts are d e s c r i b e d in this chapter. O n e
q u e s t i o n to ask yourself as you read about t h e s e features is, " W h a t features might a
geologist look for in the rock record that w o u l d serve as e v i d e n c e for past desert
c o n d i t i o n s at localities that are no longer d e s e r t s ? "
How much time

do you have before
lecture begins?
30 minutes or more
How to use it
W i t h this m u c h t i m e y o u c a n dig d e e p into the chapter. D o a s m a n y o f t h e following a s
your time allows.
/ R e a d the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s and brief a n s w e r s .
/ R e a d the D u r i n g L e c t u r e s u g g e s t i o n s .
/ S t u d y the key figure(s) for this chapter (usually s h o w n at the b e g i n n i n g of the S t u d y
Guide chapter).
/ S t u d y a n d a n n o t a t e any additional figures, hints, or s u g g e s t i o n s alluded to in the
C h a p t e r Preview.
/ If t i m e allows, do the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s .
15-20 minutes
Do a brief but intense preview.

/ R e a d the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s a n d brief a n s w e r s .
/ R e a d the D u r i n g L e c t u r e s u g g e s t i o n s .
y S t u d y t h e key figure for this c h a p t e r ( a l w a y s s h o w n at the b e g i n n i n g the S t u d y G u i d e
chapter).
5-10 minutes
R e a d the C h a p t e r Preview questions and brief answers. Focus on getting the questions clearly
in mind. Then listen for answers during lecture. Even five minutes of previewing h e l p s !
Winds and Deserts

Review the section Hydrology and Climate in Chapter 17. Pay particular attention to Figure 17.3.
During Lecture
O n e goal for lecture should b e t o leave the r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s t o the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w
questions.
t w o related stories. First is the story of w i n d : E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r i c circulation
p a t t e r n a n d h o w w i n d transports s e d i m e n t and creates sand d u n e s . S e c o n d is
t h e story of deserts: h o w E a r t h ' s circulation patterns p r o d u c e deserts 15 to 30
d e g r e e s a w a y from t h e e q u a t o r a n d h o w u n i q u e features of a desert l a n d s c a p e
(for e x a m p l e , desert p a v e m e n t , sand d u n e s , and p e d i m e n t s ) evolve.
F o c u s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e 19.1 ( a t m o s p h e r i c circulation) and F i g u r e
19.12 ( d u n e t y p e s ) .
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both g e n e r a l r e v i e w tips a n d specific suggestions for this chapter.

a d d e d y o u r o w n sketches of the four types of sand d u n e s ?
S u g g e s t i o n s : S k e t c h a simple figure that integrates the information in Figures 19.1
and 19.15. Your sketch should a n s w e r the question " W h y do deserts tend to o c c u r
b e t w e e n 15 to 30 d e g r e e s on either side of the e q u a t o r ? "

Set p r i o r i t i e s for s t u d y i n g this chapter. G i v e h i g h e s t priority to activities that involve
a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s . W e r e c o m m e n d t h e f o l l o w i n g strategy for l e a r n i n g this chapter.
Text. Review the key figures in the chapter. Focus your attention on understanding Earth's atmospheric circulation pattern (Figure 19.1) and h o w it is related to
the formation of deserts, as shown in Figure 19.15. T h e n m o v e on to understanding other features of deserts. Pay particular attention to the types of sand dunes
(Figure 19.12) and to the formation of mountain pediments (Figure 19.20).
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . E x e r c i s e 1 will h e l p y o u r e m e m b e r t h e different types of sand d u n e s . T h e n a n s w e r t h e review questions to
c h e c k y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the lecture. C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s a s y o u g o , but
do try to a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n before y o u l o o k at the answer.
C o m p l e t e t h e W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular attention t o t h e explan a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s . Do t h e O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r c i s e s Identify the World's
Major Deserts and Understanding Global Air Circulation Patterns. E x p l o r e
t h e link b e t w e e n dust storms, rainforests, and coral reefs by d o i n g the G e o l o g y
in P r a c t i c e exercises.
213
214
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s i n this s e c t i o n are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . T h e Chapter
S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify y o u r chapter
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview
N e x t w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the questions, score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review each question
that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering the
Chapter Summary
Where do winds form and how do they flow?
Prevailing w i n d s on Earth are largely controlled by z o n e s of rising and sinking air and the Coriolis effect. H o t (less d e n s e ) air rises and carries m o i s t u r e
up to w h e r e it c o n d e n s e s and falls as precipitation. As air radiates heat to s p a c e
in the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e , it cools, b e c o m e s denser, sinks to the surface, and
flows b a c k t o w a r d the equator. S i n k i n g air is typically very dry b e c a u s e it
c o m e s from the cold and dry u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . B e c a u s e of t h e rotation of
Earth, the Coriolis effect deflects air flow in b o t h h e m i s p h e r e s .
What factors contribute to the existence of desert regions on Earth?

D e s e r t s are r e g i o n s w h e r e evaporation e x c e e d s precipitation.
D e s e r t r e g i o n s on Earth are the result of (1) global air circulation patterns,
w h i c h g e n e r a t e a relatively stationary z o n e of d e s c e n d i n g , w a r m , dry air at
a b o u t 15 to 30 north and south of the e q u a t o r ; (2) d i s t a n c e from large b o d ies of w a t e r like the o c e a n s ; (3) the rain s h a d o w g e n e r a t e d by high m o u n t a i n s ,
w h i c h b l o c k s the flow of m o i s t u r e - r i c h air; (4) cold o c e a n c u r r e n t s , w h i c h
r e d u c e air t e m p e r a t u r e s and r e d u c e the transport of m o i s t u r e by the air; a n d (5)
polar c l i m a t e s , w h e r e the air is so cold that it h o l d s very little m o i s t u r e at all.
How do winds erode and transport sand and finer-grain sediments?

W i n d is a m a j o r erosional and d e p o s i t i o n a l agent, m o v i n g e n o r m o u s quantities
of sand, silt, and dust. Turbulent air flow w i t h i n w i n d e r o d e s and t r a n s p o r t s
particles by s u s p e n s i o n , sliding, rolling, and saltation. As velocity d e c r e a s e s ,
s e d i m e n t is pulled out of air by gravity and is d e p o s i t e d as a b l a n k e t or as
d u n e s of sand and dust.
How do winds deposit sand dunes and dust?

O n l y a b o u t 2 0 % of the area of desert r e g i o n s is c o v e r e d by sand. T h e distinctive t y p e s of sand d u n e s are g o v e r n e d by t h e a m o u n t of sand available, t h e
strength of the w i n d , and the variability of w i n d direction. L o e s s , w i n d - b l o w n
dust, is another i m p o r t a n t w i n d deposit.
What features are characteristic of desert landscapes?

G e o l o g i c and t o p o g r a p h i c features associated w i t h desert r e g i o n s i n c l u d e sand
d u n e s , loess deposits, evaporite (salt) d e p o s i t s , desert p a v e m e n t , ventifacts
(sandblasted r o c k s ) , alluvial fans and alluvial sands and gravels, p e d i m e n t s ,
m e s a s , distinctive soils ( p e d o c a l s , rich in c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e ) , a n d rusty
o r a n g e - b r o w n c o l o r s of w e a t h e r e d r o c k surfaces. S o m e of t h e s e features are
p r e s e r v e d in the r o c k r e c o r d and p r o v i d e geologists c l u e s to ancient desert
r e g i o n s that no l o n g e r exist.
Winds and Deserts
215
Practice Exercise
The a n s w e r a n d an e x p l a n a t i o n is provided at the end of this Study G u i d e .
Exercise: Sand dune types

C o m p l e t e the table. F i g u r e 19.12 and the t e x t b o o k section D u n e Types will be helpful.
Dune type
Characteristics
Sand supply
Wind direction/strength
Barchan
Transverse
Blowout
Limited to moderate
Linear
(See F i g u r e 19.8.)
Review Questions
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e end of this St
Study G u i d e ,
1. W i n d belts on E a r t h are largely controlled
rolled by
A. r e g i o n s of sinking air.
B. r e g i o n s of rising air.
C. the Coriolis effect.
2 . D e s e r t s m a y b e c a u s e d b y all o f the following
following E X C
CEEP T
A. rising air.
B . p r o x i m i t y t o cold o c e a n currents.
C. great d i s t a n c e from the o c e a n .
D. d e s c e n d i n g air.
3. As
A.
B.
C.
D.
a dune advances,
sand e r o d e s from the w i n d w a r d slope.
s a n d is deposited on the leeward slope.
particles m o v e over t h e crest by saltation.
all of t h e a b o v e occur.
4. As
the
A.
B.
C.
D.
a d u n e g r o w s in height, w i n d streamlines over

dune become
less c o m p r e s s e d and their velocity d e c r e a s e s .
less c o m p r e s s e d and their velocity increases.
m o r e c o m p r e s s e d a n d their velocity d e c r e a s e s .
m o r e c o m p r e s s e d and their velocity increases.
5. A dried lake b e d that h a s a b u n d a n t salt deposits

and that is flat e n o u g h for a s p a c e shuttle to land
on is called a(n)
A. pediment.
B . desert p a v e m e n t .
C . playa.
D . o x b o w lake.
6. L o e s s is
A. fine dust transported by w i n d in s u s p e n s i o n
and d e p o s i t e d on land.
B . dust transported b y w i n d , deposited, and then
later e r o d e d a n d r e d e p o s i t e d by water.
C. fine sand transported and deposited by w i n d .
D. fine-grained salt particles e r o d e d by w i n d off
a p l a y a surface.
Unidirectional/gusty
216
PART II
C H A P T E R 19
7. D e s e r t p a v e m e n t m a y be the p r o d u c t of
A. deposition of gravel by flash floods.
B. concentration of coarser particles as w i n d r e m o v e s finer m a t e r i a l .
C. deposition of m u d by flash floods.
D . desert varnish.
8. R o c k material carried in s u s p e n s i o n by w i n d is mostly the size of
A. sand.
C. gravel.
B. silt and clay.
D. p e b b l e s .
9. T h e Coriolis effect deflects w i n d s in the northern h e m i s p h e r e to the

A. left ( w e s t w a r d ) .
C.
north.
B . right ( e a s t w a r d ) . D .
south.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 19.1 and the section W i n d Belts in the text.

10. You are lost in the G o b l i n Desert. T h e nearest t o w n is d u e south. W i n d s b l o w from the
south to t h e north but there is no w i n d b l o w i n g today. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e sun is totally
o b s c u r e d by c l o u d s . W i t h o u t a c o m p a s s , in w h i c h direction are y o u g o i n g to hike, given
the orientation of the b a r c h a n d u n e s h o w n in the illustration?
11. W h i l e hiking through a dune-filled coastal plain on a w i n d l e s s m o r n i n g , y o u b e c o m e surr o u n d e d by a d e n s e fog and realize that you are lost. You k n o w y o u are near a shoreline
and that the b e a c h will lead y o u b a c k to c a m p , but y o u d o n ' t k n o w w h i c h direction it is
in. You r e c o g n i z e the crescent-shaped d u n e s that w r a p m o d e r a t e d e p r e s s i o n s as blow-out
d u n e s . A c c o r d i n g to your c o m p a s s , the tapered a r m s of the d u n e s p o i n t south. Then,
r e m e m b e r i n g that in this region strong, gusty w i n d s c o m e onto the coastal plain off the
ocean, y o u i m m e d i a t e l y r e m e m b e r w h i c h direction you should head to get to the beach:
A. n o r t h
C.
B . south
D . west
east
12. W h y are evaporites significant geological d e p o s i t s ?
A. T h e y are a g o o d p a l e o e n v i r o n m e n t a l indicator of ancient desert c o n d i t i o n s .
B. T h e y are a major source of c h e m i c a l s like b o r a x .
C. T h e y are a source of salt for the d i n n e r table.
D. all of the a b o v e
13. P e t r o g l y p h s , early Native A m e r i c a n
artwork, is scratched t h r o u g h
CHAPTER 20
Coastlines and Ocean Basins

... over all the face of Earth
Main ocean flowed, not idle; but, with warm
Prolifick humour softening all her globe . . .
J O H N M I L T O N , PARADISE LOST,
B O O K V I I , LL. 2 7 8 - 2 8 0
217
218
PART II
C H A P T E R 20
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
H o w d o e s the g e o l o g y of the o c e a n s differ f r o m that of t h e c o n t i n e n t s ?
Brief answer: O c e a n basins are created at o c e a n ridges (diverging m a r g i n s ) by
volcanism and are destroyed in the brief period of several h u n d r e d million years by
s u b d u c t i o n at converging m a r g i n s .
W h a t processes shape the shoreline?
Brief answer: Waves and tides interact with tectonics to shape the shoreline. W i n d s
blowing over the sea create waves. Waves approaching shallow water along the shoreline
are transformed into breakers and refracted into longshore currents and longshore drift,
w h i c h transports sand along the beach. Tides deposit sediment on longshore flats.
Tectonic uplift creates cliffs and headlands, which are smashed by w a v e action, leaving
behind cliff remnants called seastacks. Tectonic subsidence creates areas of long, wide
beaches and low-lying coastal plains and sandbars, w h i c h m a y evolve into barrier islands.
H o w do h u r r i c a n e s affect c o a s t a l a r e a s ?
Brief a n s w e r : E x t r e m e l y high w i n d s and a s t o r m surge are characteristic of hurricanes.
T h e storm surge can flood low-lying areas up to depths of 10 m and c a n be devastating
over a very broad area of the coastline.
W h a t are the m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s o f the c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s a n d a d j a c e n t
o c e a n floor?
Brief a n s w e r : Continental m a r g i n s are flooded p o r t i o n s of t h e c o n t i n e n t . T h e c o n tinental slope m a r k s t h e e d g e of the c o n t i n e n t and a transition to d e e p e r w a t e r and the
o c e a n floor. Turbidity currents transport fine s e d i m e n t s off t h e c o n t i n e n t a l shelf and
o n t o the adjacent a b y s s a l o c e a n floor.
H o w is d e e p seafloor f o r m e d ?
Brief answer: T h e d e e p seafloor is constructed by basaltic volcanism at o c e a n ridges and
o c e a n hot spots and by deposition of fine-grained clastic and biochemically precipitated
sediments. P r o m i n e n t features of the d e e p seafloor landscape include s e a m o u n t s , guyots,
and abyssal plains and hills. Refer to Figures 20.20 and 20.22. O c e a n i c trenches (Figure
20.22) are formed w h e r e ocean plates converge.
W h a t are the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e ?
Brief answer: A rift valley runs along the crest, basaltic volcanism and e a r t h q u a k e
activity are c o m m o n along the ridge crest, and s m o k e r s (hydrothermal springs) percolate
through cracks on the flanks of the ridges. Refer to Figures 20.19(b) and 2 0 . 2 1 .
W h a t k i n d s of s e d i m e n t a t i o n o c c u r in a n d n e a r the o c e a n s ?
Terrigenous (note the similarity to the w o r d terrain) sediments are m u d s and sands
e r o d e d from the c o n t i n e n t and d e p o s i t e d b y turbidity c u r r e n t s a l o n g t h e c o n t i n e n t a l
shelf. Biochemical sediments result from deposition of c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e from shells
and coral reefs. Open-ocean (pelagic) sediments result from clays and o o z e s of
c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e and silica shells of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s (see Figure 2 0 . 2 3 ) . Evaporite
sediments result from intense evaporation in shallow tropical seas. S e d i m e n t s derived
from volcanic ash and lava flows are deposited near s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s . T h e c a r b o n a t e
c o m p e n s a t i o n depth ( C C D ) is the level in the o c e a n b e l o w w h i c h c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e
d i s s o l v e s . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 4 .

C h a p t e r s 2, 4, and 5 contain key information on o c e a n b a s i n s and r o c k m a t e r i a l s associated
with m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . In C h a p t e r 2, review F i g u r e s 2 . 3 , 2.6, 2.12. In C h a p t e r 4, I g n e o u s
R o c k s , review p a g e s 9 1 - 9 7 . In C h a p t e r 5, review F i g u r e s 5.5 and 5.18, Tables 5.2 and 5.4,
and Earth Issues 5 . 1 . A q u i c k r e r e a d of C h a p t e r 5 w o u l d h e l p i m m e n s e l y .
Coastines and Ocean Basins
During Lecture
One goal for lecture s h o u l d be to leave the r o o m w i t h g o o d a n s w e r s to the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w
questions. To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in mind: C h a p t e r 20 tells the
story of t h e o c e a n d e p t h s . You will learn about various landform features of the d e e p o c e a n ,
continental m a r g i n s , and shoreline a n d learn about t h e geological p r o c e s s e s that create t h e m .
Note-Taking Tip
There is a lot of n e w t e r m i n o l o g y in this chapter. B e c a u s e t h e c h a p t e r is so t e r m i n o l o g y rich, the lecturer m a y use t e r m s you are not familiar with. M a r k , circle, or u n d e r l i n e
them in y o u r notes so that you can c h e c k t h e m out later. Put the abbreviation def.
{define) in the margin to r e m i n d yourself to do this.
. . . though we know the sea to be an everlasting terra incognita,

so that Columbus sailed over numberless unknown worlds. . . .
HERMANN
MELVILLE,
MOBY-DICK
(1851)
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to r e v i e w y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.

a d d e d visual m a t e r i a l ? S u g g e s t i o n s : D r a w a profile sketch similar to Figures 2 0 . 2 0
and 2 0 . 2 2 that s h o w s the major features of the d e e p ocean floor.
r e w o r k e d y o u r notes into a form that is efficient for y o u r learning style? Visual
learners n e e d to see illustrations and m a y w a n t to c o p y key figures and insert t h e m
into their notes w h e r e the figures are explained. Kinesthetic learners m a y find it m o r e
beneficial to sketch t h e figures t h e m s e l v e s , b e c a u s e t h e act of d r a w i n g helps t h e m
r e m e m b e r better.

Set priorities for s t u d y i n g this chapter. G i v e h i g h e s t priority to activities that involve a n s w e r ing q u e s t i o n s . We r e c o m m e n d t h e following strategy for learning this chapter.
Text. R e v i e w t h e key figures in C h a p t e r 2 0 . T h e s e q u e n c e of figures tells the
story of the o c e a n and its seafloor topography, continental m a r g i n s , w a v e s ,
tides, and b e a c h e s . You will n e e d a general u n d e r s t a n d i n g of these figures to
c o m p l e t e t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . F i g u r e 20.2 explains
h o w w a v e action (breaking and refraction) w o r k s along the shoreline of an
o c e a n . F i g u r e 20.3 explains h o w the m o o n and sun p r o d u c e the tides. Figures
2 0 . 1 1 and 2 0 . 1 2 explain the structure and sand budget of an ocean b e a c h . F i g ures 2 0 . 1 5 a n d 2 0 . 1 6 explain the g e o l o g y of continental m a r g i n s Figures
219
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PART II
C H A P T E R 20
2 0 . 2 0 , 2 0 . 2 1 , and 2 0 . 2 2 will h e l p y o u learn a b o u t seafloor t o p o g r a p h y a n d

l a n d f o r m s . S o m e t i m e before y o u r e x a m , a n s w e r the exercises at t h e e n d of the
t e x t b o o k chapter. T h e y are s h o r t - a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s and w o n ' t t a k e l o n g if y o u
k n o w the material. N o t e that there is an interesting a n i m a t i o n for E x e r c i s e 2 in
the M e d i a L i n k Q u e s t i o n s section o f the W e b site.
P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e Study G u i d e Practice
Exercises 1 and 2. T h e s e exercises will h e l p you r e m e m b e r s o m e of the m o s t
important ideas in the chapter. T h e n a n s w e r the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s to c h e c k
your u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture. C h e c k your a n s w e r s as y o u go, but try to
a n s w e r the question before you look at the answer.
http ://w w w. w h f r e e m a n . c o m / u n d e r s t a n d i n g e a r t h 5 e
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t Self-Checker and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention to the explanations for the answers. Do the O n l i n e R e v i e w E x e r cises Identify the Parts of a Beach and
Understanding Waves and Currents. T h e
G e o l o g y in Practice exercise Why Are the Oceans Salty? provides a g o o d

review of the links a m o n g weathering, erosion, and the composition of seawater.
Study Tip
N o w is the t i m e to look up the terms you d i d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d . S k i m the margin of your
notes. (You did m a r k unfamiliar terms def d i d n ' t y o u ? ) T h e text p r o v i d e s t w o helpful
aids for dealing w i t h t e r m s y o u d o n ' t know. Key T e r m s and C o n c e p t s at t h e e n d of each
text c h a p t e r lists all n e w t e r m s a n d h a n d i l y p r o v i d e s the p a g e n u m b e r of a t e r m so that
y o u c a n look it u p . Alternatively, use the G l o s s a r y at the e n d of the text.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
o v e r v i e w that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review e a c h question that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How does the geology of the oceans differ from that of the continents?
V o l c a n i s m and s e d i m e n t a t i o n s h a p e the o c e a n floor. In contrast, folding, faulting, w e a t h e r i n g , and e r o s i o n play i m p o r t a n t parts in s h a p i n g the c o n t i n e n t s .
What processes shape the shoreline?

W a v e s and tides s h a p e the shoreline. W a v e s are created by the w i n d b l o w i n g
over the surface of the water. O c e a n tides on Earth are a result of centrifugal
force and gravitational forces acting a m o n g the Earth, M o o n , and S u n .
T h e b e a c h is a result of the d y n a m i c b a l a n c e a m o n g w a v e s , l o n g s h o r e currents

that e r o d e a n d transport r o c k material along the coast within the surf z o n e , and
the supply of s a n d from rivers to t h e surf z o n e . Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . 1 2 .
L o n g s h o r e currents result from the zigzag m o v e m e n t of water on a n d off the
b e a c h . W a v e s typically splash o n t o shore at an angle in part d u e to w a v e refraction. T h e b a c k w a s h o f f the b e a c h r u n s d o w n the b e a c h slope at a small but
o p p o s i t e a n g l e to the swash. T h e net result of this s w a s h and b a c k w a s h of
water on a n d off the b e a c h slope is a l o n g s h o r e current that transports sand
parallel to the b e a c h within t h e surf z o n e .
How do hurricanes affect coastal areas?

E x t r e m e l y h i g h w i n d s and a s t o r m surge are characteristic of hurricanes. T h e
s t o r m surge can flood low-lying areas up to d e p t h s of 10 m and can be devastating over a very b r o a d area of the coastline.
T h e h u r r i c a n e intensity scale (Saffir-Simpson scale) is u s e d to estimate the
potential p r o p e r t y d a m a g e and flooding e x p e c t e d along the coast from hurric a n e landfall. Refer t o Table 2 0 . 1 .
What are the major components of the continental margins?

C o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s are flooded portions of the continent. T h e continental
slope and rise m a r k the e d g e of the continent and m a r k a transition to d e e p e r
water a n d the o c e a n floor.
Passive continental m a r g i n s form w h e r e rifting and seafloor spreading carry
continental m a r g i n s a w a y from active plate b o u n d a r i e s . Active continental
m a r g i n s form w h e r e o c e a n i c lithosphere is s u b d u c t e d b e n e a t h a continent, or
w h e r e a transform fault coincides with the continental m a r g i n .
C o n t i n e n t a l shelves are b r o a d and relatively flat at passive continental m a r g i n s
and are n a r r o w and u n e v e n at active m a r g i n s .
Turbidity currents transport fine sediments from the continental shelf and to the
adjacent abyssal o c e a n floor. Turbidity currents can b o t h e r o d e and transport
s e d i m e n t s . S u b m a r i n e c a n y o n s and fans are formed by turbidity currents.
Coral reefs and atolls are c o n s t r u c t e d by coral and other m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s .
T h e reef c o n s t r u c t plays an i m p o r t a n t role in m o d u l a t i n g w a v e e n e r g y and creating a favorable e n v i r o n m e n t for shallow m a r i n e life. Refer to F i g u r e 5.18 and
E a r t h Issues 5 . 1 .
How is the deep seafloor formed?

V o l c a n i s m along o c e a n spreading centers (divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s ) creates
n e w seafloor, w h i c h eventually is recycled b a c k into the m a n t l e by s u b d u c t i o n
at the t r e n c h e s (convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s ) .
Basaltic v o l c a n i s m , i n d u c e d by pressure-release m e l t i n g in the u p p e r m a n t l e
b e n e a t h s p r e a d i n g centers, generates an o c e a n crust that is thin and iron-rich
relative to continental crust. R e v i e w p a g e s 9 1 - 9 7 in C h a p t e r 4.
What are the characteristics of a mid-ocean ridge?

A rift valley m a r k s the crest of an o c e a n ridge.
H y d r o t h e r m a l springs form on the rift valley floor as seawater percolates
t h r o u g h the new, h o t o c e a n i c crust.
T r a n s f o r m faults offset ocean ridges at m a n y places to a c c o m m o d a t e different
s p r e a d i n g rates a l o n g offset s e g m e n t s of the ridge. Refer to F i g u r e 2.5.
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C H A P T E R 20
What kinds of sedimentation occur in and near the oceans?

In the d e e p sea, fine-grained pelagic t e r r i g e n o u s and b i o c h e m i c a l l y precipitated s e d i m e n t s settle to the seafloor. Foraminiferal o o z e s , c o m p o s e d of tiny
foraminiferal shells, are the m o s t a b u n d a n t b i o c h e m i c a l c o m p o n e n t of pelagic
s e d i m e n t s . Foraminiferal and other c a r b o n a t e o o z e s are a b u n d a n t at depths
less than about 4 k m . B e l o w a certain depth, called the c a r b o n a t e c o m p e n s a tion depth, c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s dissolve in d e e p seawater. D e e p o c e a n water
is colder, contains m o r e c a r b o n d i o x i d e , and is u n d e r h i g h e r p r e s s u r e . All these
factors increase the solubility of c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s . Silica o o z e is p r o d u c e d
by s e d i m e n t a t i o n of t h e silica shells of d i a t o m s and radiolaria.
Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Profile from the Atlantic shoreline to the ocean floor

A. Fill in the b l a n k s correctly to label this profile. H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . 1 5 .
Exercise 2: Passive versus active continental margins

C h a r a c t e r i z e e a c h coastal locality either as a passive or as an active (Andean type) or active
(Marianas type) continental m a r g i n . F i g u r e s 2 0 . 1 5 , 2 0 . 1 7 , 2 0 . 2 0 , 2 0 . 2 2 are useful references.
A. coastline far from an active plate b o u n d a r y
B. east coast of N o r t h A m e r i c a
C. w e s t coast of S o u t h A m e r i c a
D. c o a s t l i n e with a very broad, featureless continental shelf
E. California coast a l o n g the San A n d r e a s Fault
F.
continental m a r g i n with no volcanic activity for millions of years
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the e n d of this Study G u i d e .
1. O c e a n w a v e s are g e n e r a t e d m o s t l y by
A. tides.
B . ships.
C. the wind.
D. earthquakes.
2. Geologically, the e d g e of a c o n t i n e n t is considered to be

A.
B.
C.
D.
on the o c e a n side of the seafloor t r e n c h e s .

the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf.
the continental rise and slope.
the shoreline.
3. W h i c h of the following p r o c e s s e s is m o s t i m p o r t a n t for building the ocean floor?

A. volcanism
B. metamorphism
C. precipitation of c a r b o n a t e r o c k s
D. deposition of s e d i m e n t derived from the land
4. T h e b e n d i n g of w a v e s as they a p p r o a c h shore is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
w a v e reflection.
wave erosion.
l o n g s h o r e drift.
w a v e refraction.
5. An erosional coast is characterized by

A. sea cliffs, sea stacks, and wave-cut terraces.
B . barrier islands.
C. coral reefs.
D . estuaries.
6. O c e a n - f l o o r r o c k is m a d e up of
A.
B.
C.
D.
basalt and p e l a g i c s e d i m e n t s .
granite and g n e i s s .
o b s i d i a n a n d sand.
rhyolite and c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s .
7. T h e r o c k that m a k e s up a s e a m o u n t is
A. basalt.
B. limestone.
C. granite.
D . m a r i n e s e d i m e n t a r y rock.
8. S e a stacks are
A. piles of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s near the shore.
B. the e r o s i o n a l r e m n a n t s of sea cliffs.
C. f o r m e d w h e r e a river drains o n t o the coastline.
D. f o r m e d by rapidly g r o w i n g corals on a reef.
9. T h e d e e p abyssal o c e a n plain lies at a water d e p t h of
A.
B.
C.
D.
b e t w e e n 100 and 5 0 0 m e t e r s .
6 0 0 t o 1000 m e t e r s .
2000 to 3000meters.
4000 to 6000 meters.
H i n t : Refer to the text section Profiles A c r o s s T w o O c e a n s .

10. R e c e n t precise satellite m e a s u r e m e n t s of the sea surface shows that t h e sea level
A.
B.
C.
D.
rises a few m i l l i m e t e r s per year.

does not change.
d r o p s a few m i l l i m e t e r s p e r year.
rises and falls with the seasons.
223
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PART II
C H A P T E R 20
1 1 . W h a t is s e d i m e n t - c h a r g e d w a t e r that flows rapidly d o w n the continental slope called?

A. turbidity current
B . l o n g s h o r e current
C. tidal current
D. tsunami
12. T h e highest tides o c c u r w h e n

A. the S u n , M o o n , and E a r t h are all aligned.
B. the S u n and M o o n are at right a n g l e s to the Earth.
C. the Earth is closest to t h e S u n .
D. the M o o n is in either its first or its last quarter.
13. You live on a beachfront. Your up-current neighbors are p l a n n i n g to build a groin to halt
erosion and increase the width of their beach. W h a t effect will this have on your beach?
A. T h e groin will p r o b a b l y c a u s e y o u r b e a c h to grow.
B. It is likely that y o u r b e a c h will r e m a i n u n c h a n g e d .
C . T h e groin will p r o b a b l y c a u s e y o u r b e a c h t o e r o d e .
D. n o n e of the a b o v e
H i n t : Refer to Earth Issues 2 0 . 2 .
14. H e a d l a n d s and points e x p e r i e n c e greater e r o s i o n than b a y s and inlets b e c a u s e of
A. l o n g s h o r e drift.
B . w a v e refraction.
C. w a v e reflection.
D. the m o r e resistant r o c k in the h e a d l a n d .
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 (6).
15. If a river delivers sand to a shoreline faster than currents c a n t r a n s p o r t the sediment, the
result is
A. e r o s i o n of the sand to form a rocky coastline.
B. formation of a m a r i n e terrace.
C. e x p a n s i o n of the s a n d y b e a c h .
D. formation of sea stacks and pillars.
16. If y o u accidentally get c a u g h t in a rip current that is c a r r y i n g y o u o u t to sea, what
should y o u d o ?
A. S w i m parallel to the shore.
B. R e s t and float with the rip far out to sea and then s w i m b a c k .
C. S w i m to shore, b e c a u s e this is the shortest distance.
D . S c r e a m for help.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 . R i p currents are rapidly m o v i n g b a c k f l o w s .
17. C o r a l atolls f o r m in tropical o c e a n s by the u p w a r d g r o w t h of coral
A. from deep, submarine mountains.
B. on a c o n t i n e n t a l shelf that is gradually s u b s i d i n g .
C. on subsiding volcanic islands.
D . o n e x p o s e d sections o f the o c e a n i c r i d g e s y s t e m .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 5.18 and Earth Issues 5.1 in C h a p t e r 5, S e d i m e n t a t i o n : Rocks
F o r m e d b y Surface P r o c e s s e s .
18. W h a t is t h e m o t i o n of individual w a t e r m o l e c u l e s as a w a v e travels?
A . T h e m o l e c u l e s travel a l o n g with the w a v e .
B. T h e m o l e c u l e s follow a straight u p - a n d - d o w n path.
C. T h e m o l e c u l e s follow a r o u g h l y circular path.
D . T h e m o l e c u l e s travel laterally along l o n g s h o r e currents.
19. A result of w a v e refraction is that
A. w a v e energy is c o n c e n t r a t e d on h e a d l a n d s and p o i n t s .
B. w a v e e n e r g y is c o n c e n t r a t e d in the b a y s .
C. s e d i m e n t is d e p o s i t e d in the vicinity of h e a d l a n d s , m a k i n g t h e m larger.
D. w a v e energy is largely dissipated u n i f o r m l y a l o n g the coastline.
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CHAPTER 21
Glaciers: The Work of Ice
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e time previewing the chapter. For an efficient
preview, use t h e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s .
226
Chapter Preview
H o w d o g l a c i e r s f o r m a n d h o w d o they m o v e ?
Brief a n s w e r : G l a c i e r s form w h e r e snow a c c u m u l a t i o n e x c e e d s snow melting. Refer to
F i g u r e 2 1 . 9 . G l a c i e r s m o v e by a c o m b i n a t i o n of plastic flow and slip at the b a s e of the
ice. S e e Figure 2 1 . 1 1 .
W h y do ice s h e l v e s float?
Brief a n s w e r : Ice floats on the ocean in exactly the s a m e way that ice c u b e s float in a
glass of water. Ice is less d e n s e than water. See Earth Issues 2 1 . 1 .
H o w do glaciers erode bedrock, transport and deposit sediments, and shape
the landscape?
Brief a n s w e r : G l a c i e r s e r o d e by scraping, p l u c k i n g , and grinding rock. Refer to F i g u r e
2 1 . 1 6 . T h e rock debris deposited by a glacier is called till. Till may contain debris
from the size of rock flour to giant b o u l d e r s . Glaciers sculpt a distinctive l a n d s c a p e
with U - s h a p e d a n d h a n g i n g valleys, aretes, cirques, m o r a i n e s , d r u m l i n s , k a m e s , and
other features. Refer to Figures 2 1 . 1 5 , 2 1 . 1 7 , 2 1 . 1 8 , and 21.19.
W h a t a r e t h e ice a g e s a n d w h a t c a u s e d t h e m ?
Brief a n s w e r : D u r i n g the Pleistocene e p o c h , m a n y cycles of a d v a n c e and retreat of
continental ice sheets occurred. T h e ice sheets of the last major a d v a n c e w e r e g o n e by
about 10,000 years a g o , the b e g i n n i n g of the H o l o c e n e e p o c h . A p o p u l a r theory for
the c a u s e of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e ice ages relies on h o w variations in the E a r t h ' s orbit effect
the intensity of the solar e n e r g y reaching Earth. Refer to F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 1 .

A review of p a g e s 3 5 5 - 3 5 9 is essential to understanding w h a t caused the glacial and interglacial
cycles during the Pleistocene Epoch. A l s o review Figure 17.1, Distribution of water on earth.
During Lecture
K e e p the big p i c t u r e in m i n d to h e l p with n o t e taking. T h i s c h a p t e r tells the
story of ice: h o w glaciers form, m o v e , a n d create a l a n d s c a p e of u n i q u e features. T h i s story h a s a l o n g history: the m a n y ice ages of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e epoch.
T h e c h a p t e r s u g g e s t s a future w h e n our d e s c e n d e n t s will a l m o s t certainly have
to face the return of ice and m a s s i v e glaciation.
Understanding glacial landscapes is one of the main goals for this lecture. Take
notes that will help you understand key landscape features such as the following.
Glacial features f o r m e d by the erosive p o w e r of glacial ice (see E a r t h
Issues 2 1 . 1 a n d F i g u r e s 2 1 . 1 6 and 21.17)
S t r i a t i o n s s c r a t c h e s and g r o o v e s c a r v e d in b e d r o c k over w h i c h
t h e glacier flowed
Cirque
U - s h a p e d valley
H a n g i n g valley
Fjord
Arete
Glacial features f o r m e d by deposition of r o c k material by glacial ice (see
Figures 21.18 and 21.19):
Glacial m o r a i n e s t h e different types are described in Table 21.1

Esker
227
228
PART II
C H A P T E R 21
Kame
Glacial erratic
Kettle
Varves
F o r each feature, sketch its essentials and annotate w h a t m a k e s it u n i q u e . W r i t e the numbers

of figures adapted from the text in the m a r g i n so that you can review t h e m later.
After Lecture
Review Notes

c a p t u r e d the glacial p r o c e s s e s ? Your notes s h o u l d say clearly (1) h o w glaciers form
and m o v e and (2) h o w they e r o d e material.
d e s c r i b e d t h e essential features of the glacial l a n d s c a p e ? R e f e r to D u r i n g L e c t u r e

for a list of l a n d s c a p e features y o u s h o u l d have in y o u r n o t e s on the D u r i n g
L e c t u r e section. Be sure to go b a c k to the text for features y o u m i s s e d .
a d d e d visual material? D o i n g simple sketches of the glacial l a n d s c a p e features is a

great w a y to learn t h e m . It will be helpful to have all y o u r features on a single page
in y o u r notes for easy review.

Study Tip
T h e pictures in C h a p t e r 21 are d e s i g n e d as a virtual field trip. U s e the p i c t u r e s to master
glacial l a n d s c a p e features. Study e a c h p i c t u r e until y o u u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e feature is
and h o w it differs from other features. (For a list of the l a n d s c a p e features y o u n e e d to
study, refer to D u r i n g L e c t u r e . )
Set p r i o r i t i e s for s t u d y i n g this chapter. G i v e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y to a c t i v i t i e s that involve

a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s . W e r e c o m m e n d t h e f o l l o w i n g strategy for l e a r n i n g this chapter.
Text. R e v i e w the key figures in the chapter. T h e y will h e l p y o u r e m e m b e r the
m o s t i m p o r t a n t ideas in the chapter. F i g u r e s 2 1 . 9 and 2 1 . 1 1 will h e l p y o u
u n d e r s t a n d h o w glaciers form and m o v e . F i g u r e 2 1 . 1 6 e x p l a i n s h o w glaciers
e r o d e b e d r o c k . F i g u r e s 2 1 . 1 5 , 2 1 . 1 7 , 2 1 . 1 8 , and 2 1 . 1 9 a n d Table 21.1 p r o v i d e
a virtual field trip of the distinctive features of the glacial l a n d s c a p e . E a r t h
Issues 21.1 explains w h y ice shelves float.
S o m e t i m e before the e x a m , a n s w e r the exercises at the e n d of the c h a p t e r
in t h e text. T h e y are s h o r t - a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s and w o n ' t take long if y o u k n o w
the material. T h e y m a k e a n excellent review o f C h a p t e r 2 1 .
Practice Exercises a n d R e v i e w Questions. Start with Practice Exercise 1, which
will help you learn the distinctive features of glacial landscape. T h e n go to the
multiple-choice Review Questions to check your understanding of the lecture.
Try to answer each question before you look at the answer.
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention to the e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s .
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . T h e
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It provides a helpful
N e x t , w o r k o n t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
After y o u a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h q u e s tion that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r ing t h e q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How do glaciers form and how do they move?
G l a c i e r s form in c o l d and s n o w y climates w h e r e snow a c c u m u l a t i o n e x c e e d s
t h e ablation of ice d u e to m e l t i n g , sublimation, w i n d erosion, and iceberg calving. Glacial ice m o v e s by plastic flow and slip along the base, w h i c h m a y be
lubricated by m e l t water. T h e rate of ice flow typically varies from m e t e r s p e r
year to meters per week.
G l a c i e r s are d e s c r i b e d as a d v a n c i n g or retreating d e p e n d i n g on the b a l a n c e
b e t w e e n s n o w a c c u m u l a t i o n and ablation. W h e n ablation e x c e e d s a c c u m u l a tion, t h e shrinking glacier " r e t r e a t s " as the toe or t e r m i n u s m o v e s u p s l o p e .
W h e n a c c u m u l a t i o n e x c e e d s ablation, the e x p a n d i n g glacier " a d v a n c e s " as its
toe or terminus moves downslope.
Why do ice shelves float?

E a r t h Issues 21.1 illustrates h o w isostasy, the d y n a m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n the
forces of gravity a n d buoyancy, k e e p ice shelves and bergs afloat in water. T h e
m a s s of t h e floating ice is e q u a l to the m a s s of the w a t e r t h e iceberg displaces.
W h e n the ice m e l t s , it simply r e p l a c e s t h e water it displaced a n d therefore
t h e r e is no c h a n g e in sea level.
How do glaciers erode bedrock, transport and deposit

sediments, and shape the landscape?
G l a c i e r s are powerful agents of erosion and deposition. Glaciers e r o d e by
scraping, p l u c k i n g , and grinding rock.
L a n d s c a p e s sculptured by ice have distinctive features that have provided geologists with evidence for reconstructing the position of ice sheets during the ice
ages a n d for deciphering the existence of ice ages throughout E a r t h ' s history.
U - s h a p e d and h a n g i n g valleys, m o r a i n e s , aretes, cirques, drumlins, k a m e s ,
eskers, striated rock, and other features characterize a glacial landscape.
Ice-laid deposits of r o c k material are called till and consist of a h e t e r o g e n e o u s
m i x t u r e of rock, sand, a n d clay. A c c u m u l a t i o n s of till are called m o r a i n e s ;
e a c h t y p e of m o r a i n e is n a m e d for its position relative to the glacier that
f o r m e d it. A n c i e n t tills, called tillites, p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e for n u m e r o u s ancient
glaciations d u r i n g E a r t h ' s history.
Water-laid deposits from glaciers are called o u t w a s h a n d consist of sand,
gravel, and fine r o c k flour.
229
230
What are the ice ages and what causes them?

T h e ice sheets of the last m a j o r a d v a n c e w e r e g o n e by a b o u t 10,000 y e a r s
a g o , the b e g i n n i n g of the H o l o c e n e e p o c h . S t u d i e s of the g e o l o g i c a g e s of glacial d e p o s i t s on land and s e d i m e n t s of t h e seafloor s h o w that the P l e i s t o c e n e
glacial e p o c h c o n s i s t e d of m u l t i p l e a d v a n c e s (glacial intervals) and retreats
(interglacial intervals) of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l ice sheets. E a c h a d v a n c e c o r r e s p o n d e d to a global l o w e r i n g of the sea level, w h i c h e x p o s e d large a r e a s of
c o n t i n e n t a l shelf; d u r i n g the interglacial intervals, the sea level r o s e and s u b m e r g e d the s h e l v e s .
A l t h o u g h the c a u s e s of the ice ages r e m a i n uncertain, the general c o o l i n g of
the E a r t h l e a d i n g to glaciation a p p e a r s to have b e e n the result of plate t e c t o n ics that gradually m o v e d continents to p o s i t i o n s w h e r e they o b s t r u c t e d the
general transport of heat from t h e e q u a t o r to the polar r e g i o n s .
A favored e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e a l t e r n a t i o n of glacial and i n t e r g l a c i a l intervals
i s t h e effect o f a s t r o n o m i c a l c y c l e s b y w h i c h v e r y s m a l l p e r i o d i c c h a n g e s
in E a r t h ' s orbit a n d axis of r o t a t i o n alter the a m o u n t of s u n l i g h t r e c e i v e d at
t h e E a r t h ' s surface. T h e r e i s also e v i d e n c e that d e c r e a s e d levels o f c a r b o n
d i o x i d e i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e d i m i n i s h e d t h e g r e e n h o u s e effect, w h i c h w o u l d
contribute to global cooling.
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of this Study G u i d e .
Exercise 1: The glacially sculpted landscape

You are hired as a seasonal r a n g e r at a national p a r k with a spectacular glacially sculpted landscape. However, there is not o n e glacier in t h e p a r k today. Your j o b for t h e s u m m e r is to lead
natural history hikes along w h i c h y o u interpret t h e e v i d e n c e for the p a s t glaciation that helped
f o r m e d the p a r k l a n d s c a p e . Briefly d e s c r i b e five features a l o n g the n a t u r e trail that speak to
the past glacial e p i s o d e in this region. R e m e m b e r that a picture or sketch is w o r t h a thousand
w o r d s , so a g o o d w a y to p r o v i d e a brief description is with a w e l l - l a b e l e d d i a g r a m .
F e a t u r e s f o r m e d by the erosive p o w e r of glacial ice
1.
2.
3.
F e a t u r e s f o r m e d by deposition of r o c k material by glacial ice

4.
5.
1 76
PART II C H A P T E R IS
15. G l o b a l w a r m i n g of a b o u t
during the twentieth c e n t u r y correlates with the sig-
nificant rise i n a t m o s p h e r i c C 0 and other g r e e n h o u s e gases c a u s e d b y fossil-fuel burn2
ing, deforestation, and other h u m a n activities.

A. 0.6C
C.
B.
D. 2.6C
1.6C
2.0C
16. E a r t h ' s a l b e d o is not affected by a c h a n g e in the a m o u n t of

A. sea ice.
C.
B . C 0 i n the a t m o s p h e r e .
D . cloud cover.
trees covering land m a s s e s .
17. M i l a n k o v i t c h cycles correlate strongly with Pleistocene glacial cycles (ice ages) b e c a u s e
A. eccentricity, w o b b l e , and p r e c e s s i o n c a n all influence E a r t h ' s a l b e d o .
B . solar o u t p u t c h a n g e s d u r i n g t h e s e cycles.
C. ice cores show that the a m o u n t of C 0 in the a t m o s p h e r e is higher during the ice ages.
2
D. a high orbital eccentricity r e d u c e s the solar radiation r e a c h i n g the Earth.

H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 15.11 and the textbook section M i l a n k o v i t c h C y c l e s .
CHAPTER 16
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting:

Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
Figure 16.3. As a rock mass breaks into smaller pieces, more of its surface becomes available for the
chemical reactions of weathering.
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
W h a t is w e a t h e r i n g ?
Brief a n s w e r : W e a t h e r i n g is the b r e a k d o w n of r o c k s by c h e m i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l
processes.
177
206
Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Stream velocity

S t r e a m velocity is a d e p e n d e n t variable that g o v e r n s s t r e a m b e h a v i o r w h e t h e r a stream is
d o m i n a n t l y e r o d i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t i n g or d e p o s i t i n g s e d i m e n t s a l o n g a section of the channel.
Various i n d e p e n d e n t variables (factors) influence s t r e a m velocity and therefore c a n affect the
b e h a v i o r of a certain stretch of s t r e a m c h a n n e l . T h e m a j o r i n d e p e n d e n t variables affecting
velocity are listed in the table. C o m p l e t e the table by d e s c r i b i n g h o w c h a n g e s in e a c h factor
affect s t r e a m velocity.
Variable affecting
stream velocity
Relationship of variable
to stream velocity
Analogy
G r a d i e n t t h e slope
You tend to walk faster d o w n a
of t h e s t r e a m c h a n n e l
steeper slope.
Dischargethe amount
W i l l y o u m o v e into a n e w h o u s e slower
of w a t e r in t h e s t r e a m c h a n n e l
or faster if y o u h a v e m o r e p e o p l e
helping you?faster.
Sediment load
Typically, will y o u travel faster or

slower if y o u are c a r r y i n g m o r e in your
backpack?slower.
C h a n n e l characteristics
Channel roughness
Channel shape
As channel roughness increases,
Cross-country
velocity decreases.
tends to slow one down.
hiking
without
trail
The stream has more contact with the
When you have more contact with the
channel surface if the channel is very
ground surfaces
move
wide or very narrow. More contact
is
walking,
with
the
and
decreases
channel
increases
slower
than
slower.
drag
velocity.
Figure 18.14. A current flowing over a bed of sand, silt, and clay transports particles in two ways: as bed load, the material
sliding and rolling along the bottom; and as suspended load, the material temporarily or permanently suspended in the flow
itself. Saltation is an intermittent jumping motion of grains. In general, the smaller the particle, the higher it jumps and the
farther it travels.
Crawling
Exercise 2: Relationship between stream flow and groundwater

W h y do s t r e a m s in desert r e g i o n s typically flow intermittently and streams in m o r e t e m p e r ate r e g i o n s , like N e w E n g l a n d , flow y e a r - r o u n d ? D r a w i n g well-labeled d i a g r a m s illustrating
each situation w i t h a brief d i s c u s s i o n is an excellent w a y to a n s w e r this question. Refer to
Figure 17.9.
Desert (ephemeral) stream
Temperate (perennial) stream
Exercise 3: How do rivers cut through mountain ranges?

The Kali G a n d a k i River cuts o n e of the d e e p e s t gorges on Earth right t h r o u g h the H i m a l a y a n
mountains. Briefly d e s c r i b e t w o w a y s that a river c a n cut t h r o u g h a m o u n t a i n r a n g e . Refer to
Figures 18.8 and 18.9.
A.
B.
207
Exercise 2: Your personal budget as a metaphor for a glacial budget

Discuss h o w t h e c h a n g i n g b a l a n c e of cash in y o u r c h e c k i n g a c c o u n t is a g o o d m e t a p h o r for
an a d v a n c i n g a n d retreating glacier.
Exercise 3: Glacial advances and retreats
A glacier a d v a n c e s , halts, and retreats. Will the glacier c o n t i n u e to deposit material at its snout
while it is h a l t e d and even w h i l e it is retreating? D i s c u s s .
Review Questions
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of this Study G u i d e .
1. Glacial ice is m o s t like a(n)
A . i g n e o u s rock.
C . m e t a m o r p h i c rock.
B . s e d i m e n t a r y rock.
D . sediment.
2. T h e force that m o v e s glaciers is

A. recrystallization.
B. melting.
C. lubrication.
D . gravity.
3. As snow is transformed into glacial ice, a transitional p h a s e of densely p a c k e d granular

snow is called
A . p a c k ice.
B. firn.
C. alpine ice.
D . crystalline ice.
4 . Glaciers retreat w h e n t h e
A. a c c u m u l a t i o n of snow is less t h a n the ablation off the glacier.
B. a c c u m u l a t i o n of snow e x c e e d s the ablation off the glacier.
C. a c c u m u l a t i o n of s n o w is equal to the ablation.
D. boundary between the zone of accumulation and ablation moves to lower
elevations.
231
5. M o r a i n e s are
A. erosional glacial features carved in b e d r o c k over w h i c h the ice flowed.
B . m a d e from glacial o u t w a s h s e d i m e n t s .
C. deposits of loess carried by w i n d from recently glaciated r e g i o n s .
D. deposits of glacial till.
6. A d r u m l i n is a
A. block of b e d r o c k not quarried a w a y by the b o t t o m of a glacier.
B. sinuous ridge of water-deposited glacial debris.
C. a small depression formed from the melting of a b l o c k of ice buried beneath till.
D. streamlined hill c o n s t r u c t e d of glacial till.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 1 9 .
7. R a g g e d , knife-edged ridges are c o m m o n l y found in glaciated m o u n t a i n s . Such a ridge
line is called a(n)
A. horn.
C. col.
B . cirque.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 1 7 .
D . arete.
8. W h e n continental glaciers a d v a n c e over the land surface,

A.
B.
C.
D.
t h e sea level l o w e r s .
the sea level rises.
plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s are especially active.
E u r o p e is significantly warmer.
9. M i l a n k o v i t c h calculated that t h e eccentricity of the E a r t h ' s orbit varies over a cycle of

years.
A. 10,000
B. 23,000
C. 4 1 , 0 0 0
D . 100,000
10. Orbital factors that affect the E a r t h ' s heat b u d g e t primarily affect the
A. reflectivity of the E a r t h ' s u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
B. a m o u n t of solar energy r e a c h i n g our planet.
C. c o m p o s i t i o n of the a t m o s p h e r i c g a s e s .
D. distribution of heat over the g l o b e .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 15.11 and associated text.
1 1 . W h i c h of the following features of a glacial l a n d s c a p e is the p r o d u c t of depositional
p r o c e s s rather than e r o s i o n ?
A. fjord
B. kames
C. h a n g i n g valley
D . cirque
12. W h i c h of the following is N O T characteristic of glacial till?

A. sand grains of virtually all quartz
B. lack of clear stratification
C. very p o o r sorting
D. boulder-, c o b b l e - , pebble-, sand-, and clay-sized r o c k particles
13. A b l a t i o n refers to the
A. melting, calving, sublimation, and erosion of glacial ice.
B. erosion a n d deposition of glacial s e d i m e n t s .
C. c h a n g e s in sea level associated with glacial and interglacial p e r i o d s .
D. glacier a d v a n c e and retreat.
14. T h e glacial b u d g e t is b a l a n c e d w h e n the rate of a c c u m u l a t i o n is equal to the rate of

A . ablation.
B . deposition.
C. advance.
D . retreat.
15. T h e last major a d v a n c e of continental ice over N o r t h A m e r i c a r e a c h e d

A. t h e G u l f of M e x i c o .
B . California.
C. south of the G r e a t L a k e s .
D . Florida.
16. W h i c h of the following m a y have influenced E a r t h ' s climate during ice a g e s ?
A. variations in E a r t h orbital characteristics
B. c h a n g e s in the c o m p o s i t i o n of the a t m o s p h e r e
C. plate tectonic m o v e m e n t s of t h e continents
D. all of the a b o v e
17. As a result of the collapse and m e l t i n g of ice shelves and bergs, like that of the L a r s o n
Ice Shelf in 2 0 0 2 , t h e sea level
A. rises.
B. falls.
C. fluctuates.
D. remains unchanged.
H i n t : D o e s the level of water in a glass rise w h e n the ice c u b e s in the water m e l t ?
233
CHAPTER 22
Landscapes: Tectonic
and Climate Interaction
Landscapes: Tectonic and Climate Interaction
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend the lecture, be sure to s p e n d s o m e t i m e previewing t h e chapter. F o r an efficient preview, u s e t h e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions.
Chapter Preview
W h a t are the p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s of l a n d s c a p e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : L a n d s c a p e s are described in t e r m s of their t o p o g r a p h y : elevation, the
altitude of the surface of the E a r t h above sea level; and relief, the difference b e t w e e n
t h e h i g h e s t a n d the l o w e s t spots in a region. L a n d s c a p e s also consist of the varied
l a n d f o r m s p r o d u c e d by g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s such as erosion and s e d i m e n t a t i o n by
rivers, glaciers, m a s s w a s t i n g , and wind.
H o w do t h e c l i m a t e a n d plate tectonic s y s t e m s i n t e r a c t to control l a n d s c a p e ?
Brief a n s w e r : Tectonics affects the height and distribution of the crust and its
c o m p o s i t i o n . C l i m a t e affects w e a t h e r i n g and erosion. Characteristics of the b e d r o c k
influence w e a t h e r i n g and erosion rates.
H o w d o l a n d s c a p e s evolve?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e evolution of l a n d s c a p e s d e p e n d s strongly on the c o m p e t i t i o n
b e t w e e n uplift and erosion. F o r e x a m p l e , a l a n d s c a p e with high relief will form if
tectonic activity is high, which in turn stimulates erosion. Erosion will at first e n h a n c e
relief, but o v e r time, water, w i n d , and ice will w e a r d o w n t h e high spots and fill in
the low spots with s e d i m e n t .
W h y don't mountains sink?
Brief a n s w e r : Like icebergs, m o u n t a i n s float. T h e y float on Earth's mantle, w h i c h
exerts a b u o y a n t force and c o u n t e r s the force of gravity. D u r i n g rapid erosion of
m o u n t a i n r a n g e s , s u m m i t s m a y b e uplifted t o even greater heights b e c a u s e the m a s s
of the m o u n t a i n is reduced d u r i n g erosion, resulting in isostatic uplift. Refer to
F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 7 b and Earth Issues 2 1 . 1 .

Congratulations! You have reached the point in y o u r mastery of geology at w h i c h y o u will
begin to m a k e sense of n e w landscapes y o u m a y encounter during travel or on a hike. C h a p t e r
22 d r a w s heavily on all you h a v e learned previously about tectonics and climate (note the chapter title, L a n d s c a p e s ) . F o r that reason it will be even m o r e important than usual to review other
chapters in conjunction with y o u r study of C h a p t e r 2 2 . U s e the following quick reference list
to expedite y o u r review of important information from previous chapters. N o t e that this list is
organized a r o u n d the major t h e m e of C h a p t e r 22: Landforms are shaped by the interaction of
tectonic uplift and climate.
Tectonics
H o w c o n v e r g e n t m a r g i n s p r o d u c e uplift (Figure 2.6)
L a n d f o r m s a s s o c i a t e d with faults and folds (Figures 7.6, 7.8, 7.10, 7 . 1 1 , 7.12,
7 . 1 7 , 7 . 1 8 , and 7.19)
Plate tectonics and s e d i m e n t a r y basins (Figure 5.4)
Climate
P h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g (Figure 16.11)
H o w m a s s w a s t i n g p r o c e s s e s s h a p e t h e l a n d s c a p e (Figure 16.17)
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g m o u n t a i n s , a t m o s p h e r i c circulation, and deserts
(Figures 17.3, 1 9 . 1 , and 19.15)
Glacial l a n d s c a p e s (Figures 2 1 . 1 7 and 2 1 . 1 8 )
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PART II
C H A P T E R 22
C o m p a r e d to ice and w i n d , r u n n i n g w a t e r p l a y s the largest role in sculpting the Earth's

land surface today. A review of the h y d r o l o g i c cycle (Figure 17.2) and t h e material in the last
half of C h a p t e r 18 (Figures 18.8, 18.9, 18.23, 18.24, and 18.25), will reinforce your understanding of the information p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 2 2 . T h i s review will also h e l p in preparation
for a final e x a m .
Web Site Preview

Identify
North America's
Landforms
and
Understanding
Landscape
Evolution
are
Interactive
E x e r c i s e s definitely worth c o m p l e t i n g before or right after y o u r first lecture on this topic.
During Lecture
O n e g o a l for lecture should b e t o leave t h e r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s t o the C h a p t e r Preview
questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the b i g picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 22 tells
the story of h o w l a n d s c a p e s form. "Uplift p r o p o s e s and e r o s i o n d i s p o s e s . "
C h a p t e r 22 p r o v i d e s a virtual t o u r of l a n d f o r m s created by g e o l o g i c a l
p r o c e s s e s . D u r i n g lecture, be alert to tips that will h e l p y o u sort o u t links
b e t w e e n a l a n d s c a p e and a certain set of g e o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t than the l a n d s c a p e features t h e m s e l v e s are t h e p r o c e s s e s
that form e a c h feature. You already k n o w the p r o c e s s e s . Your goal in this c h a p ter is to u n d e r s t a n d h o w g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s w o r k t o g e t h e r to f o r m a particular
k i n d o f l a n d s c a p e . E x a m p l e : T h e Tibetan plateau and the H i m a l a y a n M o u n tains are supported by b u o y a n t continental crust, t h i c k e n e d during c o n t i n e n t a l
collision. E r o s i o n a l u n l o a d i n g of the s o u t h e r n m a r g i n of the T i b e t a n plateau
m a y c o n t r i b u t e to the height of the p e a k s in the H i m a l a y a n r a n g e .
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both g e n e r a l review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.

clearly described each landform (mountains, plateaus, Appalachian Valley and Ridge, and
so on) and the geological processes that shape t h e m ? Use the text to check your notes.
a d d e d visual material? S u g g e s t i o n s : M a k e s o m e s i m p l e s k e t c h e s to h e l p you learn

the features that identify landforms in the chapter. Work s o m e of the s k e t c h e s into
a c o m p a r i s o n chart like the o n e in Practice E x e r c i s e 2. Tip: T h e a n s w e r s for Practice
E x e r c i s e 2, available at the end of this Study G u i d e , s h o w s o m e g o o d e x a m p l e s of
s i m p l e l a n d f o r m sketches.
H i n t : S e e Practice Exercise 1.
Study Tip: Learn by drawing

Puting simplified sketches of l a n d s c a p e features into y o u r notes is a helpful w a y to
learn and r e m e m b e r b e c a u s e it activates both visual and kinesthetic learning modalities.
Visual learners r e m e m b e r material best after they l o o k at and study a figure. Visual
learners learn m o r e if they enrich their notes with visual clues. F o r kinesthetic learners,
m e m o r y is activated by the act of d r a w i n g . You learn as you l o o k and draw.

First, get the big picture in m i n d . Take a look at F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 6 , w h i c h shows
h o w tectonics a n d c l i m a t e interact t o p r o d u c e l a n d s c a p e .
Next, r e v i e w t h e m a i n c o n c e p t s of t h e chapter: relief (Figure 2 2 . 3 ) ; d e v e l o p m e n t of r i d g e s and valleys in folded m o u n t a i n s (Figure 2 2 . 1 0 ) ; erosion driven
b y t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n s t r e a m p o w e r and s e d i m e n t l o a d (Figure 2 2 . 1 2 ) ; the
d y n a m i c s of uplift (Figure 2 2 . 1 7 ) ; and classic m o d e l s of l a n d s c a p e evolution
(Figure 2 2 . 1 9 ) . You will n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d these figures to a n s w e r t h e exercises a n d r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s .
Study Tip for Figure 22.17 and Earth Issues box 2 2 . 1 .

Study Figure 2 2 . 1 7 and Earth Issues 22.1 as a p a c k a g e . Both relate uplift to climate
change. T h e y reinforce each other and m a k e better sense together than they do when
read separately.
Take the visual field tour of l a n d f o r m s . Be sure y o u u n d e r s t a n d these landforms and k n o w w h a t they l o o k like: aretes (Figure 22.6), m e s a s (Figure 22.8),
valley a n d r i d g e t o p o g r a p h y (22.10 and 2 2 . 1 1 ) , cuestas (Figure 22.14), h o g backs (Figure 22.15).
S o m e t i m e before y o u r e x a m , a n s w e r the exercises at the end of this chapter.
They are s h o r t - a n s w e r questions and will not take long to c o m p l e t e if you
k n o w t h e material. A n i m a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d on the W e b site for E x e r c i s e s 4,
6, 8, and 9. We also r e c o m m e n d w o r k i n g on T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s 1, 3, 4, 8.
C o m p l e t e Practice E x e r c i s e s 1 a n d 2. You will get the greatest return on y o u r
study t i m e by w o r k i n g on these exercises b e c a u s e they will h e l p you r e m e m ber the m o s t i m p o r t a n t ideas in the chapter.
A n s w e r t h e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s to c h e c k y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture.
C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s as y o u g o , but try to a n s w e r the question before you l o o k
at the answer. P a y attention to the test-taking tips. T h e y will h e l p y o u do better on y o u r e x a m s .
C o m p l e t e t h e C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular attention to t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s . T h e G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e
exercise C a n E r o s i o n M a k e M o u n t a i n s H i g h e r ? is a g o o d review and will reinforce information p r e s e n t e d in this chapter.
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238
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d exams. The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It provides a helpful
o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review any question
that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering the
Chapter Summary
What are the principal components of landscapes?
L a n d s c a p e s are described in t e r m s of their t o p o g r a p h y : e l e v a t i o n , the altitude
of the surface of the E a r t h a b o v e sea level; relief, t h e difference b e t w e e n the
h i g h e s t and the lowest spots in a r e g i o n ; and the varied l a n d f o r m s p r o d u c e d
b y e r o s i o n and s e d i m e n t a t i o n b y rivers, glaciers, m a s s w a s t i n g , and w i n d . E l e vation is a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n tectonic activity and e r o s i o n rate.
Figure 2 2 . 3 . Relief is the difference between the highest and lowest elevations in a region.
Three types of relief can be defined for a typical mountainous area.
How do the climate and plate tectonic systems

interact to control landscape?
Tectonics (uplift and s u b s i d e n c e ) , e r o s i o n , c l i m a t e , and the t y p e of b e d r o c k
control the evolution of landscapes. Positive and negative feedback m e c h a n i s m s
b e t w e e n tectonic p r o c e s s and c l i m a t e d y n a m i c a l l y adjust t o c h a n g e . Water,
w i n d , and ice act to e r o d e and transport r o c k material from the h i g h spots and
d e p o s i t it in t h e low spots. Refer to F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 7 and E a r t h Issues 2 2 . 1 .
How do landscapes evolve?

T h e formation of river valleys and b e d r o c k erosion are controlled by a b a l a n c e
b e t w e e n s t r e a m p o w e r and s e d i m e n t load. Refer to Figure 2 2 . 1 2 .
L a n d s c a p e s go t h r o u g h different p h a s e s d e p e n d i n g on tectonic activity and clim a t e . F o r e x a m p l e , a l a n d s c a p e with high relief forms if tectonic activity is
high, w h i c h in turn stimulates erosion. Erosion at first e n h a n c e s relief, but over
time, water, w i n d , and ice w e a r d o w n the high spots and fill in t h e low spots
with s e d i m e n t .
Current views of l a n d s c a p e evolution e m p h a s i z e the d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m
b e t w e e n e r o s i o n and tectonic uplift. Uplift c o m p e t e s w i t h erosion. If uplift is
faster, the m o u n t a i n will rise; if erosion is faster, the m o u n t a i n s are lowered.
W h e n tectonics d o m i n a t e s , m o u n t a i n s are high a n d steep, and they r e m a i n so
as long as the b a l a n c e is in favor of tectonics. W h e n the rate of deformation
w a n e s , rates of erosion p r e d o m i n a t e , resulting in a gradual d e c r e a s e in both
relief and m e a n elevation.
Why don't mountains sink?

Like an iceberg floating in water, m o s t m o u n t a i n s are supported by a buoyant,
low-density root of continental crust, w h i c h floats in the d e n s e r m a n t l e . Isostatic r e b o u n d of thick continental crust in r e s p o n s e to u n l o a d i n g d u e to differential erosion m a y c a u s e m o u n t a i n p e a k s to rise even higher.
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Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Landscapes: Tectonic and climate interaction flowchart

To review the basic relationships between landscape relief, tectonic activity (uplift), and erosion,
fill in the flowchart with the following words.
Tectonic activity
H i g h relief
L o w relief
Erosion
Physical weathering
Chemical weathering
Exercise 2: Comparison of Some of the Landforms

C h a p t e r 22 p r o v i d e s a virtual field trip e x p e r i e n c e . To m a s t e r t h e l a n d f o r m s d i s c u s s e d in this
chapter, it will be helpful to d e v e l o p a c o m p a r i s o n chart identifying the i m p o r t a n t features that
distinguish e a c h landform. Fill in the m i s s i n g information in t h e c o l u m n " I m p o r t a n t features."
H i n t : U s e the text figures, c a p t i o n s , and a c c o m p a n y i n g text to h e l p y o u . T h e n m a k e a very
s i m p l e sketch of e a c h landform. S k e t c h i n g is b o t h a t h i n k i n g tool and a great kinesthetic
l e a r n i n g tool. W h e n y o u draw, y o u tap the part of the b r a i n that learns by m o v i n g .
Sketch (Keep it very simple.)
Landform
Important feature(s)
Mesa
(See F i g u r e 22.8.)
A small plateau with

sides. H e l d up by
Cuesta
(See F i g u r e 22.14.)
A structurally controlled cliff. B e d s are s o m e w h a t

tilted and alternate b e t w e e n w e a k and resistant
layers. T h e resistant layers get u n d e r c u t b e c a u s e
the w e a k layers t e n d to e r o d e faster.
Hogback
(See F i g u r e 22.15.)
A structurally controlled cliff w i t h b e d s that

are
. R i d g e is m o r e or less
Valley r i d g e
topography
(See Figures 2 2 . 1 0
and 22.11.)
) form
In y o u n g m o u n t a i n s , upfolds (_
J form valleys.
ridges and d o w n f o l d s (
As tectonic activity moderates and erosion digs
d e e p e r into t h e structures, the
may
form valleys and syncline ridges.
. slopes on all
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of this S t u d y G u i d e .
1. D u r i n g t h e earliest stages of d e v e l o p m e n t of a river valley, the valley w o u l d h a v e a
A. s i m p l e V-shaped profile.
B . s i m p l e U - s h a p e d profile.
C. low s t r e a m gradient.
D. w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d floodplain.
2. Elevation is t h e result of
A. tectonic activity.
B. the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n tectonic activity and erosion.
C. erosion and deposition.
D . deposition.
3. Relief is t h e
A. difference b e t w e e n the h i g h e s t point and the lowest point in a region.
B. difference b e t w e e n t h e h i g h e s t point in a region a n d sea level.
C. a v e r a g e h e i g h t of a l a n d s c a p e .
D. steepness of t h e slopes.
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PART II
C H A P T E R 22
4. W h i c h of t h e following are i m p o r t a n t controls on l a n d s c a p e e v o l u t i o n ?

A. tectonics
C.
B. c l i m a t e
D. all of t h e a b o v e
t y p e of b e d r o c k
5. T h e E a r t h has t w o f u n d a m e n t a l levels on its surface. T h e y are t h e

A . land and o c e a n s .
B . crust and m a n t l e .
C . m o u n t a i n s and t r e n c h e s .
D . c o n t i n e n t a l crust and o c e a n b a s i n s .
6. M o u n t a i n belts are c o m m o n l y found in association with
A. h o t spots.
C.
B. convergent boundaries.
D. mid-ocean ridges.
transform faults.
7. An e x a m p l e of a relatively short-term positive-feedback process in landscape evolution is

A. a m o u n t a i n p e a k b e c o m i n g h i g h e r as a result of erosion.
B. uplift c a u s i n g e r o s i o n to slow d o w n .
C. rivers w a s h i n g s e d i m e n t s out of subsiding b a s i n s .
D. interactions at c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s resulting in low relief.
8. T h e A p p a l a c h i a n Valley a n d R i d g e p r o v i n c e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l a n d s c a p e controlled by
A. a series of regional faults that w e r e active millions of years a g o .
B. glacial e r o s i o n and deposition, since a continental ice sheet o n c e c o v e r e d the entire
region.
C . w i n d e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n partly c o n s t r a i n e d b y z o n e s o f d e n s e vegetation.
D. an intricate series of anticlines and synclines.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e s 2 2 . 1 0 and 2 2 . 1 1 .
9. G i v e n that erosion by s t r e a m s is c o n t r o l l e d by a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n s t r e a m p o w e r and sedi m e n t load, then in steep, wet terrain, s t r e a m p o w e r is
A. h i g h and s e d i m e n t is transported away.
B. low and s e d i m e n t is transported away.
C. high and s e d i m e n t is deposited.
D. low a n d s e d i m e n t is d e p o s i t e d .
Test-Taking Tip: Think logically during exams

L e a r n i n g should result from t h i n k i n g rather than from m e m o r i z a t i o n . On e x a m s it is
e a s y to b e c o m e n e r v o u s and e x p e r i e n c e a brief m e m o r y lapse. At such t i m e s logical
t h i n k i n g c a n save the day.
H a v e y o u noticed that s o m e test items are written so that y o u can d e d u c e the answer
logically? C o n s i d e r item 10.
T h e clue. T h e fact that A and B are very similar is a clue that o n e of t h e m is probably
the correct answer. (This o c c u r s as a b y - p r o d u c t of test c o n s t r u c t i o n . As the instructor
d e v e l o p s t h e item, she w a n t s to build in t w o alternatives and h a v e y o u d e c i d e w h i c h
alternative is correct.)
T h e logic. It stands to r e a s o n that a formation with steeply d i p p i n g b e d s w o u l d be
susceptible to erosion. If the cuesta has steeply d i p p i n g b e d s (as stated in A ) , then it
w o u l d also be likely to e r o d e faster (as stated in C ) . But y o u k n o w that there is only
o n e correct answer, so A and C c a n n o t both be correct. H e n c e the correct a n s w e r is
likely to be B. T h e r e is, of c o u r s e , a caveat. L o g i c is not a substitute for study. A l s o ,
w h e n a p p l y i n g logic it is easy to be trapped by s o m e h i d d e n m i s c o n c e p t i o n y o u harbor.
So c o n s i d e r logic a tool y o u can use occasionally, w h e n y o u n e e d it.
It is a l w a y s a g o o d idea to have a full t o o l b o x !
10. C u e s t a s a n d h o g b a c k s are b o t h long ridges of erosion-resistant rock. T h e difference

b e t w e e n t h e m i s that
A . m u c h m o r e steeply d i p p i n g b e d s form the cuesta.
B . m u c h m o r e steeply d i p p i n g o r vertical b e d s form the h o g b a c k .
C. t h e c u e s t a tends to e r o d e faster.
D . h o g b a c k s are a s y m m e t r i c a l .
11. T h e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e d y n a m i c interactions b e t w e e n uplift and c l i m a t e is fueled by the
o b s e r v a t i o n that g l o b a l c o o l i n g over the last few tens of millions of years coincides with
t h e uplift of t h e Tibetan plateau. O n e side of the d e b a t e argues that there w a s negative
f e e d b a c k b e t w e e n uplift and c l i m a t e b e c a u s e
A. h i g h e r o s i o n rates led to the r e m o v a l of carbon d i o x i d e a n important g r e e n h o u s e
g a s f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e , w h i c h in turn led to further c o o l i n g , increased precipitation, and erosion.
B. h i g h e r erosion rates resulted in h i g h e r rates of uplift d u e to isostatic adjustments.
C. c o o l e r c l i m a t e s a l l o w e d glaciers to g r o w on the m o u n t a i n p e a k s , and t h e w e i g h t of
t h e ice isostatically d e p r e s s e d the m o u n t a i n s .
D. none of the above.
12. B e r y l l i u m - 1 0 is u s e d as a m e t h o d to d a t e t h e a g e of river-terrace surfaces b e c a u s e
beryllium-10
A.
B.
C.
D.
is radioactive a n d its decay is d e t e r m i n e d by e x p o s u r e to sunlight.

is slowly l e a c h e d out of r o c k o n c e it is e x p o s e d at t h e surface.
is slowly r e l e a s e d from t h e r o c k s as they are u n c o v e r e d by erosion.
a c c u m u l a t e s in t h e u p p e r surface of t h e r o c k the longer it is e x p o s e d at t h e surface
t o c o s m i c ray b o m b a r d m e n t .
243
CHAPTER 23
The Human Impact on

Earth's Environment
The Human Impact on Earth's Environment
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture, be sure to s p e n d s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g t h e chapter. F o r an efficient
preview, u s e t h e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions.
Chapter Preview
W h a t is t h e o r i g i n of oil a n d natural g a s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Oil and natural gas form from organic matter deposited in marine
s e d i m e n t s . T h e organic matter is pressure c o o k e d as the s e d i m e n t s are buried, and the
organic materials are transformed into liquid and g a s e o u s h y d r o c a r b o n s . Figure 23.6
illustrates h o w the organic fluids migrate and a c c u m u l a t e in geologic traps.
W h y is t h e r e c o n c e r n a b o u t the w o r l d ' s oil s u p p l y ?
Brief a n s w e r : Oil is a n o n r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e and it is being used faster than natural
p r o c e s s e s g e n e r a t e it. T h e key issue is not w h e n oil runs out but w h e n oil production
stops rising. Refer to Figure 2 3 . 1 0 and the a c c o m p a n y i n g discussion of the
controversy c o n c e r n i n g H u b b e r t ' s peak.
W h a t is the origin of coal a n d h o w big a resource is it?
Brief a n s w e r : C o a l is formed by the c o m p a c t i o n and mild m e t a m o r p h i s m of buried
terrestrial w e t l a n d vegetation. C o a l has supplied an increasing proportion of U . S .
energy n e e d s since 1975. Refer to Figures 23.12 and 2 3 . 1 3 .
W h a t a r e t h e p r o s p e c t s for alternative e n e r g y s o u r c e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Alternative sources include nuclear, hydroelectric, wind, solar, b i o m a s s ,
and g c o t h c r m a l . Taken together, these sources currently provide only about 14 percent
of w o r l d e n e r g y n e e d s . W i t h a d v a n c e s in t e c h n o l o g y and safety plus reductions in
cost, r e n e w a b l e sources of e n e r g y and nuclear p o w e r can b e c o m e major sources of
energy in this century.
W h a t is a c i d r a i n ?
Brief a n s w e r : A c i d rain is rain that contains sulfuric a n d / o r nitric acid and is f o r m e d
w h e n e m i s s i o n s from the burning of fossil fuels react with rainwater.
W h a t is o z o n e d e p l e t i o n , a n d w h y s h o u l d it c o n c e r n u s ?
Brief a n s w e r : O z o n e a b s o r b s harmful ultraviolet radiation s t r e a m i n g in from the Sun.
U s e d as refrigerants and in industrial p r o c e s s e s , C F C s are c h e m i c a l s that r e a c h the
upper a t m o s p h e r e a n d react w i t h o z o n e faster than o z o n e is generated. F i g u r e 23.21
shows h o w levels of o z o n e in the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e have d e c r e a s e d relative to 1980.
H o w m u c h g l o b a l w a r m i n g will there b e i n t h e twenty-first century, a n d w h a t
will be t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of it?
T h e r a n g e accepted by m o s t experts is from 1.4 to 5.6 degrees centigrade. C o n s e q u e n c e s
will i n c l u d e rising sea level and shrinking ice caps at t h e poles, as well as species
extinction and shifts in habitat and e c o s y s t e m s . Refer to Figures 2 3 . 2 2 and 23.23 and
Table 2 3 . 1 .
W h a t s h o u l d be t h e g o a l of e n e r g y a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l policies?
Brief a n s w e r : Policies should g u i d e the nations of t h e world t h r o u g h the transition
from h y d r o c a r b o n fuels to less polluting, sustainable e n e r g y sources. In particular,
carbon d i o x i d e e m i s s i o n s should be r e d u c e d to d e c r e a s e t h e i m p a c t of global c l i m a t e
c h a n g e . Refer to E a r t h Policy 2 3 . 2 .
245
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PART II
C H A P T E R 23

T h e f o r m a t i o n of oil, natural gas, and coal involves s e d i m e n t a r y and m e t a m o r p h i c processes
that y o u learned a b o u t in C h a p t e r s 5 and 6. T h e c a r b o n cycle, g r e e n h o u s e effect, and discussions of the c l i m a t e c h a n g e in C h a p t e r 15 are essential b a c k g r o u n d m a t e r i a l for Chapter 23.
Toxic a n d nuclear w a s t e c o n t a m i n a t i o n b r i n g s us b a c k to issues related to groundwater and
s t r e a m transport, d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s 17 and 18.
During Lecture
K e e p the big picture in m i n d as y o u t a k e notes. C h a p t e r 23 tells the story of
e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s that p o w e r o u r e c o n o m y and h o w the activities of o u r civilization affect o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . P r o b l e m s s u c h as the d e p l e t i o n of p e t r o l e u m
as an energy r e s o u r c e and the potential for c l i m a t e c h a n g e that arises from
e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n are explored. H u m a n activities are b e c o m i n g a n increasingly i m p o r t a n t factor influencing the functions of E a r t h s y s t e m s , so m u c h so
that s o m e scientists a r g u e that we are p l u n g i n g o u r w o r l d into a n e w g e o l o g i cal e p o c h , the A n t h r o p o c e n e . F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g the c o m p o n e n t s , fluxes,
a n d f e e d b a c k s within e a c h s y s t e m .
B e c a u s e this c h a p t e r covers the h u m a n i m p a c t on E a r t h ' s e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i c h
is linked to cultural, social, and e c o n o m i c i s s u e s , there m a y be opportunities
for discussion or for d e b a t e activities. P r e v i e w i n g the c h a p t e r will p r e p a r e y o u
to t a k e part in these activities.
T h e instructor m a y m a k e use of a discussion or debate to address s o m e of these
issues. S u m m a r i z e the important social issues and arguments in your notes. Pay
particular attention to capturing arguments that contradict your own. Circle these
arguments and return to t h e m later for study and consideration. True learning
often involves changing our conceptions (and particularly our misconceptions).
We Americans
think we
are pretty good!
We want to build a house,
we cut down some trees.
We want to build a fire, we dig a little coal.

But when we run out of all these things,
then we will find out just how good we
really are.
W I L L ROGERS
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s is right after lecture. T h e following c h e c k l i s t contains
both general review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.

written a s u m m a r y of w h a t is c o v e r e d in this lecture? Your s u m m a r y s h o u l d say
s o m e t h i n g significant a b o u t h o w h u m a n activities c h a n g e the global e n v i r o n m e n t and
t h e potential for global w a r m i n g d u r i n g y o u r lifetime. S u g g e s t i o n : W r i t e a brief
p o s i t i o n p a p e r o n a n E a r t h issue that c o n c e r n s y o u . A s k y o u r s e l f w h a t E a r t h s y s t e m
information in C h a p t e r 23 is relevant to the i s s u e . Try to d e v e l o p a p o s i t i o n that is
b a s e d on r e a s o n and is consistent with existing s c i e n c e .
c a p t u r e d a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h o w we s h o u l d u s e o u r n o n r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y a n d materials
that c a m e u p i n the lecture o r d u r i n g c l a s s r o o m d i s c u s s i o n s o r d e b a t e ?
created a brief big picture overview of this lecture and c h a p t e r ?

Set priorities for s t u d y i n g this chapter. Give h i g h e s t priority to activities that involve a n s w e r ing q u e s t i o n s . We r e c o m m e n d the following strategy for learning this chapter.
Text. This is a chapter with unusually powerful implications for our future as
h u m a n beings. To gain an overview of those implications, read the sections called
Energy Sources and Rise of the Fossil-Fuel E c o n o m y and examine Figures 23.2,
2 3 . 3 , 2 3 . 4 , 2 3 . 5 , 2 3 . 7 , 2 3 . 9 , 23.10, and 23.13. T h e n read the two Earth Policy features. Earth Policy 23.1 deals with toxic and nuclear waste contamination and
Earth Policy 23.2 reviews the Kyoto Accords and the politics of climate change.
T h i n k about the implications of these figures. It is time well spent.
R e v i e w t h e key figures on the formation of e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s . T h e y illustrate
t h e f o r m a t i o n of oil ( F i g u r e 23.6) a n d coal (Figure 2 3 . 1 2 ) . You have to understand t h e s e figures to a n s w e r the review questions.
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . A n s w e r the R e v i e w Questions to c h e c k your understanding
of the lecture. C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s as you go, but try to a n s w e r each question
before y o u l o o k at the answer. N o t i c e the test-taking tips that are interspersed
with the questions. T h e y are designed to help you do better on y o u r next e x a m .
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r a n d W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular attention to t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s . T h e O n l i n e R e v i e w
E x e r c i s e Identify the Parts of the Fossil Fuels Cycle will h e l p y o u inventory
major c o m p o n e n t s of this cycle. T h e G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e The
Tempest in the TeapotFinding Oil illustrates h o w oil reservoirs are discovered in t h e c o n t e x t of a bit of history.
D i d you k n o w that it takes about t w o p o u n d s of coal to produce the energy
for y o u to c o p y a m e g a b y t e of m u s i c off the internet, and that this action
releases four p o u n d s of c a r b o n d i o x i d e into the a t m o s p h e r e ? L e a r n all about it
in t h e G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercises.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g preparation for e x a m s .
Final Exam Prep

Each semester, in o n e w e e k , y o u get to take an e x a m in e a c h of y o u r courses. M o s t of the
exams are c o m p r e h e n s i v e finals that cover t h e entire semester. D e a l i n g with finals w e e k successfully can be a c h a l l e n g e . H e r e are s o m e tips that will e n s u r e that y o u do y o u r best w o r k
during finals w e e k .
Tips for Surviving Finals Week

B e o r g a n i z e d and s y s t e m a t i c . U s e t h e P i n a l E x a m P r e p W o r k s h e e t ( A p p e n d i x B )
t o h e l p y o u get o r g a n i z e d for finals. U s e t h e E i g h t - D a y S t u d y P l a n ( A p p e n d i x A )
for e v e r y c o u r s e in w h i c h the final e x a m will be an i m p o r t a n t factor in d e t e r m i n i n g
your grade.
Stick to priorities. Say no to distractions.
Build in m o m e n t s of relaxation. Take regular short b r e a k s , exercise, and be sure to get
e n o u g h sleep.
Be confident. By now you have built up good study habits. You are a competent learner.
247
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PART II
C H A P T E R 23
T h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify y o u r chapter review.

R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview that should
N e x t , w o r k on t h e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the q u e s t i o n s j u s t as you would for an
e x a m , to see h o w w e l l y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter. After y o u a n s w e r t h e questions, score
t h e m . Finally, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review any q u e s t i o n that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct
t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Exam Prep Tip: Get Organized for Finals Week

T h e e n d of s e m e s t e r is a p p r o a c h i n g . It's t i m e to get o r g a n i z e d for taking e x a m s in all
y o u r c o u r s e s . Take a look at the Final E x a m P r e p W o r k s h e e t ( A p p e n d i x B). There you
will find m a n y useful ideas about h o w to be successful as you enter the h o m e stretch of
y o u r semester.
Our entire
society
rests
our land,
our forests,
influences
our health,
is
dependent
uponour
water,
and our minerals.
uponand
How we
use
resources
security,
economy,
and
these
well-being.
J O H N F. KENNEDY, FEBRUARY 2 3 , 1961
Chapter Summary
What is the origin of oil and natural gas?
O i l a n d natural gas f o r m from organic m a t t e r d e p o s i t e d in m a r i n e s e d i m e n t s .
T h e o r g a n i c materials are b u r i e d as the s e d i m e n t a r y layers g r o w in t h i c k n e s s .
Heat, p r e s s u r e , and bacterial action transform the o r g a n i c m a t t e r into fluid
h y d r o c a r b o n s . T h e fluid h y d r o c a r b o n s tend to m i g r a t e out of the s o u r c e r o c k
and a c c u m u l a t e in g e o l o g i c traps that confine the fluids w i t h i n i m p e r m e a b l e
barriers. Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 6 .
Why is there concern about the world's oil supply?

O i l is a n o n r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e : it will be depleted faster t h a n n a t u r e c a n
r e p l e n i s h it.
P e t r o l e u m r e s o u r c e s will be significantly depleted within a b o u t a century.
What is the origin of coal, and how big a resource is it?

C o a l is f o r m e d by the c o m p a c t i o n and m i l d m e t a m o r p h i s m of b u r i e d w e t l a n d
vegetation. T h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h c o a l forms b e g i n s w i t h the d e p o s i t i o n o f
p l a n t matter. P r o t e c t e d from c o m p l e t e d e c a y and o x i d a t i o n in a w e t l a n d envir o n m e n t , the d e p o s i t is buried and c o m p r e s s e d into peat. S u b j e c t e d to further
burial, p e a t u n d e r g o e s mild m e t a m o r p h i s m , w h i c h transforms i t successively
into lignite, s u b b i t u m i n o u s a n d b i t u m i n o u s (soft) coal, a n d anthracite (hard)
c o a l . A s t h e deposit b e c o m e s m o r e d e e p l y buried, the t e m p e r a t u r e rises and
structural d e f o r m a t i o n m a y occur. Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 1 2 .
D o m e s t i c c o a l r e s o u r c e s in the U n i t e d States w o u l d last for a few h u n d r e d
y e a r s at current rates of u s e a b o u t a billion tons p e r year.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s a s s o c i a t e d with the u s e of c o a l i n c l u d e m i n e reclam a t i o n , pollution, acid e m i s s i o n s that are p r e c u r s o r s of acid rain, a n d c a r b o n
d i o x i d e (a g r e e n h o u s e gas) e m i s s i o n s .
What are the prospects for alternative sources of energy?

Alternative e n e r g y sources include nuclear, g e o t h e r m a l , hydroelectric, w i n d ,
b i o m a s s , and solar s o u r c e s .
T a k e n together, t h e s e s o u r c e s currently p r o v i d e only 14 p e r c e n t of w o r l d
energy needs.
As with fossil fuels, there are significant e c o n o m i c , technological, environmental, a n d political c o n c e r n s associated w i t h alternative e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s .
What is acid rain?

A c i d rain is p r o d u c e d m a i n l y from e m i s s i o n s of sulfur-containing g a s e s . A c i d
rain can c a u s e n o t i c e a b l e d a m a g e to forest and lake ecology, fabrics, paints,
metals, and building materials. Refer to F i g u r e s 2 3 . 1 8 and 2 3 . 1 9 .
What is ozone depletion, and why should it concern us?

A well-defined, l a r g e - s c a l e z o n e of o z o n e d e p l e t i o n h a s f o r m e d w i t h i n the
stratosphere due to complex interactions with chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
c o m p o u n d s . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 2 0 . F i g u r e 2 3 . 2 1 s h o w s h o w levels o f o z o n e
i n t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e h a v e d e c r e a s e d relative t o 1 9 8 0 . S t r a t o s p h e r i c
o z o n e shields E a r t h ' s surface from d a m a g i n g ultraviolet r a d i a t i o n a n d this
shield i s b e i n g c o m p r o m i s e d d u e t o o z o n e depletion. T h e M o n t r e a l P r o t o c o l
is an i n t e r n a t i o n a l treaty that a p p e a r s to h a v e dealt successfully w i t h this envir o n m e n t a l disaster.
How much global warming will there be in the twenty-first

century, and what will be the consequences?
T h e r a n g e a c c e p t e d by m o s t experts is from 1.4 to 5.6 degrees c e n t i g r a d e .
C o n s e q u e n c e s will i n c l u d e a rising sea level and shrinking ice c a p s at the
poles, as well as species extinction and shifts in habitat and e c o s y s t e m s . Refer
t o F i g u r e s 2 3 . 2 2 a n d 2 3 . 2 3 and Table 2 3 . 1 .
What should be the goal of energy and environmental policies?

Policies should g u i d e the nations of the w o r l d t h r o u g h the transition from
h y d r o c a r b o n fuels to less polluting, sustainable energy sources. In particular,
carbon d i o x i d e e m i s s i o n s should be r e d u c e d to d e c r e a s e the i m p a c t of global
climate c h a n g e . M o r e efficient u s e of energy, greater u s e of natural g a s , safer
nuclear energy, and clean coal t e c h n o l o g y w o u l d facilitate this transition.
Refer to E a r t h Policy 2 3 . 2 .
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
1. W h a t is t h e s e q u e n c e from low to h i g h g r a d e for t h e transformation of plant matter into
hard coal?
A. plants, peat, lignite
B . peat, lignite, b i t u m i n o u s , anthracite
C. b i t u m i n o u s , anthracite, peat, lignite
D . anthracite, b i t u m i n o u s , lignite, peat
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PART II
C H A P T E R 23
Test-Taking Tip: Use what you know to guess what you don't know
W h e n confronted with an e x a m item like Review Q u e s t i o n 1, y o u often d o n ' t have
to r e m e m b e r the entire s e q u e n c e to a n s w e r the item correctly. S u p p o s e , for example,
that y o u r e m e m b e r for sure that anthracite is the final h i g h - g r a d e p r o d u c t in the series
In that c a s e you c a n c h e c k B with confidence even if y o u c a n ' t r e m e m b e r the rest of
the sequence.
2. T h e following are all energy s o u r c e s . W h i c h o n e is N O T a fossil fuel?

A . natural gas
C. uranium
B. coal
D . oil
3. W h i c h of the following is N O T a c o n s e q u e n c e of fossil fuel c o n s u m p t i o n ?

A. mine reclamation
B . o z o n e depletion i n o u r a t m o s p h e r e
C. disposal of residual ash from the b u r n i n g of c o a l
D . acid rain
4. Oil and natural gas are m o s t l y found in s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s d e p o s i t e d in
A . t h e d e e p ocean.
B. river deltas and on the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf.
C. wetlands.
D . large lakes.
5. A l l of the following are effective oil traps E X C E P T
A. faults.
B . anticlines.
C. salt d o m e s .
D . h o r i z o n t a l s e d i m e n t a r y and volcanic b e d s .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 5 .
6. Oil p r o d u c t i o n in t h e U n i t e d States r e a c h e d a m a x i m u m in
A . 1960.
C.
B . 1970.
D . 1990.
1980.
7. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of U . S . e n e r g y is
A. coal.
C. oil.
B . n u c l e a r power.
D . h y d r o e l e c t r i c power.
8. H o w m a n y U . S . gallons are c o n t a i n e d in o n e barrel of oil?
A. 16 gallons
C.
B . 2 5 gallons
D . 5 5 gallons
42 gallons
9. T h e U n i t e d States r a n k s
in oil r e s e r v e s .
A. first
C.
B. second
D . tenth
eighth
H i n t : Refer to the text section Distribution of Oil R e s e r v e s and F i g u r e 23.7.

10. I m p o r t a n t factors contributing to the f o r m a t i o n of c o a l from v e g e t a t i o n are
A . h e a t a n d oxidation.
B . c o m p a c t i o n b y burial and heat.
C. b i o l o g i c a l activity and dissolution.
D . h y d r o t h e r m a l alteration and m e t a m o r p h i s m .
11. F r o m w h a t p r o c e s s is coal derived?

A. t h e d e c a y of m a r i n e plants and a n i m a l m a t t e r
B. t h e burial, c o m p r e s s i o n , and h e a t i n g of plant matter d e p o s i t e d in w e t l a n d s
C. d e p o s i t i o n and m e t a m o r p h i s m of m a r i n e l i m e s t o n e s
D. t r a n s p o r t of o r g a n i c matter by rivers to their delta
12. A c i d rain forms w h e n
from t h e c o m b u s t i o n of coal and p e t r o l e u m c o m -
b i n e s w i t h rainwater.
A. hydrogen
C.
B. sulfur d i o x i d e
D. nitrogen
oxygen
13. T h e potential for c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is
by acid rain.
A. not effected
C.
increased
B. decreased
D . neutralized
14. T h e o c c u r r e n c e of acid rain is m o s t influenced by the

A. r e l e a s e of r a d i o i s o t o p e s by nuclear p o w e r plants.
B. b u r n i n g of high-sulfur coals.
C. b u r n i n g of low-sulfur c o a l s .
D . w e a t h e r i n g o f feldspars.
Test-Taking Tip: Use what you know to guess what you don't know
The p r e s e n c e of t w o alternatives d e a l i n g with the s a m e thing (in this c a s e "sulfur c o a l s " )
is a hint that o n e of t h e m is p r o b a b l y the correct answer.
15. Predict w h i c h well w o u l d give the best potential for oil and gas p r o d u c t i o n .
A. well A
B. well B
C.
wellC
D. well D
251
252
PART II
C H A P T E R 23
16. W h y do scientists suspect that C F C s are the source of o z o n e depletion in the stratosphere?
A . C F C s c o n t a i n c h l o r i n e , w h i c h reacts v i g o r o u s l y w i t h o z o n e , w h i l e measurements
of o z o n e in t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e s h o w it d e c r e a s i n g at the s a m e t i m e that C F C s are
increasing.
B. C F C s f o r m a m i x t u r e with volcanic g a s e s in t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e , w h i c h rises to
t h e stratosphere a n d reacts with o z o n e .
C . C F C s c o n c e n t r a t e U V radiation, splitting apart o z o n e m o l e c u l e s .
D. C F C s i n c r e a s e the a l b e d o of the stratosphere, w h i c h r e d u c e s the solar radiation
r e q u i r e d for the p r o d u c t i o n of o z o n e .
17. O z o n e is a very reactive g a s , so as a pollutant in t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e , o z o n e presents
a significant health hazard. W h y d o e s o z o n e exist in the s t r a t o s p h e r e ?
A. It constantly is leaking from the t r o p o s p h e r e , w h e r e it is p r o d u c e d , up to the stratosphere.
B. It is f o r m e d from the r e l e a s e of gases out of the m i c r o m e t e o r i c dusts that bombard
the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
C. It is f o r m e d c o n t i n u o u s l y in the stratosphere by solar radiation, a n d it c a n n o t mix or
react with other gases b e c a u s e of the thin a t m o s p h e r e at that altitude.
D. It is p r o d u c e d constantly from the o c e a n s and rises t h r o u g h t h e t r o p o s p h e r e to the
stratosphere.
18. T h e increase of the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e on Earth
linked to b u r n i n g fossil fuels b e c a u s e the
A. burning process consumes oxygen.
B . burning process consumes C 0 .
2
C. burning process generates C 0 .

2
D. s m o k e given off by b u r n i n g insulates the Earth

19. Toxic and radioactive c h e m i c a l s leaking from the
H a n f o r d Superfund site h a v e
A. r e m a i n e d confined to the H a n f o r d site.
B. m i g r a t e d in the aquifer to the C o l u m b i a River.
C. b e e n successfully c l e a n e d u p .
D . r e a c h e d Seattle.
H i n t : R e a d E a r t h Policy 2 3 . 1 .
2 0 . If we c o n t i n u e our r e l i a n c e on fossil fuels, projec
tions of a t m o s p h e r i c c a r b o n d i o x i d e concentratioi
in 2 1 0 0 are likely to be a b o u t
and the
average surface t e m p e r a t u r e will likely rise about

m o r e than in 1990.
A. 6 0 0 p p m and 3 C
B . 9 5 0 p p m and 4 . 5 C
C. 5 0 0 p p m and 2 C
D . 7 5 0 p p m and 3 C
H i n t : Refer t o Figure 2 3 . 2 2 .
Figure 2 3 . 2 2 . Projections of (a) atmospheric

carbon dioxide concentrations and (b) average
surface temperatures for the next 100 years.
APPENDIX A
Eight-Day Study Plan*

(Make a copy for every e x a m you take.)
H e r e is a g u i d e y o u can use to p r e p a r e for y o u r e x a m s . E v e r y o n e develops their o w n a p p r o a c h

to p r e p a r i n g for e x a m s ; feel free to adapt these ideas to y o u r particular n e e d s and situation.
T h e basic idea is to c o n d u c t y o u r preparation in a systematic fashion with focus on t h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a t e r i a l . O u r plan a c c o m p l i s h e s this b y dividing the m a t e r i a l e q u a l l y and
suggesting h o w to incorporate the E x a m P r e p materials p r o v i d e d in this Study G u i d e for e a c h
text chapter.
8 Days Before the Exam: Get Organized!

S t e p 1 : C l a r i f y t h e t a s k . D e t e r m i n e w h a t t y p e o f e x a m y o u ' l l b e taking b y briefly a n s w e r ing the following questions.
1. T h i s e x a m will cover (list each chapter to be c o v e r e d ) :
2. Material and k i n d s of skills to be particularly e m p h a s i z e d (list chapters/ideas/skills

the instructor said w o u l d be particularly important):
3. Q u e s t i o n format will be (check one that applies):
M u l t i p l e choice
True-false
Essay
Thought problems
O t h e r (specify)
'Adapted with permission from the University Learning Center, University of Arizona.
253
254
Appendix A: Eight-Day Study Plan
4. Review session is scheduled for (enter date here and be sure to attend):
S t e p 2 : D i v i d e t h e m a t e r i a l y o u m u s t review into four e q u a l Parts: A , B , C , and D .
7 Days Before the Exam: Review Part A.
B e g i n y o u r review with the material
in Part A. Do the following for e a c h c h a p t e r y o u review.

1. C h a p t e r S u m m a r y . To get yourself started, read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y ( E x a m Prep
section of this g u i d e ) for the c h a p t e r y o u w a n t to review.
2. R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . A n s w e r the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s ( E x a m P r e p section of this guide) to
see w h e r e y o u are with the material. F o r c e yourself to a n s w e r all questions for the chapter w i t h o u t referring to the a n s w e r key. C o r r e c t y o u r a n s w e r s only after y o u have tried
all the questions. Be sure to review carefully any questions y o u m i s s e d . Correct the misc o n c e p t i o n that resulted in the error.
3 . L e c t u r e N o t e s . R e v i e w y o u r lecture notes and the a n n o t a t i o n s y o u m a d e i n the margins
b y a s k i n g yourself q u e s t i o n s .
4. P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s . T h i s m a y be a g o o d t i m e to r e d o s o m e of t h e P r a c t i c e Exercises in
this S t u d y G u i d e .
5. R e v i e w visual m a t e r i a l s a n d k e y figures. R e v i e w the visual m a t e r i a l in your notes.
Test yourself by seeing if y o u c a n r e c o n s t r u c t k e y text figures from m e m o r y .
6. Self-Test. S p e n d as m u c h of y o u r study t i m e as p o s s i b l e q u i z z i n g yourself.
6 Days Before the Exam: Review Part B.
R e p e a t the instructions for D a y 7.
If y o u h a v e p r o b l e m s with t h e material, see the instructor at the next o p e n office hour.
5 Days Before the Exam: Review Part C .
R e p e a t the instructions for D a y 7.
If y o u h a v e p r o b l e m s with the material, see the instructor at t h e next o p e n office hour.
4 Days Before the Exam: Review Part D.
R e p e a t t h e instructions for D a y 7.
I f ' y o u h a v e p r o b l e m s with the material, see the instructor at the next o p e n office hour.
3 Days Before the Exam: Review all four parts.
R e v i e w Parts A , B , C, and
D fully. Prioritize y o u r t i m e . F o c u s on i m p o r t a n t material that will be c o v e r e d . W o r k

h a r d e s t w h e r e y o u are least sure of yourself. If y o u h a v e p r o b l e m s with t h e material, see
t h e instructor at the next o p e n office hour.
2 Days Before the Exam: Review all four parts.
R e v i e w Parts A, B , C, and
D fully. Prioritize y o u r t i m e . If y o u h a v e p r o b l e m s with the material, see the instructor at

t h e next o p e n office hour.
Night Before the Exam:
B e sure y o u get the a m o u n t of sleep y o u n e e d to b e alert
and p e r f o r m at y o u r best. You d o n ' t n e e d to c r a m . Just stay focused.
Zero Hour:
You have p r e p a r e d well. A l l o w yourself to b e confident. Stay f o c u s e d
a n d confident during the e x a m . U s e y o u r best-test taking strategies.
APPENDIX B
Final Exam Prep* Worksheet

(To be c o m p l e t e d 3 w e e k s p r i o r to final e x a m )
1. C o u r s e s h e e t s : In y o u r n o t e b o o k set up a separate sheet of p a p e r for e a c h c o u r s e you

are taking. L a b e l t h e top of e a c h sheet with the c o u r s e and the g r a d e y o u presently h a v e
(be realistic, not hopeful).
2 . D a t e : N o t e t h e date o f the f i n a l u n d e r e a c h c o u r s e n a m e .
3. C o m p r e h e n s i v e finals: M a r k with a " C " each c o u r s e with a c o m p r e h e n s i v e final.
4. E x a m format: Identify the format of the e x a m (multiple choice, essay, and so on) under
the date of the final for each course.
5. Task: Identify t h e levels of thinking expected. H i n t : P r e v i o u s m i d t e r m s are y o u r ultim a t e r e s o u r c e . List all k i n d s of q u e s t i o n s . E s t i m a t e w h a t p e r c e n t of total points will be
devoted to e a c h k i n d of thinking.
A p p l i c a t i o n to r e a l - w o r l d situations
P r o b l e m solving
Critical thinking
U n d e r s t a n d i n g principles
M e m o r y of basic facts
6. R a n k finals in i m p o r t a n c e : In the u p p e r r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r of e a c h sheet, r a n k in order
the m o s t critical and i m p o r t a n t final to the least i m p o r t a n t finalthe final that will
m a k e the least difference i n y o u r g r a d e . ( B e a w a r e o f h o w m u c h i m p a c t y o u r f i n a l e x a m
has on y o u r overall class grade.)
'Adapted with permission from the University Learning Center, University of Arizona.
255
256
Appendix B: Final Exam Prep
7. L i s t W h a t t h e T e s t W i l l C o v e r : F o r e a c h c o u r s e on e a c h sheet, list everything the test

will cover; r e m e m b e r w h i c h e x a m s are c o m p r e h e n s i v e .
Handouts?
C h a p t e r s ? ( W h i c h ones?)
Lectures?
Discussions?
Other?
C h e c k y o u r syllabi to be sure y o u h a v e not left o u r any i m p o r t a n t material.

8. D r a w a line b e n e a t h this list. T h e n list w h a t y o u still h a v e left to do for that particular
course.
W h i c h chapters do y o u still h a v e to p r e v i e w ?
W h i c h lecture notes do y o u need to review and u p d a t e ?
W h i c h Practice E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s do y o u n e e d to c o m p l e t e ?
W h i c h labs do y o u still have to finish?
W h a t p a p e r s do y o u still h a v e to w r i t e ?
9. D r a w a n o t h e r line. N o w list the test p r e p a r a t i o n strategies y o u will use to study for the
e x a m s t u d y g r o u p s or study patterns, self-questioning u s i n g the annotations, mapping,
charting, q u e s t i o n s and a n s w e r s , c o n c e p t cards, g o i n g o v e r old tests and quizzes, and
making up your own problems.
10. N o w fill in the c a l e n d a r by identifying e x a m s , finals, and d u e dates for p a p e r s . Each day
y o u n e e d to do s o m e t h i n g from n o . 8, but y o u will also n e e d to study and review for the
finals at least t w o h o u r s a day. Be sure to use all of y o u r available timesweekends,
waiting t i m e , and so on.
Work Toward These Goals
Finish all w o r k u n d e r n o . 8 (Chapter P r e v i e w s , Practice E x e r c i s e s , Review Questions, and so on) o n e w e e k prior to y o u r first final. R e v i e w all lecture notes by asking yourself the questions out loud or by h a v i n g s o m e o n e quiz y o u five days prior to
y o u r first final (allow t w o to three hours).
D i v i d e the w o r k that r e m a i n s so that y o u do an E i g h t - D a y S t u d y Plan for each

c o u r s e that y o u assigned a h i g h priority in n o . 6.
R e m o v e the distractions from y o u r life. T h i s is not the w e e k to be captured by TV

or other addictions. Stick to y o u r priorities. Tell friends and family that you need to
focus all y o u r energy on y o u r finals until they are over.
A v o i d b u r n o u t . B u i l d t i m e into y o u r s c h e d u l e for a d e q u a t e sleep, relaxation, and

exercise.
Answers to Practice Exercises

and Review Questions
CHAPTER 1
Answer to Practice Exercise

A. T h e highest point on Earth is M o u n t Everest in the H i m a l a y a n m o u n t a i n s of Asia.
B. T h e lowest point on Earth is the M a r i a n a s T r e n c h in the Pacific O c e a n south of
Japan.
C. T h e M a r i a n a s T r e n c h is 2 1 8 2 m e t e r s l o w e r relative to sea level than M o u n t E v e r e s t
is high.
D. T h e total t o p o g r a p h i c relief on Earth is the s u m of the highest and lowest p o i n t s :
11,030 m e t e r s d e e p + 8,848 m e t e r s high = 19,878 m e t e r s ( 6 5 , 2 1 6 feet).
Answers to Review Questions

1. B. A h y p o t h e s i s p r o v i d e s an opportunity for feedback a n d testing.
2. A. A h y p o t h e s i s is a tentative explanation that can h e l p focus attention on plausible features and relationships of a w o r k i n g m o d e l . If a h y p o t h e s i s is eventually confirmed by
a large b o d y of data, it m a y be elevated to a theory. T h e o r i e s are a b a n d o n e d w h e n s u b sequent investigations show t h e m to be false. C o n f i d e n c e g r o w s in theories that withstand repeated tests a n d are able to predict the results of n e w e x p e r i m e n t s .
3. B. He m e a s u r e d the difference in the angle of sunlight hitting the E a r t h on the s u m m e r
solstice at two different places in E g y p t . Refer to F i g u r e 1.2.
4. C. T h e present is the key to the past. G e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s we see in action today have
w o r k e d in m u c h t h e s a m e w a y t h r o u g h o u t geologic t i m e . T h e principle of uniformitari a n i s m d o e s not m e a n that all g e o l o g i c p h e n o m e n a are slow.
5. C. T h e m a n t l e represents 6 7 . 1 % of E a r t h ' s m a s s . Refer to F i g u r e 1.5.
6. A. T h e crust is thickest on the continents. T h e thickest crust stands the highest. Refer
to F i g u r e 1.7.
7. D. Silicon is m o r e a b u n d a n t in the crust. Refer to Key F i g u r e 1.8.
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258
8. D. M o v e m e n t of the plates is a result of convection in the m a n t l e . Refer to Key Figure

1.11. It is i m p o r t a n t to distinguish b e t w e e n a result and a c a u s e . Plate tectonics is a
result of c o n v e c t i o n in the m a n t l e , but density differences c a u s e d by heating and gravity are w h a t drive c o n v e c t i o n and c a u s e plate tectonic m o t i o n s .
9 . C . T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field i s c a u s e d b y t h e g e o g d y n a m o , c r e a t e d b y convection
in the outer liquid core and electrical currents.
10. A. E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field reverses (the p o l e s flip) at irregular intervals.
1 1 . A. H e a t e d m a t t e r rises u n d e r the force of b u o y a n c y b e c a u s e it is less d e n s e .
12. B. T h e Big B a n g occurred about 5 4 0 million years ago, and in an interval of perhaps less
than 10 million years, eight entirely new branches of the animal k i n g d o m w e r e established.
CHAPTER 2

Exercise 1: Characteristics of active tectonic plate boundaries
Divergent
Ocean/
See Figures 2.5,
Characteristics 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8. Ocean
Examples
Convergent
See Figures 2.5 and 2. 6.
Ocean/
Continental
Collision
Transform
See Figures 2.5,
2.6, and 2.9.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
J a p a n e s e islands
Peru-Chile Trench
H i m a l a y a s and
African Rift Valley,
Marinas Trench
Andes Mountains
Tibetan P l a t e a u
San A n d r e a s Fault
R e d Sea, and
Aleutian Trench
Cascade Range
trench,
trench, volcanic
very high
offset
arc, and high
plateau and
beds
mountains
mountains
topographic
G u l f of California
Topography
oceanic
rift
ridge,
valley,
ocean
basins,
ocean
offset
island
floor
by
arc
of creek
and
features
features
cross
transforms,
other
that
the fault
seamounts
Volcanism
present
present
present
not
characteristic
not
characteristic
Exercise 2: Construct a conceptual flowchart or diagram

illustrating how plate tectonics works
Key e l e m e n t s in t h e flowchart or d i a g r a m to review and clearly u n d e r s t a n d should be the roles
of differential h e a t i n g ( w h i c h creates density differences), b u o y a n c y (a force created by d e n sity differences), and gravity, all of w h i c h g e n e r a t e convection w i t h i n the Earth's m a n t l e .

1. A. V o l c a n i s m at the o c e a n i c r i d g e s builds the seafloor.
2 . A . R e f e r t o F i g u r e s 2.10 a n d 2 . 1 2 .
3. B. Figure 2.5 shows that the rate of plate motion today varies from a few centimeters to 15
centimeters per year.
4. D. T h e t y p i c a l plate m o t i o n a l o n g m o s t transform faults is horizontal slip (shearing).
H o w e v e r , a l o n g c u r v e s in the transform fault, transextension (forming a d e p r e s s i o n ) and
t r a n s c o m p r e s s i o n (forming m o u n t a i n s ) m a y b e generated.
5. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 2.6b.
259
260
6. C. T h e H a w a i i a n islands f o r m e d over a hot spot in the m i d d l e of the Pacific ocean plate.

S o m e hot spots, such as in Iceland, are located coincidentally adjacent to a spreading
center. M o s t hot spots on E a r t h are not directly associated with plate b o u n d a r i e s .
7. A. T h e Atlantic coast of N o r t h A m e r i c a is a passive c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n , which is not
associated with an active plate m a r g i n .
8 . D . P a n g a e a b e g a n t o b r e a k u p during t h e Jurassic Period. Refer t o F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 .
9. B. M i d - o c e a n i c r i d g e s or s p r e a d i n g centers are divergent b o u n d a r i e s w h e r e the crust is
e x t e n d i n g (pulling apart) and mafic m a g m a s are intruding u p w a r d from the asthenos p h e r e to feed basaltic v o l c a n i s m that is building n e w o c e a n floor.
10. A. Refer to F i g u r e 2.6(e).
1 1 . C. Volcanism is not characteristic of transform plate boundaries. S o m e volcanism, typically m i n o r a m o u n t s , m a y occur in association with transform faults w h e r e transextension
is occurring.
12. C. Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 .
13. D . S e e F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 .
14. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 2 . 1 0 .
15. B. T h i s age b e c o m e s m o r e interesting w h e n y o u c o m p a r e it to the a g e of the oldest
r o c k s on the c o n t i n e n t s , w h i c h is 4.0 billion y e a r s . Refer to F i g u r e 2.12 and pages
35 - 3 7 o n seafloor i s o c h r o n s .
16. B . Refer to F i g u r e 2.12.
17. A . Refer to F i g u r e 2.6.
18. B. Refer to F i g u r e s 2.5 and 2.6.
19. C. Refer to F i g u r e 2.8.
20. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 2 . 1 0 .
2 1 . B . Refer t o p a g e s 3 7 ^ 1 0 .
22. D.
CHAPTER 3

Exercise 1: Crystal structures of some common silicate minerals
A. single c h a i n s of silica t e t r a h e d r a
p y r o x e n e (augite)
t w o g o o d c l e a v a g e p l a n e s intersecting a t a b o u t 9 0 . Refer t o F i g u r e 3.17.
B . d o u b l e c h a i n s o f silica t e t r a h e d r a
amphibole (hornblende)
t w o g o o d c l e a v a g e p l a n e s intersecting at about 60 and 120. Refer to
F i g u r e 3.17.
C. sheets of silica tetrahedra
mica (muscovite)
excellent c l e a v a g e in o n e direction. Refer to F i g u r e 3 . 1 5 .
Exercise 2: Major mineral classes

1. silicate
(double-chain)
13. native e l e m e n t (carbon)
2. o x i d e o f m a g n e s i u m and a l u m i n u m
14. iron sulfide
3. silicate (sheet)
15. silicate (sheet)
4. c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e
16. c a l c i u m sulfate
5. h y d r a t e d c a l c i u m sulfate
17. silicate (single-chain)
6. silicate ( f r a m e w o r k )
18. iron sulfide
7. native e l e m e n t ( c a r b o n )
19. o x i d e of a l u m i n u m
8. c a l c i u m / m a g n e s i u m c a r b o n a t e
20. silicate (framework)
9. silicate ( f r a m e w o r k )
2 1 . native e l e m e n t (silver)
10. o x i d e of a l u m i n u m
22. silicate (framework)
11. s o d i u m halide
2 3 . silicate (isolated tetrahedra)
12. iron o x i d e
24. silicate (sheet)
Exercise 3: Identifying minerals by their physical properties

A. muscovite
D. orthoclase
B. pyrite
E. calcite
C. m a l a c h i t e
F. g y p s u m
Exercise 4: Rock cycle review

A. Plate tectonic settings for m a g m a g e n e r a t i o n are:
hotspots/mantle
plumes
divergent b o u n d a r i e s
convergent boundaries
B. Types of i g n e o u s r o c k s
E x t r u s i v e : Fast c o o l i n g , f i n e g r a i n e d
Intrusive: Slow cooling, coarse grained
C. R o c k a n d m i n e r a l particles are transported and laid d o w n as s e d i m e n t s by r u n n i n g
water, w i n d , and ice.
D. T w o p r o c e s s e s that convert l o o s e s e d i m e n t s into r o c k are c o m p a c t i o n (burial) and
cementation.
E. T h e t w o m a i n t y p e s of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s and their constituents are:
Siliclastic: R o c k and m i n e r a l fragments
Chemical/biochemical: precipitation of minerals previously dissolved during weathering
F. F o l l o w i n g are the four major conditions (geologic settings) that result in m e t a m o r p h i c
rocks:
C o n t a c t m e t a m o r p h i s m a s s o c i a t e d with intrusions o f m a g m a
R e g i o n a l m e t a m o r p h i s m a s s o c i a t e d with plate collisions
U l t r a - h i g h - p r e s s u r e m e t a m o r p h i s m d e e p w i t h i n the lithosphere
H i g h - p r e s s u r e , l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e m e t a m o r p h i s m associated with s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s
G. N o . T h e r o c k is n o t m e l t e d d u r i n g m e t a m o r p h i s m , a l t h o u g h a m i n o r a m o u n t of m e l t
" s w e a t " m a y b e g e n e r a t e d during h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i s m . I g n e o u s r o c k s are f o r m e d
from t h e solidification of melts ( m a g m a s ) .
261
262

1. D. C h l o r i d e is an anion and easily gains an electron from s o d i u m , w h i c h loses an electron to b e c o m e a cation. W i t h o n e extra electron, c h l o r i n e has the electron configuration of the n o b l e gas argon. On losing an electron to chlorine, s o d i u m has the electron
configuration of the n o b l e gas n e o n .
2. D. G r a p h i t e and d i a m o n d are both c o m p o s e d of p u r e c a r b o n but h a v e significantly different crystal structures. Refer to F i g u r e 3.11 in the textbook.
3. B. A r o c k is an aggregate of o n e or m o r e m i n e r a l s .
4. C. A l l m i n e r a l s are crystalline solids.
5. D. By definition, m i n e r a l s are inorganic. A r e g r a p h i t e and d i a m o n d m i n e r a l s ? Yes. They
are b o t h m a d e from p u r e c a r b o n a c o m m o n e l e m e n t i n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l . However,
g r a p h i t e and d i a m o n d are not p r o d u c e d by b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . G r a p h i t e is typically
found in m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s , and d i a m o n d originates in the E a r t h ' s m a n t l e .
6. B. G l a s s is an a m o r p h o u s m a t e r i a l that lacks a crystal structure. N a t i v e copper, diam o n d , and w a t e r ice all fit the definition of a m i n e r a l .
7. B. Silicate m i n e r a l s are the m o s t c o m m o n m i n e r a l g r o u p in the E a r t h ' s crust and mantle. T h e E a r t h ' s c o r e is t h o u g h t to consist m o s t l y of an iron-nickel alloy.
8. B. Refer to F i g u r e 3.9(e).
9. C. M i c a , like m u s c o v i t e in F i g u r e 3.11(g), is a sheet silicate.
10. B. Refer to Table 3.1 and A p p e n d i x 4.
11. A C l a y m i n e r a l s h a v e a sheet silicate structure.
12. A Refer to F i g u r e 3.11 (e and f).
13. B. Q u a r t z is a silicate and calcite is a c a r b o n a t e .
14. B. C l e a v a g e is the t e n d e n c y for m i n e r a l s to b r e a k a l o n g p l a n e s of w e a k e r chemical
b o n d s within their crystal structure.
15. A. T h e p h y s i c a l characteristics of a m i n e r a l are d e t e r m i n e d by its c o m p o s i t i o n , the
n a t u r e of its c h e m i c a l b o n d s , and the crystal structure. A l t h o u g h g r a p h i t e and diamond
are b o t h p u r e c a r b o n , their crystal structures and the c h e m i c a l b o n d s w i t h i n the crystal
structures are significantly different.
16. B. C h e m i c a l b o n d s typically exhibit a m i x t u r e of i o n i c and covalent characteristics.
B o n d s with a m o r e covalent character are stronger and the b o n d l e n g t h is shorter. Bonds
with a m o r e ionic character are w e a k e r and the a t o m s tend to be farther apart.
17. D. C a t i o n s of similar sizes and c h a r g e s tend to substitute for o n e a n o t h e r and to form
c o m p o u n d s h a v i n g t h e s a m e crystal structure but different c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s .
C a t i o n substitution is c o m m o n in silicate m i n e r a l s .
18. A . C o m p a r e d t o i o n i c b o n d s , c o v a l e n t b o n d l e n g t h i s s h o r t e r and c o v a l e n t bond
strength is higher.
19. B. Plutonic rocks solidify from melts called m a g m a s . Refer to Figures 3.22 and Figure 3.26.
2 0 . C. M o s t m a g m a s are g e n e r a t e d from the m e l t i n g of silicate r o c k s w i t h i n the Earth's
crust and m a n t l e . On rare o c c a s i o n , a m a g m a c o m p o s e d of c a r b o n a t e s erupts on the
E a r t h ' s surface. On Io, the m o o n of Jupiter, sulfur m a g m a s erupt from a b o u t ten active
v o l c a n o e s . I o ' s e r u p t i o n s c a n shoot fountains o f sulfur c o m p o u n d s 3 6 0 k m high.
2 1 . A. An i g n e o u s r o c k with a c o a r s e texture, w h e r e individual m i n e r a l g r a i n s (crystals) are
visible w i t h o u t magnification, forms w h e n the r o c k crystallizes slowly b e n e a t h the
E a r t h ' s surface. Solidification of a m a g m a b o d y m a y t a k e tens to h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s
of y e a r s within the crust, and millions of years m o r e to c o o l after c o m p l e t e crystallization. To e x p o s e a c o a r s e grain i g n e o u s (plutonic) r o c k at the E a r t h ' s surface requires
significant uplift and erosion of the r o c k s that o n c e sat on t o p .
263
22. D . Refer t o p a g e s 6 5 - 6 6 i n the textbook.

2 3 . A. L a y e r i n g is characteristic of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s . S o m e volcanic r o c k s , like lava flows
and v o l c a n i c ash a n d tuff, also f o r m layers.
24. D . C o n t a c t m e t a m o r p h i s m i s associated w i t h m a g m a intrusions.
2 5 . A . W e a t h e r i n g creates s e d i m e n t s .
26. D. M o u n t a i n s are a result of s u b d u c t i o n and c o n t i n e n t s colliding.
CHAPTER 4

Exercise 1: Igneous rock textures
Texture t e r m / s k e t c h d e s c r i p t i o n
A. p h a n e r i t i c / c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , large interlocking crystals
B. p h a n e r i t i c / v i s i b l e crystals but not as c o a r s e g r a i n e d as s a m p l e A
C. p o r p h y r i t i c / m i x e d c o o l i n g history c a u s e s large and very small crystals
D . a p h a n i t i c / f m e g r a i n e d c r y s t a l s m a y not b e visible w i t h o u t magnification, even then
l o o k i n g like tiny dots
Exercise 2: Distribution of igneous rocks within the Earth

Major layer
in the Earth
Example
igneous rock
General
compositional group
Continental crust
Granite
Felsic
(For c o n t i n e n t a l crust, there
M o r e Si, Na, K
Less Fe, Mg, Ca
are t w o a p p r o p r i a t e a n s w e r s . )
Ocean crust
General
chemical composition
Andesite/diorite
Intermediate
Intermediate
Basalt/gabbro
Mafic
More Fe, Mg, Ca

Less Si, N a , K
Mantle
Peridotite
Ultramafic
Less Si, Na, K

More Fe, Mg, Ca
Exercise 3: Predicting the change in composition

in a crystallizing magma
A. 1. Silica c o n t e n t i n c r e a s e d
2. Iron c o n t e n t d e c r e a s e d
Explanation: Refer to the top of Figure 4.5, w h i c h illustrates h o w mafic (iron- and m a g n e s i u m - r i c h )
silicate m i n e r a l s crystallize first in a cooling m a g m a . As iron b e c o m e s tied up in the crystallizing
solid phase (olivine and pyroxene), the remaining liquid b e c o m e s progressively enriched in silica.
B. 1. Silica c o n t e n t i n c r e a s e d
2 . Iron c o n t e n t d e c r e a s e d
Explanation: Refer to the top of Figure 4.5, which illustrates h o w mafic (iron- and m a g n e s i u m - r i c h )
silicate minerals crystallize first in a cooling m a g m a . As iron and calcium b e c o m e tied up in the
crystallizing solid phase, the remaining liquid b e c o m e s progressively enriched in silica and sodium.
264
Exercise 4: Sequence of mineral crystallization in

a solidifying magma
Refer to F i g u r e s 4.4 and 4.5 and Table 4.2.
A. L E S S . T h e p r e s e n c e of iron and m a g n e s i u m in the m a g m a greatly influences the
c o m p l e x i t y of the silicate structure b e c a u s e the iron a n d m a g n e s i u m act to "poison"
the p o l y m e r i z a t i o n of the silica tetrahedra, p r e v e n t i n g m o r e c o m p l e x silica tetrahedra crystalline structures. S i n c e m u c h of the iron and m a g n e s i u m is incorporated
into the early-formed crystals, as illustrated in F i g u r e 4 . 5 , m i n e r a l s that crystallized
later in the history of the solidification of the m a g m a tend to be depleted in iron and
m a g n e s i u m , enriched in silica, and have m o r e c o m p l e x silicate structures.
B. L A S T . Refer to the explanation for A.
C. M O R E . Refer to the explanation for A.
Exercise 5: Partial melting and magma composition

A . L O W E R . Refer t o F i g u r e 4 . 5 .
B. D E P L E T E D . M u c h of the iron and m a g n e s i u m in a m a g m a is incorporated into the
e a r l y - f o r m e d crystals, as illustrated in B o w e n ' s reaction series. M i n e r a l s that crystallized later in the history of the solidification of the m a g m a tend to be depleted in
iron and m a g n e s i u m and e n r i c h e d in silica.
C. E N R I C H E D . Refer to the explanation for B and F i g u r e 4 . 5 .
Exercise 6: Predicting the composition of magma generated

in subduction zones
A. M O R E . As illustrated by B o w e n ' s reaction series, silicate m i n e r a l s with more silica c o n t e n t have l o w e r melting t e m p e r a t u r e s . So a partial melt will be enriched in silica relative to the i g n e o u s r o c k from w h i c h it w a s g e n e r a t e d .
B. L E S S . Silicate m i n e r a l s rich in iron and m a g n e s i u m have h i g h e r melting points and
are t h e last to melt c o m p a r e d to m i n e r a l s l o w e r on the B o w e n ' s reaction series diag r a m . T h e r e f o r e a m a g m a g e n e r a t e d from a partial m e l t will be e n r i c h e d in silica
and d e p l e t e d in iron and m a g n e s i u m relative to the bulk c o m p o s i t i o n of the original
r o c k from w h i c h the m e l t w a s generated.
C. M O R E . F i g u r e s 4.5 and 4.14 and Table 4.2 are very helpful. Na and K concentrate
in m i n e r a l s with greater a m o u n t s of silica. So they are e n r i c h e d in that they have
l o w e r m e l t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s and crystallize late in the c o o l i n g history of the magma.
D. L E S S . A partial m e l t will a l w a y s h a v e m o r e silica and less i r o n / m a g n e s i u m than the
p a r e n t r o c k from w h i c h it is g e n e r a t e d . T h e r e f o r e it will be less mafic.

1. A. M a n y students m i s t a k e n l y c h o o s e B or C as the answer. H o w e v e r , grain size is just
o n e of t w o criteria for the classification and n a m i n g of i g n e o u s r o c k s . Composition
(mineral content) is the other criterion.
2. D. R h y o l i t e is an aphanitic volcanic r o c k and granite is a p h a n e r i t i c p l u t o n i c rock. Their
c o o l i n g histories are different and therefore their textures are different. H o w e v e r , they
have the s a m e general c o m p o s i t i o n (felsic).
3 . B . R h y o l i t e contains the m o s t silica o f the r o c k s listed. Fissure e r u p t i o n s m a y b e c o m p o s e d of a great variety of lavas, but they are typically basaltic.
4. A. G a b b r o is the intrusive equivalent of basalt, w h i c h is extrusive.
5. D. T h e distinction b e t w e e n intrusive (plutonic) and extrusive (volcanic) r o c k s is grain
size, w h i c h is d e t e r m i n e d by the rate of crystallization.
6. A. P y r o x e n e s like augite are a c o m m o n m i n e r a l in basalts. T h e y are a f e r r o m a g n e s i u m

m i n e r a l w i t h a s i n g l e - c h a i n silicate crystal structure.
7. A. Refer to F i g u r e s 4.4 and 4.5 and Table 4.2.
8. B. S l o w c o o l i n g typically p r o d u c e s larger crystals. R a p i d cooling p r o d u c e s finer c r y s tals. An i g n e o u s r o c k with a m i x t u r e of c o a r s e - and fine-grained m i n e r a l s formed u n d e r
c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e the c o o l i n g history w a s m i x e d . B o t h volcanic and plutonic r o c k s
exhibit p o r p h y r i t i c texture. A porphyritic volcanic r o c k erupts from a m a g m a that has
b e g u n t o c r y s t a l l i z e c r y s t a l s already exist within the m a g m a . E a r l y - f o r m e d crystals
are literally carried to the surface by the r e m a i n i n g melt, w h i c h cools quickly on erupting at the E a r t h ' s surface. A porphyritic texture in a plutonic rock m a y be a result of its
c o o l i n g history or c h a n g e s in pressure and other c o n d i t i o n s that influence crystal
g r o w t h within t h e m a g m a c h a m b e r .
9. D. Table 4.1 is a g o o d reference for this question.
10. B. If no n e w m a g m a is ejected into the m a g m a c h a m b e r , the c o m p o s i t i o n of the m a g m a
m a y c h a n g e o v e r time b e c a u s e of fractional crystallization and the segregation of the
earlier-formed iron-rich m i n e r a l s b y settling from the melt. T h e r e m a i n i n g m a g m a
b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y e n r i c h e d in silica and depleted in iron and m a g n e s i u m .
1 1 . C. O l i v i n e and c a l c i u m - r i c h p l a g i o c l a s e are t h e first m i n e r a l s to crystallize from a
m a g m a with a mafic c o m p o s i t i o n . Refer to F i g u r e s 4.4 and 4 . 5 .
12. B. A b a t h o l i t h is a very large b o d y of i g n e o u s rock. Batholiths are found in the c o r e s of
m o u n t a i n belts.
13. D . Q u a r t z a n d olivine d o not crystallize from t h e s a m e m a g m a body. I f there w a s
e n o u g h iron in t h e original m a g m a , the silica is c o n s u m e d in the formation of the ferr o m a g n e s i u m m i n e r a l s and p l a g i o c l a s e feldspars. T h e m a g m a c o m p l e t e l y solidifies
before p u r e q u a r t z c a n crystallize. A p a r e n t m a g m a with e n o u g h silica to g e n e r a t e
q u a r t z will not c o n t a i n e n o u g h iron and m a g n e s i u m to generate olivine.
14. A. Intrusive (plutonic) r o c k s are typically coarser g r a i n e d b e c a u s e of slower c o o l i n g .
E x t r u s i v e (volcanic) r o c k s are finer grained b e c a u s e of quicker c o o l i n g rates. C o o l i n g
rates are not the only factors that influence the grain size of i g n e o u s r o c k s . R a p i d
c h a n g e s in p r e s s u r e within a m a g m a c h a m b e r c a n i n d u c e rapid crystallization and
therefore fine-grained crystals within an intrusive r o c k . H i g h w a t e r c o n t e n t in residual
fluids from a solidifying m a g m a c a n e n h a n c e crystal g r o w t h and size.
15. C. Refer to the d i s c u s s i o n on Plutons in the textbook.
16. D. R e f e r to the d i s c u s s i o n on Plutons in the textbook.
17. B. Refer to F i g u r e s 4.11 and 4 . 1 3 .
18. B. F i g u r e 4.5 illustrates h o w the residual liquid within a m a g m a c h a m b e r b e c o m e s p r o gressively e n r i c h e d in silica and depleted in iron as the crystallization of e a r l y - f o r m e d
m i n e r a l s u s e s u p the available iron.
19. B. Refer to F i g u r e 4 . 1 3 .
20. D. S u b d u c t i o n at convergent plate m a r g i n s p r o d u c e s large a m o u n t s of andesites. In fact,
andesites are n a m e d after the A n d e s M o u n t a i n s in South A m e r i c a b e c a u s e they are very
a b u n d a n t there. M a g m a s generated within the u p p e r m a n t l e , such as those at divergent
plate b o u n d a r i e s and hot spots, are typically mafic. Refer to Figures 4 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 3 , and 4.14.
2 1 . B . Refer t o F i g u r e 4 . 1 2 .
22. A . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 4 . 1 3 .
2 3 . B. This is the m o s t unlikely hypothesis b e c a u s e melting within a mantle p l u m e , like the
hot spot H a w a i i , is thought to be caused by d e c o m p r e s s i o n of hot ultramafic rock, w h i c h
generates basalt.
24. C. To m e l t a solid in a k i t c h e n y o u h e a t it up on t h e stove. R o c k s w i t h i n the E a r t h are
already relatively h o t but m o s t are still solid. R e d u c t i o n in p r e s s u r e ( d e c o m p r e s s i o n )
and t h e addition of w a t e r (fluid induction) c a u s e r o c k s to melt within the Earth. Refer
t o F i g u r e s 4 . 1 3 and 4 . 1 4 .
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266
CHAPTER 5

Exercise 1: Common sedimentary environments
A l p i n e or glacial river c h a n n e l : sand and gravel
D u n e s in a desert: fine sand
F l o o d plain a l o n g a b r o a d m e a n d e r b e n d : silt and clay ( m u d )
R i v e r delta a l o n g a m a r i n e shoreline: sand, m u d , calcified o r g a n i s m s (seashells)
C o n t i n e n t a l shelf: sand and m u d
D e e p sea adjacent to a continental shelf: m u d
S h o r e l i n e b e a c h d u n e s : sand, gravel, calcified o r g a n i s m s
Tidal flats: sand and m u d
O r g a n i c reef: calcified o r g a n i s m s
Exercise 2: Grain sizes for clastic sedimentary rocks

G r a i n size
C o m m o n Object
Sediment
Coarse
football or b u s
boulder
p l u m or lime
gravel
conglomerate
pea or bean
gravel
conglomerate
c o a r s e - g r o u n d p e p p e r or salt
sand
sandstone
fine-ground p e p p e r or salt
sand
sandstone
talcum powder or baby powder
m u d , silt, clay
siltstone, mudstone
Fine
Rock type
gravel
conglomerate
shale, claystone
Exercise 3: Clastic and chemical sediments and sedimentary rocks

Statement
Sediment type
Sedimentary rock example
C o m p o s e d largely of r o c k fragments
clastic
sandstone, graywacke, conglomerate
P r e c i p i t a t e d in the e n v i r o n m e n t of d e p o s i t i o n
chemical
evaporite, p h o s p h o r i t e
I m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of c o a l
biochemical
peat
Often f o r m e d b y d i a g e n e s i s
chemical
dolostone
F o r m e d from a b u n d a n t skeleton fragments
biochemical
limestone
Produced by physical weathering
clastic
c o n g l o m e r a t e , s a n d s t o n e , siltstone, shale
P r o d u c e d from rapidly e r o d i n g granitic and
clastic
arkose sandstone
and
phosphorite
of m a r i n e or lake o r g a n i s m s , such as coral,

seashells, and foraminifers
gneissic terrains in an arid or s e m i - a r i d c l i m a t e

1. D. Shale, s a n d s t o n e and c o n g l o m e r a t e are clastic r o c k s . D o l o m i t e , chert, l i m e s t o n e , coal
and g y p s u m are c h e m i c a l / b i o c h e m i c a l r o c k s .
2. D. S e e Table 5.3
3. D. S a n d is a t e r m that refers solely to a particular r a n g e of grain sizes. It d o e s not imply
any specific c o m p o s i t i o n . Q u a r t z and feldspar are c o m m o n c o n s t i t u e n t s of sand grains
Answers to Practice Exercises and Review Questions 2 6 7
b e c a u s e they are c o m m o n m i n e r a l s in the E a r t h ' s continental crust. C a r b o n a t e s , like

l i m e s t o n e , d o l o s t o n e , a n d fragments o f seashells, c a n also m a k e u p sand grains.
4. D. See Figure 5.1.
5 . B . T h e r e i s n o k n o w n m a r i n e life that precipitates d o l o m i t e . D o l o m i t e c a n b e p r e c i p i tated i n o r g a n i c a l l y in seawater, not fresh water.
6. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 5.12.
7. A .
8. A .
9. D. Cross-bedding is a feature produced as sediment is deposited by currents of air or water.
10. D. C a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s are d e p o s i t e d in w a r m water. C a r b o n a t e s dissolve in cold w a t e r
b e c a u s e their solubility is linked to the a m o u n t of c a r b o n d i o x i d e dissolved in t h e water.
T h e solubility of c a r b o n d i o x i d e increases as the t e m p e r a t u r e of the w a t e r d e c r e a s e s .
11. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 5.16.
12. B. S e e Table 16.2.
13. D. F i g u r e 5.16 will h e l p .
14. C. S e e Table 5 . 1 .
15. D. S e e Table 5 . 1 . Ultimately, the w e a t h e r i n g of m o s t silicate m i n e r a l s , e x c e p t quartz,
p r o d u c e s c l a y s that b e c o m e c o m p a c t e d into shale. S e e F i g u r e 5.12.
16. B. Refer to F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 .
17. A. Refer to F i g u r e 5.18 and E a r t h Issues 5 . 1 .
18. D .
19. A .
CHAPTER 6

Exercise 1: Classification of metamorphic rocks based on texture
Parent rock
Metamorphic rock
Texture
(foliated/
granoblastic)
shale
slate
foliated
quartzite
granoblastic
granulite
granoblastic
granite
schist and g n e i s s
foliated
limestone
marble
granoblastic
carbonate-rich sedimentary rocks
hornfels
granoblastic
basalt (mafic volcanics)
amphibolites
igneous a n d m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s
migmatite
quartz-rich
sandstone
shale, i m p u r e s a n d s t o n e , and
many k i n d s of i g n e o u s r o c k s
and
greenstones
granoblastic
foliated
268
Exercise 2: Comparing igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
Major mineral
composition
Texture
Rock name
Rock type
(igneous, sedimentary, (granite, sandstone,
marble)
metamorphic)
calcium
nonfoliated
metamorphic
marble
sedimentary
limestone
i g n e o u s (plutonic)
granite
sedimentary
m u d s t o n e , shale
i g n e o u s (volcanic)
basalt
nonfoliated
metamorphic
quartzite
clastic
sedimentary
cconglomerate
bioclastic,
sedimentary
limestone
metamorphic
schist
quartz,
carbonate
phaneritic
K and Na feldspar,
mica,
and
amphibole
fine-grained
clay
pyroxene,
and
calcium feldspar,
aphanitic,
porphyritic
olivine
quartz
pebbles
and
variety
of rock
fragments
cobbles
of a
types
of seashells
and fine
mud
quartz,
muscovite,
and
clastic
biochemical
foliated
chlorite,
garnet

1. D. If the r o c k is melted, it is an i g n e o u s rock. S o m e m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s , such as
m i g a m t i t e , get hot e n o u g h to " s w e a t " quartz.
2. B .
3 . B . Refer t o the section M e t a m o r p h i c Textures.
4. B. Refer to F i g u r e 6.4.
5. A. Refer to F i g u r e 6.4.
6. C. M e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s characteristically exhibit either foliated or g r a n o b l a s t i c textures.
7. D. A l t h o u g h m i n e r a l o g y m a y be altered by m e t a m o r p h i s m , typically there is little to no
c h a n g e in bulk c o m p o s i t i o n of the rock.
8 . D . E v e n preexisting m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s c a n b e m e t a m o r p h o s e d .
9. B. Slate -> p h y l l i t e -* schist
g n e i s s is the c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e f r o m f i n e - g r a i n e d to
p r o g r e s s i v e l y c o a r s e r g r a i n e d m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s . A l l r o c k s listed i n this s e q u e n c e are

foliated.
11. C. M e t e o r i t e i m p a c t of the lunar surface is an e x a m p l e of s h o c k m e t a m o r p h i s m .
12. D. Refer to F i g u r e 6.7.
269
13. B. G n e i s s h a s the s a m e m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n as granite. Its distinctive characteristic is foliation. G r a n i t e is a c o m m o n p a r e n t r o c k for g n e i s s .

14. C. B o t h slate and g n e i s s are foliated m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s . Slate is lower in g r a d e , and
t h u s is m u c h finer grained.
15. D . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 6 . 3 .
16. A. R e f e r to t h e t o p of F i g u r e 4 . 5 .
17. B. T h e i n t r u s i o n of a hot m a g m a b o d y c a u s e s contact m e t a m o r p h i s m .
18. B. As illustrated in t h e d i a g r a m at the b o t t o m of F i g u r e 4 . 5 , quartz softens at relatively
low t e m p e r a t u r e s . O v a l quartz p e b b l e s c o u l d have b e e n stretched into the cigar-shaped
features b y l o w - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i s m .
20. A. Refer to F i g u r e 6.10 and the C o n t i n e n t - C o n t i n e n t Collisions section in the text.
CHAPTER 7

Exercise 1: Silly Putty
Behavior of
Silly Putty
Behavior of rock
Type of force
Geologic structure produced

by this style of deformation
Snaps
brittle
tensional
fault or j o i n t s
Bends
ductile
compressional
folds
Bounces
elastic
compressional
into pieces
Exercise 2: Geologic structures

A. reverse fault
B.
compressional
C.
convergent
D . anticline
E.
compressional
F.
convergent
G. n o r m a l fault
Ft. t e n s i o n a l
I.
divergent
270
J.
strike-slip fault
K. shearing
L.
transform
M . syncline
N. compressional
O. c o n v e r g e n t
Exercise 3: Anticline versus syncline

A. In an anticline the y o u n g e s t r o c k layer is on the outside of the fold, whereas in a
syncline the y o u n g e s t r o c k layer is in the m i d d l e of the fold.
B . Refer t o F i g u r e s 7.10 and 7 . 1 1 .
Exercise 4: Identifying geologic structures

A. anticline
B.
syncline
C.
thrust
D . reverse
E.
normal

1. C. Solids that b r e a k are called brittle. W h e t h e r a solid b e h a v e s brittlely d e p e n d s on its
c o m p o s i t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e , and confining p r e s s u r e and t h e rate of a p p l i c a t i o n of directional forces.
2. A. Refer to F i g u r e 7 . 3 .
3. B. T h e S a n A n d r e a s is a right-lateral strike-slip fault. It also r e p r e s e n t s a transform plate
boundary.
4. B. Refer to F i g u r e s 7.7, 7 . 1 5 , 7.16, and 7.19.
5. B. Joints are fractures a l o n g w h i c h there is no a p p r e c i a b l e m o v e m e n t . Faults are fractures a l o n g w h i c h there is a p p r e c i a b l e offset.
6. D. All other c o n d i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d w o u l d favor brittle behavior.
7. A. Basalt is an i g n e o u s r o c k with i n t e r l o c k i n g fine-grained silicate m i n e r a l s that have a
high m e l t i n g point. T h e r e f o r e , basalt t e n d s to b e h a v e brittlely. R o c k s with h i g h clay or
c a l c i u m - c a r b o n a t e content tend to b e h a v e ductilely.
8. C. C o l u m n a r jointing is fracturing caused by shrinkage during cooling of an igneous rock.
9. D. N o r m a l faults are a result of brittle b e h a v i o r in r e s p o n s e to tension.
10. B. T h r u s t faults are c a u s e d by c o m p r e s s i o n a l forces typical of w h a t is g e n e r a t e d at convergent b o u n d a r i e s like continental collisions.
1 1 . A . Refer t o F i g u r e 7 . 3 .
12. B . Refer t o F i g u r e s 7 . 1 1 .
CHAPTER 8

Exercise 1: Determining the succession of geologic events
A.
12. E v e n t h o u g h the b l a c k d i k e d o e s not cut all r o c k units in t h e d i a g r a m , it d o e s

c u t t h e g r a n i t e a n d layer 1, w h i c h is a b o v e all o t h e r layered r o c k units. T h e r e f o r e ,
the dike is y o u n g e r than the granite and layer 1. If the dike was not s h o w n cutting the
g r a n i t e , t h e relative a g e s o f the dike and t h e g r a n i t e c o u l d not b e r e s o l v e d . R a d i o m e t r i c d a t e s o n t h e t w o i g n e o u s r o c k b o d i e s w o u l d r e s o l v e their a g e s .
B.
10. L a y e r 10 is the oldest in the o u t c r o p . It is at t h e b o t t o m of a tilted s e q u e n c e of

l a y e r e d r o c k s that go from layer 10 (the oldest) to layer 3 (the y o u n g e s t of t h e
s e q u e n c e ) , a s s u m i n g that this w h o l e s e q u e n c e has not b e e n c o m p l e t e l y overturned.
C. Yes. L a y e r 3 is older than the d i k e (unit 12). E v e n t h o u g h the dike does not cut layer
3, it d o e s cut the u n c o n f o r m i t y that cuts layer 3, and it also cuts layers 2 and 1, w h i c h
are a b o v e layer 3.
D . N o t p o s s i b l e t o k n o w . B e c a u s e the b l a c k dike cuts b o t h the granite (unit 11) a n d
l a y e r 1, we c a n say that layer 1 and the g r a n i t e are older than the d i k e . H o w e v e r ,
t h e g r a n i t e m a y h a v e i n t r u d e d into the r o c k layers b e f o r e or after t h e d e p o s i t i o n of
l a y e r 1. T h e r e is no w a y of telling w h e t h e r t h e g r a n i t e is o l d e r or y o u n g e r than layers 4, 3, 2, or 1. A r a d i o m e t r i c d a t e on the granite a n d layer 1, w h i c h is a lava flow,
w o u l d h e l p t o r e s o l v e this q u e s t i o n .
E. 1. U n i t 1 is older than unit 12 but y o u n g e r than unit 1 1 . You do not even h a v e to calc u l a t e r a d i o m e t r i c ages to a n s w e r this question. Just look at the trend in the a b u n d a n c e o f t h e radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s o r a c c u m u l a t i o n o f the d a u g h t e r a t o m s . T h e
r o c k with t h e greatest a m o u n t of p a r e n t a t o m s (and least a m o u n t of d a u g h t e r a t o m s )
i s the y o u n g e s t . T h e r o c k w i t h t h e lowest a m o u n t o f radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s and
the largest a c c u m u l a t i o n of d a u g h t e r a t o m s is the oldest. B e c a u s e the a b u n d a n c e of
radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s in unit 1 falls b e t w e e n units 11 and 12, the r a d i o m e t r i c age
of unit 1 w o u l d be s o m e n u m b e r of y e a r s b e t w e e n the ages of units 11 and 12. U n i t
11 has t h e fewest radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s r e m a i n i n g ; therefore, it is the oldest.
Exercise 2: Ordering geologic events

This is a clear illustration of the p r i n c i p l e of superposition and cross-cutting relationships at
work. U s i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s u p e r p o s i t i o n , w e see that the l i m e s t o n e m u s t h a v e b e e n d e posited before t h e shale and the shale before the s a n d s t o n e . L i k e w i s e , t h e s e b e d s m u s t have
existed before b e i n g first cut by the d i k e and second by t h e fault.
Youngest
Faulting
Dike intrudes
D e p o s i t i o n of s a n d s t o n e
D e p o s i t i o n of shale
Oldest
D e p o s i t i o n of l i m e s t o n e
271
272
Exercise 3: Marker events for the Geologic Time Scale

Eon
Era
evolve
Epoch
Quaternary
Holocene
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Pleistocene
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Phanerozoic
Humans
Period
Dinosaur extinction event
Jurassic
Triassic
Paleozoic
Permian
Pliocene
Miocene
\
Oligocene
\
Eocene
^ Paleocene
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Evolutionary Big Bang
Cambrian
Proterozoic
O x y g e n b u i l d u p in
atmosphere
First
nucleus-bearing
cells
develop
Archeon
Earliest e v i d e n c e of life
M a j o r p h a s e of c o n t i n e n t
formation completed
Hadean
E n d of heavy b o m b a r d m e n t
M o o n forms
Earth
accretion
begins
Exercise 4: Geologic Time Scale mnemonic

T h e r e i s n o " c o r r e c t " a n s w e r t o this q u e s t i o n . A n y m n e m o n i c d e v i c e that y o u will find useful in r e m e m b e r i n g the different e p o c h s and p e r i o d s of t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e is an acceptable answer.

1. B. T h e r o c k layer at the top of an u n d e f o r m e d s e q u e n c e of r o c k layers is the y o u n g e s t
in the s e q u e n c e .
2. D. C e n o z o i c , M e s o z o i c , P a l e o z o i c . Refer to F i g u r e 8.14.
3. B. P a l e o c e n e , E o c e n e , O l i g o c e n e , and P l i o c e n e are the e p o c h s of the Tertiary p e r i o d in
the G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale. R e m e m b e r that the P l e i s t o c e n e and H o l o c e n e are e p o c h s
within the Q u a t e r n a r y period. Refer to F i g u r e 8.14.
4 . B . C a m b r i a n , O r d o v i c i a n , Silurian, D e v o n i a n , M i s s i s s i p p i a n , P e n n s y l v a n i a n , P e r m i a n .
5. D. D e p o s i t i o n , d e f o r m a t i o n , erosion, d e p o s i t i o n . Refer to F i g u r e 8.8.
6. A. R o c k layer 3 is d e p o s i t e d on top of layer 2 and the 60-million-year-old pluton A.

B a s e d on s u p e r p o s i t i o n , layer 3 is y o u n g e r than 60 million y e a r s . L a y e r 3 is also cut by
t h e 3 4 - m i l l i o n - y e a r - o l d p l u t o n B. B a s e d on this cross-cutting relationship, layer 3 has
t o b e o l d e r t h a n 3 4 million y e a r s .
7. C. Refer to the M e a s u r i n g A b s o l u t e T i m e with Radioactive Clocks section of Chapter 8.
8. C. Refer to the M e a s u r i n g A b s o l u t e T i m e with Radioactive Clocks section of C h a p t e r 8.
10. B . R a d i o c a r b o n c a n b e u s e d t o radiometrically date c a r b o n - c o n t a i n i n g materials like
c h a r c o a l if t h e s a m p l e is y o u n g e r than a b o u t 7 0 , 0 0 0 years old. Refer to Table 8 . 1 .
11. B. B e c a u s e r a d i o c a r b o n has a short half-life ( 5 7 3 0 years), the level of r a d i o c a r b o n
d e c a y s b e l o w the d e t e c t a b l e limit in s a m p l e s older than a b o u t 7 0 , 0 0 0 years. Refer to
Table 8 . 1 .
12. C. G i v e n a half-life of 1 billion years, for every billion years that e l a p s e s , the n u m b e r
of r a d i o a c t i v e a t o m s d e c r e a s e s by half. T h e r e f o r e after 1 billion years there are 5 0 0 left
from the original 1000 a t o m s ; after 2 billion years there are 2 5 0 out of the 5 0 0 left; after
3 billion y e a r s there are 125 out of the 2 5 0 left.
13. D. To correctly interpret this question it is important to distinguish b e t w e e n observation
(data) and inference. T h e radiocarbon age of 3 0 0 0 years is data derived from laboratory
analysis of the charcoal sample. T h e result of the analysis represents the a p p r o x i m a t e time
that has elapsed since the organism (in this case w o o d ) died and was no longer exchanging carbon dioxide with the environment. It is reasonable to infer that the charcoal formed
w h e n inhabitants at the site burned w o o d for cooking and heating. It is also reasonable to
a s s u m e that the w o o d w a s not dead for a long time before it w a s harvested for fuel. If
these a s s u m p t i o n s are correct, then the radiocarbon date represents the approximate time
for the o c c u p a t i o n of the site. However, the charcoal could have formed from a forest fire
d e c a d e s or centuries earlier than h u m a n occupation. Or the w o o d harvested for fuel m a y
have b e e n dead and lying on the ground for hundreds or even thousands of years. In arid
regions w h e r e decay is very slow, dead w o o d can lie on the ground for h u n d r e d s to thousands of years. If " o l d " w o o d h a p p e n e d to be used to fuel the fires at this site, then the
radiocarbon age could be significantly older than the time of occupation.
14. A . T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e w a s c o n s t r u c t e d over a b o u t the last 2 0 0 years b y g e o l o gists u s i n g m a i n l y fossils, superposition, and cross-cutting relationships to establish the
relative ages for t h o u s a n d s of rock o u t c r o p s a r o u n d the world. In a b o u t the last 50 years,
t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale has b e e n calibrated u s i n g r a d i o m e t r i c m e t h o d s t o d a t e m o s t l y
i g n e o u s and m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .
15. A. R e v i e w the section M e a s u r i n g A b s o l u t e T i m e with Radioactive Clocks in C h a p t e r 8.
16. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 8.15.
17. A. L o s s of d a u g h t e r a t o m s , such as lead, generated from the d e c a y of radioactive parent
a t o m s , s u c h as u r a n i u m , w o u l d result in a date that w a s y o u n g e r than the actual time that
has elapsed since the r o c k solidified. O n e important a s s u m p t i o n that is m a d e w h e n interpreting r a d i o m e t r i c dates is that the mineral or rock has r e m a i n e d a closed s y s t e m n o
e l e m e n t s have b e e n added to or r e m o v e d from the mineral except by radioactive decay.
If this a s s u m p t i o n h o l d s , then the radiometric date typically represents the time that has
elapsed since the r o c k solidified from a m a g m a .
18. C. Weathering and alteration of rock samples by m e t a m o r p h i s m can cause a redistribution
of radioactive parent atoms and the daughter atoms produced by decay of the parent. This
redistribution usually causes uncertainty in the radiometric date. Therefore, geologists typically radiometrically date the freshest rock samples that have been the least affected by
subsequent geologic events. S a m p l e C in the middle of the lava flow is the least likely to
be affected by weathering, like sample A, or contact metamorphism, like sample B.
19. B. B e c a u s e the r a d i o m e t r i c a l l y dated c o b b l e is included in the c o n g l o m e r a t e layer, t h e
layer h a s t o b e y o u n g e r than the c o b b l e t h e c o b b l e had t o f o r m before i t could b e c o m e
a part of t h e c o n g l o m e r a t e . T h e r a d i o m e t r i c date represents a m a x i m u m a g e for the c o n g l o m e r a t e , w h i c h h a s to be y o u n g e r than any included c o m p o n e n t . If geologists really
w a n t e d to get a better e s t i m a t e for the age of the c o n g l o m e r a t e , they w o u l d need to do
r a d i o m e t r i c dates for as m a n y c o b b l e s of different i g n e o u s r o c k s as possible to find the
273
274
d a t e of t h e y o u n g e s t c o b b l e i n c l u d e d in t h e layer. In this w a y , t h e y c o u l d focus on

t h e a p p r o x i m a t e age of the s e d i m e n t a r y layer u s i n g the r a d i o m e t r i c dates on igneous
inclusions and the principle of i n c l u d e d fragments.
2 0 . A. C r o s s - c u t t i n g relationships tell us that the dike and lava flow m u s t be the last event
to have occurred. U s i n g the p r i n c i p l e of superposition we c a n see that the first events
m u s t be t h e deposition of the l o w e r shale,
then the l i m e s t o n e - s h a l e - s a n d s t o n e
s e q u e n c e , so these events c a n n o t be the m o s t recent. C r o s s - c u t t i n g relationships again

inform us that t h e fault and p l u t o n are t h e next e v e n t s , t h o u g h w h i c h is m o r e recent
t h a n the other is inconclusive, as neither cuts the other. Finally, the dike cuts all the prec e d i n g r o c k units, e x t r u d i n g the lava flow at the s u r f a c e t h e final r o c k unit. Refer to
the sections on r e c o n s t r u c t i n g g e o l o g i c history from the stratigraphic r e c o r d in the text
for a discussion of these c o n c e p t s .
2 1 . D. D is the best answer, although one might be inclined to answer C, based on superposition. Archeologists will c o m m o n l y use radiocarbon ages to bracket the age of an archeological site if no datable material is found in the site itself. Again, it is important to distinguish between observation (the data) and inferences (the interpretation). T h e radiocarbon
date represents the time that has elapsed since the wood died. Perhaps the w o o d died during a forest fire, and the charcoal was washed away from the burned area and deposited in
a layer that covered the fire pit. If this is the case, then the radiocarbon date would be
y o u n g e r than the fire pit. Although charcoal is soft, it is chemically very stable and remains
well preserved in sediments. It is also possible that the charcoal weathered out of some sedi m e n t a r y l a y e r s that are a c t u a l l y m u c h o l d e r t h a n t h e fire pit a n d e n d e d u p incorpor a t e d in t h e l a y e r that c o v e r s that pit. In this c a s e , t h e r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e w o u l d be
m i s l e a d i n g because the charcoal was actually significantly older than the fire pit but ended
up in a soil layer above the fire pit because it was recycled from eroding older sediments.
Exercise 2: Evidence of water on Mars

Discuss four lines of e v i d e n c e revealed by recent p r o b e s for w a t e r on M a r s .
Refer to F i g u r e s 9.17, 9.20, 9.22, 9 . 2 3 , 9.24, 9.25, and 9.26 and the text on p a g e s 2 0 2 - 2 1 0 in
the textbook. E v i d e n c e of past and/or present w a t e r on M a r s includes
Geomorphology
Channel networks
Meandering patterns
L a n d f o r m s that s u g g e s t p a s t glacial p r o c e s s e s
Mineral a n d r o c k c o m p o s i t i o n / c h e m i s t r y
Iron o x i d e m i n e r a l s , e.g., h e m a t i t e ( p r o d u c e d by rusting of iron-rich m i n e r a l s , like pyrite)
G y p s u m (a sulfate m i n e r a l d e p o s i t e d by evaporation of water)
Jarosite (an iron-rich sulfate m i n e r a l )
S e d i m e n t o l o g y and stratigraphy
Layered sedimentary rocks
N o t e : L o o k for W e b sites that discuss evidence of water ice at the M a r i a n poles.

1. D. G r a v i t a t i o n a l attraction c a u s e d the dust and c o n d e n s i n g m a t e r i a l to collide a n d
c l u m p t o g e t h e r (sticky collisions). Refer to F i g u r e 9.2.
2. B. T h e heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements continues to heat the
Earth today.
3. C. Volcanic d e g a s s i n g a c c o u n t s for all major gases in t h e E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e e x c e p t
o x y g e n . O x y g e n is a b y - p r o d u c t of p h o t o s y n t h e s i s . Refer to F i g u r e 1.8.
4. B. F i g u r e s 1.5 a n d 1.12 p r o v i d e t i m e lines for the early history of t h e Earth.
5 . B . T h e E a r t h ' s core, m a n t l e , and crust are t h o u g h t t o h a v e f o r m e d w h e n m u c h o f the
E a r t h m e l t e d . M e l t i n g a l l o w e d materials w i t h i n the earth to segregate (differentiate)
a c c o r d i n g to their d e n s i t y h e a v i e r m a t t e r sinks t o w a r d the center. Refer to F i g u r e 1.6.
7 . A . T h e inner terrestrial o r r o c k y planets are distinctly m o r e c o m p a c t d e n s e r t h a n the
outer g a s e o u s p l a n e t s . T h e d e n s i t y of Saturn is less t h a n that of liquid water. If an o c e a n
w e r e b i g e n o u g h , Saturn w o u l d float.
8. D. R e f e r to F i g u r e 9.4.
9. B .
10. A . Refer t o p a g e s 1 9 0 - 1 9 3 .
11. C. R e f e r to Table 9.2.
12. D . S o m e a t m o s p h e r i c o x y g e n m o l e c u l e s diffuse i n t o t h e u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e
solar r a d i a t i o n t r a n s f o r m s t h e m into o z o n e . O z o n e a b s o r b s U V r a d i a t i o n before i t
r e a c h e s t h e surface w h e r e it can d a m a g e plant and a n i m a l cells. O x y g e n is not essential
to all life. In fact, s o m e life f o r m s find o x y g e n t o x i c . B e c a u s e o x y g e n gas is very r e a c tive, its p r e s e n c e p r o b a b l y w o u l d h a v e r e d u c e d the l i k e l i h o o d for the c h e m i c a l evolut i o n of life in t h e earliest h i s t o r y of E a r t h . L u c k y for u s , the E a r t h b e g a n as an o x y g e n free p l a n e t . O x y g e n r e a d i l y reacts w i t h h y d r o g e n to f o r m water, but the a m o u n t of free
h y d r o g e n in E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e is m i n u s c u l e ; therefore, this r e a c t i o n is n o t significant.
Refer to Chapter 11.
275
276
CHAPTER 10

Exercise 1: Evolution of the continents
277
Exercise 2: Ocean crust versus continental crust

Characteristics
Ocean crust
Continental crust
Composition
Malic
Felsic to i n t e r m e d i a t e
Rock type(s)
H o m o g e n e o u s basalt, g a b b r o ,
Very
and pelagic s e d i m e n t s
but
Density
3.0
g/cm
Thickness
10 km
heterogeneouscan
dominantly
with
2.7
g/cm
granitic
gneissic
15-65 km
The
4
Topographic
Abyssal
c r a t o n or shield
features
Ridge with axial rift
stable p l a t f o r m
Trenches
continental m a r g i n
Sea
rock
175 million y e a r s or y o u n g e r w i t h older

floor
Mounts
Hot-spot
and
any
cover of sediments
f r a g m e n t s c a u g h t u p within continents
Age
contain
island
ages
of continental
billion
crust
spans
years.
coastal plain
chains
Plateaus
continental shelf a n d slope

m o u n t a i n belts
sedimentary basins
Structure/ Architecture
A m o d e l for the structure of the o c e a n
The
crust is t h e ophiolite suite: d e e p - s e a
complex.
architecture
sediments, basaltic pillow lavas and dikes,
accreted
a n d g a b b r o . ( N o t e : peridotites are part of
arcs,
suture zones,
the mantle lithosphere, not the ocean crust.)
belts
representing
It
microplates,
Sediments
continents
is
of preexisting
cratons,
island
volcanic
arcs,
ophiolite suites,
ancient
of the
and
orogenic
cover basement rock
interior platform
Origin
of the
consists
in
zones.
the
continent,
mafic m a g m a t i s m and v o l c a n i s m at the
orogenic processes
and
accretion
ocean ridge system
preexisting
crustal
blocks
convergent
plate
boundaries
of
along

1. C. R e f e r to p a g e s 2 3 4 - 2 3 8 .
2 . A . C o n v e r g e n t plate m a r g i n s . Refer t o F i g u r e 10.12.
3. C. P a s s i v e c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s are located far from active plate b o u n d a r i e s .
4. C. T h e oldest k n o w n continental r o c k is r a d i o m e t r i c a l l y dated at 4 billion y e a r s old. It is the A c a s t a g n e i s s f r o m the
Slave P r o v i n c e in C a n a d a . Refer to F i g u r e 10.22.
5 . D . R e f e r t o the section H o w C o n t i n e n t s G r o w starting o n p a g e 2 2 4 .
7. A. Refer to Figure 10.11.
8. B. R e f e r to F i g u r e s 10.1 and 10.8.
9. C. Y o u n g o r o g e n i c belts are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by hotter and thicker crust.
10. A . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 10.11 and the section T h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n Cordilleran.
11. B. T h e A n d e s M o u n t a i n s along the west coast of South A m e r i c a are an active orogenic system associated with the subduction of ocean crust beneath the South A m e r i c a n continent.
12. A. O r o g e n y refers to the collection of p r o c e s s e s , typically active at c o n v e r g e n t plate b o u n d a r i e s , that f o r m m o u n t a i n s .
Rifting leads to the f o r m a t i o n of a n e w o c e a n basin.
13. C. Refer to t h e section T h e A p p a l a c h i a n Fold Belt.
14. B . S e e t h e section T h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n Cordilleran.
278
15. A. T h e C o r d i l l e r a is a y o u n g e r m o u n t a i n belt c o m p a r e d to the A p p a l a c h i a n s . In fact,

portions of the C o r d i l l e r a are still involved in o r o g e n i c p r o c e s s e s . T h e western North
A m e r i c a n crust sits h i g h e r than the A p p a l a c h i a n s b e c a u s e the Cordillera crust is thicker
and hotter, and tectonic p r o c e s s e s r e m a i n very active.
16. D. W i d e s p r e a d and relatively thick a c c u m u l a t i o n s of coral-rich l i m e s t o n e s , sandstones,
and shale are characteristic of a passive continental m a r g i n or a s e d i m e n t a r y basin within a continental platform.
17. A. T h i c k e r continental crust typically stands higher. H o t t e r crust also stands higher
b e c a u s e heat lowers the density of the r o c k m a t e r i a l .
18. B. In a sense, m o u n t a i n s are m a d e from m o u n t a i n s . M o s t of t h e s e d i m e n t s eroded from
p r e v i o u s o r o g e n i c s y s t e m s ultimately end up a l o n g a continental m a r g i n w h e r e it eventually is d e f o r m e d and uplifted by the evolution of an active c o n v e r g e n t boundary. Some
s e d i m e n t s are p r o b a b l y s u b d u c t e d , but m o s t are d e f o r m e d and e n t a n g l e d in thrusting
and m e t a m o r p h i s m d u r i n g orogeny. S o m e s e d i m e n t s m a y b e carried t o d e p t h s where
they melt. M e l t s derived from s e d i m e n t s are typically felsic, not mafic, and crystallize
within the crust to f o r m granitic r o c k s . E x c e p t for r e g i o n s adjacent to t h e continental
m a r g i n , m o s t o c e a n floor is surprisingly lacking in s e d i m e n t . T h i s is partly because the
o c e a n floor is y o u n g and continually b e i n g recycled by plate t e c t o n i c s and b e c a u s e sedi m e n t a t i o n rates in the d e e p o c e a n are very slow.
19. B. Rifting b r e a k s up a c o n t i n e n t and forms a new passive m a r g i n on w h i c h sediments
a c c u m u l a t e . Eventually, with the d e v e l o p m e n t of s u b d u c t i o n adjacent to the passive
m a r g i n , o r o g e n y is initiated. O r o g e n i c p r o c e s s e s t h i c k e n the o v e r r i d i n g crust, which
then b e g i n s to rise d u e to a b u o y a n t b a l a n c e b e t w e e n the m o u n t a i n root and the denser
m a n t l e in w h i c h it sits. C a n y o u think of a g o o d r e a s o n w h y s u b d u c t i o n is likely to eventually o c c u r adjacent to an old passive continental m a r g i n ?
2 0 . C. Refer to F i g u r e 10.8.
2 1 . B . Refer t o the section H o w C o n t i n e n t s G r o w .
22. A. T h e A n d e s M o u n t a i n s along the west c o a s t of S o u t h A m e r i c a are in a m o r e youthful
stage of o r o g e n y than the N o r t h A m e r i c a n C o r d i l l e r a and exhibits a great n u m b e r of
similarities to past g e o l o g i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s in w e s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T o d a y geologists
actively study the A n d e s as a w a y of traveling b a c k in t i m e to the earlier C e n o z o i c history of the N o r t h A m e r i c a n Cordillera.
2 3 . B . Refer t o F i g u r e 10.20.
2 4 . A. Refer to F i g u r e 10.24.
2 5 . D. Refer to F i g u r e 10.6.
279
CHAPTER 11

Exercise 1: How organisms and the Earth interact
Life's impact
on Earth
Life process(es)
generating the impact
Description of the
interaction and impact
0 i n Earth's
B y p r o d u c t of p h o t o s y n t h e s i s
G r e e n plants and a l g a e u s e e n e r g y in t h e a t m o s p h e r e
atmosphere
from sunlight to convert w a t e r and c a r b o n d i o x i d e to

c a r b o h y d r a t e s , such as sugar, and o x y g e n . O x y g e n is
released to the a t m o s p h e r e .
Greenhouse
Extraction
effect: C o o l i n g
oceans
of carbon from
and
atmosphere
by
T h e extraction of carbon dioxide from the a t m o s p h e r e and

oceans by photosynthetic organisms and shell-producing
shell-producing
and
organisms, like c l a m s and coral, d r a w s d o w n the a m o u n t
photo synthetic
organisms
o f C 0 i n the E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e and o c e a n s . C a r b o n

2
dioxide is a heat-trapping molecule. R e d u c i n g the a m o u n t

of C 0
Greenhouse
Respiration and metabolism
effect: W a r m i n g
of anaerobic microbes. Refer to

Table 11.2 and textbook page 246.
i n the a t m o s p h e r e reduces the g r e e n h o u s e effect.
T h e m e t a b o l i s m of s o m e o r g a n i s m s p r o d u c e s c a r b o n
d i o x i d e and m e t h a n e , w h i c h are b o t h h e a t - t r a p p i n g g a s e s
that contribute to global w a r m i n g .
Mineral
M i c r o b i a l precipitation of pyrite
M i c r o b i a l precipitation of pyrite o c c u r s in the a n a e r o b i c
precipitation
o c c u r s in the a n a e r o b i c z o n e of
z o n e of s e d i m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g i r o n - b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s .
s e d i m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g iron-bearing
S o m e m i c r o b e s , insect, and a n i m a l s precipitate m a g n e t i t e
m i n e r a l s . S o m e m i c r o b e s , insect
(iron o x i d e ) . P h o s p h a t e c a n a c c u m u l a t e w i t h i n m i c r o o r -
and a n i m a l s precipitate m a g n e t i t e
g a n i s m s within s e d i m e n t s .
(iron o x i d e ) . P h o s p h a t e can a c c u m u late in m i c r o o r g a n i s m s in s e d i m e n t s .

Mineral
"Sulfate eating " microbes
dissolution
Hydrogen,
methane
hydrogen
gases
may
sulfide,

1. A. In contrast, h e t e r o t r o p h s get food by feeding directly or indirectly on p r o d u c e r s .
2. A. You are w h a t y o u eat. T h i s is true for all o r g a n i s m s w h e t h e r they eat s i m p l e c a r b o n b e a r i n g m o l e c u l e s like c a r b o n d i o x i d e and m e t h a n e o r large c a r b o h y d r a t e m o l e c u l e s .
3. C. R e f e r to Table 11.2.
4. B. T h e alternative a n s w e r s are characteristic of bacteria and archaea.
5. C. Refer to F i g u r e s 8.14 a n d 11.6 and t e x t b o o k p a g e s 2 5 6 - 2 5 7 .
6 . D . S t r o m a t o l i t e s are s e d i m e n t a r y structures p r o d u c e d b y m i c r o b i a l m a t s . T h e outer
layer o f the m i c r o b i a l m a t c o n t a i n s p h o t o s y n t h e t i c a u t o t r o p h s , w h i c h release o x y g e n
gas as a b y p r o d u c t of their m e t a b o l i s m . M i c r o b i a l m a t s f o r m stomatolitic structures
e v e n today, but the a b u n d a n c e of stromatolite structures today is limited by the p r e s e n c e
of m o l l u s k s that feed on m i c r o b i a l m a t s and by other e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors.
7. D. B a n d e d iron f o r m a t i o n s f o r m e d over an interval of g e o l o g i c t i m e d u r i n g w h i c h o x y g e n w a s released by p h o t o s y n t h e t i c a l g a e into an o x y g e n - p o o r o c e a n that w a s rich in
d i s s o l v e d iron.
8. A. Refer to F i g u r e 11.12 and the related text on p a g e 2 5 3 in the textbook.
9. D. Refer to Table 11.3.
10. B. Refer to the t e x t b o o k section Origin of Life and the O l d e s t Fossils.
and
be produced.
280
1 1 . D. Refer to F i g u r e 11.14 and the related text on p a g e 2 5 5 in the textbook.

12. B. Refer to t e x t b o o k F i g u r e s 11.18 and 11.19.
13. B. A b u n d a n t o x y g e n gas in the a t m o s p h e r e w o u l d be e v i d e n c e for p h o t o s y n t h e t i c life
on the planet. T h e r e is no other p r o c e s s k n o w n that c a n a c c o u n t for a b u n d a n t oxygen
gas in a planetary a t m o s p h e r e b e c a u s e o x y g e n is very reactive and n e e d s to be continually r e p l e n i s h e d . E v e n t h o u g h m e t h a n e w o u l d react rapidly w i t h o x y g e n in the atmosp h e r e , m i n o r a m o u n t s w o u l d be e v i d e n c e for life p r o c e s s e s , especially m i c r o b i a l metab o l i c p r o c e s s e s . It w o u l d be even m o r e exciting to find e v i d e n c e for the p r e s e n c e of
liquid water, but the next best thing is the existence of w a t e r ice. W h e r e there is water
ice there m a y also be s o m e liquid water, if not at the surface, m a y b e in the shallow subsurface w h e r e at least microbial life m a y flourish.
CHAPTER 12

Exercise 1: Lava typestheir properties, eruption styles, deposits,
landforms, association with plate tectonics, and hazards
Characteristics
Basalt (mafic)
Andesite (intermediate)
eruption temperature
1000 to 1 2 0 0 C
intermediate
800 to 1000C
silica c o n t e n t
low ( - 5 0 % )
intermediate
high
gas c o n t e n t
low,
variable
high (up to ~ 15%)
viscosity
low-fluid
intermediate
highvery viscous
typical flow velocity
0.7 to 30 m/minute
less than 9 m/day
typical flow length
10 to 160 km
8 km
less than 1.5 km
typical flow t h i c k n e s s
5 to 15 m
30 m
200 m
explosive
typically very
Rhyolite (felsic)
Properties
E r u p t i o n styles
up to a few percent
magma
typically
not
very
m/day
explosive
Deposits
flood
basalt
explosive
lava
flow
fissure flow
dome
p a h o e h o e and a a flows
pyroclastic
pillow lava
(>-77%)
dome
obsidian
flow
tuff and
welded
dome
pyroclastic f l o w
tuff
tuff and w e l d e d tuff
cinder
Landforms
shield v o l c a n o
composite
lava plateau
summit
cinder
cone
caldera
small
caldera
cinder
volcano
crater
composite volcano
large c a l d e r a
s u m m i t crate
cone
A s s o c i a t i o n with
divergent b o u n d a r i e s
plate t e c t o n i c s
hot
Hazards
lava flow
lava
explosive in c o n t a c t
pyroclastic/ash
spots
with w a t e r
hot gases
flow
explosive
hot
gases
mudflow
explosive blast
blast
flow
pyroclastic/ash
hot
gases
m u d f l o w s (lahars)
281
Exercise 2: Volcanoes at plate tectonic boundaries
Volcano or
volcanic area
Type of volcano
(shield, composite,
caldera)
Magma type
(mafic, intermediate,
felsic)
Magmatic
(plate tectonic)
setting divergent,
convergent, hot spot
hotspot/mantle plume
Hawaii
shield
mafic
T o n g a Islands
composite
intermediate
Columbia Plateau
flood basalts
mafic
hot
Santorini ( T h e r a ) , G r e e c e
caldera
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Mayon, Philippines
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Iceland
shields/fissures
m o s t l y mafic
divergent and
Yellowstone
caldera
intermediate/felsic
continental hot spot
Krakatoa, Indonesia
composite/caldera
intermediate/felsic
convergent
N o r t h Island, N e w Z e a l a n d
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Crater L a k e , O r e g o n
composite/caldera
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Japan
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Aleutian Islands, Alaska
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
M a r i a n a Islands
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
K i l i m a n j a r o , Africa
composite
intermediate/felsic
continental rift/hot spot
Pinatubo, Philippines
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Katmai, Alaska
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
M o u n t Rainier, W a s h i n g t o n
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Tambora, Indonesia
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Vesuvius, Italy
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
and
caldera
and
caldera
and felsic

1. D. C o o l i n g rate d e t e r m i n e s the size of the m i n e r a l grains within lava flows. If m i n e r a l s
a l r e a d y exist in the m a g m a c h a m b e r before an eruption o c c u r s , t h e lava will erupt with
larger crystals floating in it and solidify into a v o l c a n i c r o c k with a m i x t u r e of grain
sizes, k n o w n as a p o r p h y r y .
2 . B . Table 4 . 2 p r o v i d e s b a s i c c o m p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s for i g n e o u s r o c k s . R h y o l i t e contains
up to a b o u t 77 p e r c e n t silica. B a s a l t is mafic with a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t silica.
3. B. W a t e r m a k e s up 7 0 - 9 5 p e r c e n t of t h e v a p o r c o n t e n t of a m a g m a , followed by c a r b o n
d i o x i d e and sulfur d i o x i d e .
4 . B . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 12.10.
5. B. H a w a i i h a s m a n y classic e x a m p l e s of shield v o l c a n o s . Refer to F i g u r e 12.11a.
6. C. Refer to F i g u r e 12.1 I d .
7. B. T h e h i g h e r silica content of rhyolitic lavas results in a m u c h h i g h e r viscosity, w h i c h
favors very thick lava flows or d o m e s . Refer to F i g u r e 12.1 l b .
8. D. Refer to F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 1 .
9 . B . A n d e s i t i c v o l c a n o e s are c o m m o n l y associated with c o n v e r g e n t plate b o u n d a r i e s . Partial m e l t i n g of the s u b d u c t i n g slab or m a t e r i a l s a b o v e the s u b d u c t i n g slab typically generates i n t e r m e d i a t e m a g m a s .
10. B. T h e H a w a i i a n Islands are a chain of v o l c a n o e s g e n e r a t e d as the Pacific plate m o v e s
o v e r a h o t spot in the m a n t l e .
1 1 . D . M a g m a s rich i n silica and dissolved g a s e s c a u s e the m o s t explosive volcanic e r u p t i o n s . I n c r e a s i n g silica c o n t e n t progressively increases the viscosity of the m a g m a .
convergent/subduction
spot
hot
spot
282
M o r e v i s c o u s m a g m a s are m o r e likely to p l u g the throat of a v o l c a n o until pressure

builds up high e n o u g h to c a u s e an explosive eruption.
12. A. Shield v o l c a n o e s are f o r m e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y by basaltic lavas, w h i c h are more fluid
and therefore tend to spread out. C o m p o s i t e v o l c a n o e s are c o n s t r u c t e d predominantly
from i n t e r m e d i a t e and felsic lava flows, d o m e s , and pyroclastic flows. Intermediate and
felsic lavas are m o r e v i s c o u s and form thicker flows than basalt.
14. C. Refer to t e x t b o o k sections on flood basalts and fissure e r u p t i o n s .
15. B. Refer to F i g u r e s 12.10 and 1 2 . 1 1 .
17. B. Refer to the textbook section R e d u c i n g the R i s k s of H a z a r d o u s Volcanoes.
18. A. Basaltic eruptions o c c u r a l o n g the o c e a n i c r i d g e s y s t e m and form the o c e a n crust.
19. A. H o t spots are surface expressions of m a g m a p l u m e s c o m i n g up from the ultramafic
mantle. T h e s e p l u m e s are basaltic in composition. T h e composition of hot-spot volcanism
m a y b e c o m e m o r e felsic if the m a g m a p l u m e rises through continental crust, as it does
under Yellowstone. Hot spots like Hawaii and Yellowstone occur within the middle of
crustal plates. H o t spots are also located along divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s as in Iceland.
2 0 . B. A n d e s i t e s (intermediate m a g m a s ) erupt c o m m o n l y at c o n v e r g e n t plate boundaries
w h e r e o c e a n i c crust is s u b d u c t i n g b e n e a t h continental crust. O n e e x a m p l e of where this
p r o c e s s is h a p p e n i n g today is b e n e a t h the C a s c a d e R a n g e of v o l c a n o e s , w h i c h extends
from n o r t h e r n California t h r o u g h W a s h i n g t o n . M o u n t St. H e l e n s is w i t h i n the Cascades.
2 1 . C . Refer t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 1 .
2 2 . B. If a v o l c a n o is fed by o n e large m a g m a c h a m b e r w i t h o u t any additional injections of
m a g m a from below, then the r e m a i n i n g m e l t i n the m a g m a c h a m b e r b e c o m e s progressively e n r i c h e d in silica and depleted in iron and m a g n e s i u m as the m a g m a solidifies.
Y o u n g e r lava flows are enriched in silica relative to flows that erupted w h e n m o r e of
the m a g m a w a s m o l t e n . With a h i g h e r silica content and a l o w e r iron content, younger
lava flows are less mafic and m o r e v i s c o u s (less fluid).
2 3 . B. Refer to the section L a v a s and O t h e r Volcanic D e p o s i t s in the textbook.
24. B.
Exercise 2: Characteristics of seismic waves

F i g u r e 13.5 and t h e t e x t b o o k section S e i s m i c W a v e s will be helpful.
Characteristic
P (primary) waves
S (secondary) waves
Surface waves
Relative speed
fastest
second
slowest
Motion of material through
compressionalpush/pull
shearing
fastest
rolling/elliptical
sideways
which wave propagates

Medium through which wave
solids
will p r o p a g a t e
liquid
confined to
solids only
the
surface
gas
A n a l o g y with c o m m o n
sound waves
w a v e forms
waves propagation
is
difficult to visualize.
It is
somewhat
to
analogous
ocean waves
the
way cards in a deck of playing

cards slide
over each
other
as you shuffle the deck.
Exercise 3: Factors that amplify the damage caused by an earthquake

F a c t o r s that amplify the d a m a g e c a u s e d by an e a r t h q u a k e follow.
T h e m a g n i t u d e of the e a r t h q u a k e . O b v i o u s l y , a larger m a g n i t u d e e a r t h q u a k e
t e n d s t o b e m o r e destructive, but m a n y other factors b e s i d e s m a g n i t u d e c a n
c o n t r i b u t e to the potential for destruction.
T h e duration of the e a r t h q u a k e . E a r t h q u a k e s that last longer usually cause m o r e
d a m a g e . C o n s i d e r this a n a l o g y : T h e longer you p u s h s o m e o n e on a swing, the
greater the swing b a c k and forward. L i k e w i s e , if structures experience a longer
duration of p u s h e s and pulls by seismic w a v e s , the m o r e they will sway and the
greater the potential for d a m a g e .
T h e g r o u n d acceleration caused by the earthquake. Faster ground acceleration is
likely to cause m o r e d a m a g e . Rapid ground acceleration m a y have contributed
to the destructiveness of the Northridge, California, earthquake in 1994.
D e p t h to t h e focus of the e a r t h q u a k e . T h e energy of seismic w a v e s dissipates
with d i s t a n c e from the focus.
P r o x i m i t y to a c o a s t l i n e w h e r e a t s u n a m i m a y hit. Refer to E a r t h I s s u e 1 3 . 1 .
F i r e s ignited by r u p t u r e d gas and p o w e r lines. T h e fire started d u r i n g the 1906
S a n F r a n c i s c o e a r t h q u a k e c a u s e d far m o r e d a m a g e t o the city t h a n did the
s e i s m i c waves themselves.
L i q u e f a c t i o n of water-rich soils and s e d i m e n t s that are typically associated
with coastal r e g i o n s and d e v e l o p m e n t s . Liquefaction w a s a big factor in the
d a m a g e c a u s e d t o A n c h o r a g e , A l a s k a , d u r i n g the 1964 e a r t h q u a k e .
P r e e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g d e s i g n s and c o d e s for the c o m m u n i t y .
L a n d s l i d e s and u n s t a b l e slopes.
You m a y c o m e u p with other r e a s o n a b l e factors.
and
motions
Earth's
283
284

1. B. Refer to F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 .
2. B. An e a r t h q u a k e p r o p a g a t e s from the focus of the e a r t h q u a k e . T h e epicenter is the
location on the surface directly a b o v e the focus.
3. A. P w a v e s travel fastest and surface w a v e s travel slowest.
4. C. T h r e e . Refer to F i g u r e 13.6.
5. C. T h e R i c h t e r scale m e a s u r e s the a m o u n t of g r o u n d m o t i o n . Refer to F i g u r e 13.7.
6. D. T h e Richter Scale for e a r t h q u a k e m a g n i t u d e is e x p o n e n t i a l . W i t h every unit of
i n c r e a s e in m a g n i t u d e , such as from 4 m a g n i t u d e to 5 m a g n i t u d e , t h e g r o u n d motion
increases by a factor of 10.
7. C. P w a v e s , like sound w a v e s , travel t h r o u g h solids, liquids, and g a s e s .
8. B. S w a v e s travel only t h o u g h solids.
9. B. E a r t h q u a k e s are strongly associated with all active plate tectonic b o u n d a r i e s . Refer
to F i g u r e 13.12 and the text section T h e B i g Picture: E a r t h q u a k e s and Plate Tectonics.
10. B. P r o d u c i n g a seismic risk m a p w o u l d be a first step in e a r t h q u a k e risk assessment.
1 1 . D. Water-saturated stream delta s e d i m e n t s exhibit liquefaction in r e s p o n s e to the shaking from an e a r t h q u a k e .
12. C. 3 0 0 0 k i l o m e t e r s b a s e d on the seismic travel-time c u r v e s in F i g u r e 13.6.
13. C. D e e p - f o c u s e a r t h q u a k e s do not o c c u r in association with divergent b o u n d a r i e s . How
do y o u e x p l a i n this o b s e r v a t i o n ?
14. C. Texas has the l o w e s t s e i s m i c risk c o m p a r e d to the other r e g i o n s listed. S e e Figure
13.18.
15. B. Refer to illustration below. N o t i c e that the arrows are p o i n t i n g w e s t and east to
reflect t h e p u s h i n g and p u l l i n g of the land.
16. Left-lateral strike slip fault
Exercise 3: Evidence for the asthenosphere and its significance

A. L i n e s of e v i d e n c e for the a s t h e n o s p h e r e :
L o w - v e l o c i t y z o n e S e i s m i c w a v e s travel slower t h r o u g h the a s t h e n o s p h e r e t h a n

they do in shallower layers, suggesting that this z o n e m a y be closer to the m e l t ing t e m p e r a t u r e of the r o c k and therefore softer. Refer to F i g u r e s 14.6 and 14.8.
P o s t - g l a c i a l isostatic r e b o u n d I s o s t a t i c adjustments of t h e crust r e q u i r e plastic

flow in s o m e part of the m a n t l e to a c c o u n t for the d i s p l a c e m e n t of the crust by
the m a n t l e as the crust is p u s h e d d o w n by the w e i g h t of the ice. Refer to E a r t h
I s s u e s 14.1 and 2 1 . 1 .
R e d u c t i o n in the frequency and m a g n i t u d e of e a r t h q u a k e s b e t w e e n d e p t h s of 175

and 3 5 0 km w o u l d be explained by a m o r e ductile z o n e that is less likely to
b r e a k , and, if it d o e s b r e a k , it d o e s so with less b u i l d u p of elastic strain energy.
W h e n t h e projected g e o t h e r m a l gradient is lotted with the m e l t i n g - p o i n t c u r v e for

the r o c k t h o u g h t t o b e i n the m a n t l e , the t w o curves converge and a l m o s t touch
at a d e p t h of 100 to 150 k m . This suggests that the r o c k s at this depth, d u e to the
c o m b i n e d effects of t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e , are at or very c l o s e to m e l t i n g .
B. T h e p r e s e n c e of an a s t h e n o s p h e r e m a y be a prerequisite for plate tectonics. T h e soft,

ductile a s t h e n o s p h e r e allows the rigid lithosphere to d e c o u p l e and m o v e i n d e p e n d ently from the m a n t l e . Refer to y o u r w o r k on Practice E x e r c i s e 2 for C h a p t e r 2.

1. C. E a r t h ' s c o r e is a b o u t one-half the r a d i u s of the planet. S e e F i g u r e 14.5: In the illustration, E a r t h ' s center is at 6,000 km depth, and the outer c o r e is at 3,000 km depth.
2. B. Refer to F i g u r e 1.7. T h e o c e a n b a s i n s exist on E a r t h b e c a u s e the o c e a n crust is thinner a n d d e n s e r than t h e c o n t i n e n t a l crust. T h e r e f o r e , the o c e a n crust sits lower.
3. C. Ultramafic or peridotite.
4. B. E a r t h ' s tectonics plates are large fragments of the lithosphere, a rigid layer consisting of t h e crust and u p p e r m o s t m a n t l e .
5. C. C o n t i n e n t a l crust is very h e t e r o g e n e o u s in c o m p o s i t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , its average
c o m p o s i t i o n is felsic to i n t e r m e d i a t e .
6. D. T h e lithosphere is thought to be a rigid layer that rests on a plastic, w e a k asthenosphere.
7. B. S w a v e s do n o t pass t h r o u g h the outer core.
8. C. T h e metallic c o r e h a s the h i g h e s t density.
9. C. E a r t h ' s north m a g n e t i c p o l e is located b e t w e e n G r e e n l a n d and Baffin Island, not at
the E a r t h ' s p o l e of r o t a t i o n t h e N o r t h Pole. Refer to F i g u r e 14.10.
10. C. T h e e l e c t r o - d y n a m o theory explains the E a r t h ' s magnetic field as a c o n s e q u e n c e of
electrical currents m o v i n g in the fluid, metallic outer core. T h e silicate minerals in the
asthenosphere are not nearly as g o o d conductors of electricity. Therefore, the flow of electrical currents and the associated magnetic field are m u c h w e a k e r in the asthenosphere.
1 1 . B. T h e a s t h e n o s p h e r e is t h o u g h t to be a w e a k , plastic z o n e within the u p p e r m a n t l e that
m a y b e partially m e l t e d .
13. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 14.8.
14. C. T h e m a n t l e - c o r e b o u n d a r y is m a r k e d by t h e m o s t significant c h a n g e in c o m p o s i t i o n .
15. A. T h e thickest c o n t i n e n t a l crust on E a r t h lies b e n e a t h the Tibetan plateau, H i m a l a y a n
m o u n t a i n s , and p o r t i o n s of the A n d e s m o u n t a i n s . Refer to F i g u r e 14.7.
17. D .
287
288
18. D. If a significant portion of the l o w e r m a n t l e w e r e m o l t e n , we should see lots m o r e volc a n i c activity on the E a r t h ' s surface in addition to tectonic plate b o u n d a r y v o l c a n i s m .
19. A. S e i s m i c w a v e velocities d e p e n d on the elasticity, rigidity, and density of materials.
T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s d e p e n d on the c o m p o s i t i o n , physical state, and c o m p a c t n e s s of the
a t o m i c structure of the material.
2 0 . C. R e f e r to F i g u r e s 1.12 and 14.13.
2 1 . B. T h e M o h o w a s first detected by an abrupt increase in seismic w a v e velocities d u e to
the c h a n g e from lower-density crustal rocks to the m o r e dense ultramafic rocks within the
mantle.
2 2 . A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 14.9 and E a r t h I s s u e s 14.2.
2 3 . D . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 14.15.
2 4 . A. R e f e r to F i g u r e s 14.1 and 14.2.
2 5 . D . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 14.7.
2 6 . D. Plates are located in the lithosphere. Their motion is driven in part by the force of gravity as cold, heavy crust sinks, dragging the plate behind it. As the plates sink at convergent b o u n d a r i e s , an o p e n i n g is created for hot m a g m a to rise through at the diverging
boundary. T h e driving forces of plate tectonics are manifestations of mantle convection in
the sense that they involve hot matter rising in o n e place and cold matter sinking in another. See C h a p t e r 2, " W h e r e do the plate-driving forces originate? Refer to pages 3 7 - 4 0 .
CHAPTER 15

Exercise 1: Conceptual map/Flowchart of a climate factor
C l i m a t e is a c o m p l e x s y s t e m with m a n y factors potentially influencing it. You m i g h t c h o o s e
o n e of t h e following as a focus for y o u r c o n c e p t u a l flowchart:
H i g h m o u n t a i n s - rain s h a d o w effect
El N i n o -> wet w e a t h e r in the eastern equatorial Pacific
Gulf S t r e a m -> transfers a t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t of heat to n o r t h e r n E u r o p e
E a r t h ' s Orbital ( M i l a n k o v i t c h ) characteristics - * cyclical c h a n g e s i n the a m o u n t
of energy reaching Earth
Volcanic e r u p t i o n injects dust a n d aerosols into a t m o s p h e r e -> i n c r e a s e in
a l b e d o -> E a r t h cools
Volcanic eruption r e l e a s e s t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t s of c a r b o n d i o x i d e gas ->
e n h a n c e d g r e e n h o u s e effect -* E a r t h ' s surface h e a t s up
T h e r e are m a n y other factors.
289
Exercise 2: Release of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels

A . A n increase i n C 0 enhances the g r e e n h o u s e effect and results i n w a r m e r surface condi2
tions. W a r m e r surface conditions increase evaporation rates and m o r e water vapor goes
into the a t m o s p h e r e . M o r e water vapor in the a t m o s p h e r e m a y result in m o r e cloud cover.
B . A n i n c r e a s e i n c l o u d cover m a y p r o d u c e a negative f e e d b a c k b e c a u s e c l o u d cover t y p ically h a s a c o o l i n g effect on surface c o n d i t i o n s . So the i m p a c t of increased c l o u d cover
i s o p p o s i t e t o that o f increasing C 0 i n the a t m o s p h e r e .
2
Exercise 3: Flow of carbon through Earth's systems and reservoirs
Carbon fluxes
Brief description
of flux
Photosynthesis
Carbon is fixed in living
Carbon flows from
and p r e c i p i t a t i o n
organisms,
atmosphere
of c a r b o n a t e s
Sedimentation
which
contribute
to
sediments,
coal,
ultimately
organic
matter
Calcium
and
to produce
carbonate
carbonate,
which
and collect
to form
cement
in
and
rockthe
Less g r e e n h o u s e gas in
the
oceans
into
a t m o s p h e r e results in a
cooling.
lithosphere.
and oil.
combine
help
Climatic impact/
implications
Direction of flux
ions
C a r b o n is d r a w n out to the
Climate
cools.
calcium
a t m o s p h e r e and o c e a n and
Carbon
dioxide
precipitated as s e d i m e n t .
of the
can
precipitate
limestone
other
or
The
rock particles.
oceans
loss
is drawn
and
out
atmosphere.
of CO from
the
oceans will result in a reduction of CO in the atmosphere.

2
Volcanism
CO
is
typically
abundant
gas
volcanic
the
second most
released
C0
is
released from
lithosphere
during
and
eruptions.
into
the
An increase in C0 in the
the
atmosphere
oceans.
atmosphere
enhances
greenhouse
effect
the
Chemical
C0
weathering
minerals
in
rainwater
in
combines
rock to form
with
calcium
Heating,
atmosphere
the
carbonate.
Metamorphism
Carbon flows from
recystallization,
decomposition
of rocks
metamorphism
can
amounts
C0 .
of
and
release
and
oceans
into
from the rocks
into the atmosphere
cools.
environments
Uplift of
high
plateaus
and
mountains
may
enhance
this flux.
Climate
warms.
Increased levels
greenhouse
and
stored in the crust.
atmosphere
oceans.
warms
surface.
Carbon is being drawn out of

surface
flows
(the crust)
large
Climate
the
crust.
Carbon
during
and
Earth's
the
and
to
of C0
enhances
effect,
in
the
the
which
acts
trap heat energy and slow
down the loss of heat to space.

H u m a n activities:
The burning of fossil fuels
C o m b u s t i o n of
releases
fossil fuels
into
the
large
amounts
atmosphere.
of C0
Carbon
2
flows
sphere (coal,
the
oceans
from the lithooil,

and
A n i n c r e a s e i n C 0 i n the
2
and gas) into
a t m o s p h e r e e n h a n c e s the
atmosphere.
g r e e n h o u s e effect and w a r m
the E a r t h ' s surface.
290

1. A. T h e E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e is a b o u t 7 8 % nitrogen g a s . Refer to the t e x t b o o k section
C o m p o n e n t s o f the C l i m a t e S y s t e m o n p a g e 3 4 8 .
2. A. C a r b o n d i o x i d e is transparent to visible light and a b s o r b s h e a t (infrared radiation).
4. B. Refer to the section C a r b o n B u d g e t in y o u r t e x t b o o k .
5. B. Volcanic e r u p t i o n s are not associated with El N i n o events. Refer to Earth Issues 15.2.
6 . A . A s the o c e a n s b e c o m e w a r m e r , c a r b o n d i o x i d e solubility d e c r e a s e s . Therefore, more
c a r b o n d i o x i d e will be released, w h i c h is a positive effect. A positive effect adds carbon
d i o x i d e to the a t m o s p h e r e ; a negative effect subtracts it. Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 4 on page
5 0 1 for m o r e details on the solubility of c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e .
7. C. C a r b o n d i o x i d e is a g r e e n h o u s e g a s .
8. A. T h e g r e e n h o u s e effect significantly influences surface t e m p e r a t u r e s for planets with
atmospheres.
9. C. L i v i n g o r g a n i s m s . K e e p in m i n d the definition of flux: the flow of c h e m i c a l s from
o n e reservoir to another. Refer to F i g u r e 15.14.
10. D . A t p r e s e n t b u r n i n g o f fossil fuel b y h u m a n s c o n t r i b u t e s far m o r e a t m o s p h e r i c carb o n t h a n d o e s d e f o r e s t a t i o n . T h e o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s (plant u p t a k e a n d o c e a n gas
e x c h a n g e ) r e p r e s e n t in p a r t a r e s p o n s e to h u m a n activity. N o r m a l l y t h e r e is a b a l a n c e d
c a r b o n flow b e t w e e n p l a n t s a n d a t m o s p h e r e a n d b e t w e e n o c e a n s a n d a t m o s p h e r e . See
F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 4 . H u m a n activities are d i s r u p t i n g this b a l a n c e , s o t h e c l i m a t e system
r e s p o n d s b y a b s o r b i n g m o r e c a r b o n i n t o t h e o c e a n s a n d i n c r e a s i n g p l a n t production
on land. Refer to Figure 15.15.
1 1 . A. T r o p o s p h e r e . Refer to F i g u r e 15.2.
12. D . Refer t o p a g e s 3 5 0 - 3 5 1 i n the textbook.
13. B . Refer t o F i g u r e 15.3.
14. A. Refer to F i g u r e 15.13 and the section C a r b o n a t e W e a t h e r i n g and Precipitation in the
textbook.
15. A. 0 . 6 C .
16. B. Refer to F i g u r e 15.7 and the text on p a g e 3 5 4 .
17. D. Refer to F i g u r e 15.11 a n d the t e x t b o o k section M i l a n k o v i t c h C y c l e s .
Chapter 16
Exercise 1: Physical and chemical weathering
R e f e r t o Table 16.2 a n d F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 1 .
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292
Exercise 2: Inventory of the different kinds of mass wasting
Kind of mass
wasting
Composition of slope
(consolidated vs. unconsolidated
and wet vs. dry)
Characteristics
Rock avalanche
L a r g e m a s s e s o f rocky materials
Speed: R u n n i n g or a s p e e d i n g a u t o
Slope angle: S t e e p slopes
Triggering event(s): E a r t h q u a k e s
Notes: O c c u r in m o u n t a i n o u s regions w h e r e rock is
w e a k e n e d by weathering, structural deformation, weak
bedding, or cleavage planes
Creep
Speed: Walking
Soil
Slope angle: Any angle

T r i g g e r i n g event(s): N o n e
N o t e s : Influenced by the k i n d of soil, c l i m a t e ,
steepness of slope, and density of v e g e t a t i o n
Earthflows
Soils and fine-grained r o c k materials,

s u c h as shales and clay-rich r o c k s
S p e e d : W a l k i n g or r u n n i n g
Slope a n g l e : Any angle
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): Intense rainfall
Notes:
D e b r i s flow
Fluid-like
movement
S p e e d : R u n n i n g o r s p e e d i n g auto
R o c k fragments s u p p o r t e d by a
S l o p e a n g l e : Any angle
muddy matrix
Triggering event(s): Intense rainfall

Notes: Contains coarser rock materials compared
to earthflows.
Mudflow
Mostly finer
coarser
of
rock
materials
rock debris
with
with
large
some
amounts
Speed:
Speeding
auto
Slope angle: Any angle

T r i g g e r i n g event(s): I n t e n s e rainfall or c a t a s t r o p h i c
water.
melting of ice and snow by a v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n

Notes:
Debris avalanche
Water-saturated
soil
and
rock
Contains
large
amounts
of water
S p e e d : S p e e d i n g auto
Slope angle: Steep
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): E a r t h q u a k e s
Notes: Occurs in humid, mountainous regions
Slump
U n c o n s o l i d a t e d r o c k material
Speed:
Walking or running
S l o p e a n g l e : Any slope
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): Rainfall
N o t e s : D e b r i s slide m o v e s faster than a s l u m p
Solifluction
Surface
layers
of soil
Speed:
Walking
S l o p e a n g l e : Any angle
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): F r e e z e - t h a w
Notes: O c c u r s only in cold r e g i o n s w h e n w a t e r in the
surface layers of the soil alternately freezes and t h a w s ;
water c a n n o t seep into the g r o u n d b e c a u s e d e e p e r layers
are frozen.
Exercise 3: Water's Role in Mass Wasting

Some sample reasonable answers
1. W a t e r lubricates, especially if the g r o u n d is saturated (all p o r e spaces are filled with
w a t e r ) , by r e d u c i n g the internal friction b e t w e e n r o c k particles. In u n c o n s o l i d a t e d r o c k
m a t e r i a l a s m a l l a m o u n t of w a t e r increases surface tension, w h i c h actually helps to
w e a k l y " g l u e " t h e d a m p , l o o s e material together. Too m u c h w a t e r k e e p s the particles
apart a n d a l l o w s t h e m to m o v e freely over o n e another. T h e r e f o r e , saturated sand, in
w h i c h all p o r e spaces are o c c u p i e d by water, runs like a fluid and collapses to a flat p a n c a k e s h a p e (refer to F i g u r e 16.13).
2. W a t e r (hydrostatic) pressure m a y b e c o m e great e n o u g h to separate the grains or p r o m o t e
the slippage of b e d s past o n e another. Refer to the textbook section Water Content.
3. W a t e r is a m a j o r a g e n t in p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g , w h i c h p r o m o t e s m a s s wasting. W e a t h e r i n g p r o m o t e s m a s s w a s t i n g b y c h e m i c a l l y and physically w e a k e n i n g rock.
4. F r e e z i n g and t h a w i n g are t w o specific roles that w a t e r plays in c a u s i n g solifluction, a
k i n d o f m a s s m o v e m e n t . Refer t o t h e t e x t b o o k section U n c o n s o l i d a t e d M a s s M o v e m e n t s . U n d e r c u t t i n g and o v e r s t e e p e n i n g of hillslopes by e r o s i o n is another w a y w a t e r
e n h a n c e s m a s s w a s t i n g . F l o w i n g w a t e r in rivers and frozen w a t e r in glaciers are p o w erful a g e n t s of erosion. Rivers typically e r o d e on the outside of river b e n d s . E r o s i o n can
u n d e r c u t and o v e r s t e e p e n the riverbank and adjacent hillslope.
5 . W a t e r - s a t u r a t e d r o c k m a t e r i a l s rich i n c l a y s o r l o o s e s a n d m a y b e t r a n s f o r m e d into
fluid slurries by a p r o c e s s called liquefaction. R e f e r to t h e t e x t b o o k section T r i g g e r s
for M a s s M o v e m e n t s .
Exercise 4: Evaluation of slope stability

A. P o s s i b l e factors that e n h a n c e the potential for mass m o v e m e n t at the homesite shown
T h e h o u s e is built on a cut-and-fill foundation: the h o u s e is built partly on a cut into

t h e b e d r o c k of t h e slope and partly on the gravel fill derived from the cut. A cut-andfill f o u n d a t i o n is particularly susceptible to slope failure b e c a u s e the material that
h a s b e e n b u l l d o z e d into p l a c e is very l o o s e .
T h e h o u s e and a s s o c i a t e d p o s s e s s i o n s add w e i g h t to the slope.
W a t e r i n g t h e l a w n will e n h a n c e the potential for slope failure.
T h e p r e s e n c e of a spring indicates that the slope b e n e a t h the h o u s e is saturated with

water. W a t e r adds w e i g h t to the slope and acts as a lubricant.
Traffic on t h e r o a d b e l o w the h o u s e adds w e i g h t and creates vibrations in the g r o u n d ,

w h i c h m a y c o m p r o m i s e slope stability.
T h e s l o p e consists of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s that h a v e a dip parallel to t h e slope. B e d d i n g p l a n e s are z o n e s of w e a k n e s s within t h e s e layers increasing the potential for
slope failure.
T h e orientation of t h e r o c k fabric w i t h i n the slope e n h a n c e s the potential for slope

failure. S h a l e is an especially soft and w e a k s e d i m e n t a r y rock. S l o p e failure is likely to o c c u r a l o n g t h e shale layer that dips parallel to the slope. E v e n the foliation
within t h e g n e i s s i c b e d r o c k parallels the hillslope. P l a n e s of w e a k n e s s w i t h i n a r o c k
typically o c c u r parallel to t h e r o c k ' s textural fabric.
If the slope w a s undercut by the road builders, the slope stability will be c o m p r o m i s e d .
B. T h i s is an inherently u n s t a b l e slope. A slope o r d i n a n c e p r o b a b l y should have restricted

b u i l d i n g on this slope. H o w e v e r , given that the h o u s e is already there, h e r e are s o m e
r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o a c h e s to d e c r e a s i n g the risk for slope failure.
D o n ' t w a t e r the lawn, or r e p l a c e the l a w n with a g r o u n d c o v e r that r e q u i r e s no

w a t e r i n g and sends d o w n d e e p r o o t s .
D r a i n w a t e r from the slope a b o v e and from t h e roof a w a y from the gravel fill
b e n e a t h the h o u s e .
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294
At s o m e e x p e n s e , r o c k bolts c o u l d be installed to h e l p stabilize r o c k layers.
M a i n t a i n a g o o d c o v e r of vegetation on the slope a b o v e and b e l o w the h o u s e .
Put in a retaining wall along the road b e l o w the h o u s e and be sure that the wall does
not restrict the d r a i n a g e of water out of the slope.

1. D. O x y g e n is the principal c h e m i c a l a g e n t for oxidation r e a c t i o n s . W a t e r is the universal solvent, and c a r b o n d i o x i d e c o m b i n e s with w a t e r to form c a r b o n i c acid. All three
play an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g . N i t r o g e n gas o c c u r s as a m o l e c u l e of
t w o a t o m s of nitrogen. T h e nitrogen m o l e c u l e is relatively n o n r e a c t i v e .
2. A. Silica in solution, iron oxides, and clay minerals are all products of c h e m i c a l weathering. F e l d s p a r is a f r a m e w o r k silicate m i n e r a l , w h i c h crystallized from m a g m a .
3. D. T h e w e a t h e r i n g p r o d u c t s of m a n y silicate m i n e r a l s i n c l u d e clay. H o w e v e r , quartz is
p u r e silicon d i o x i d e and is relatively resistant to w e a t h e r i n g . W h e r e c h e m i c a l weathering is i n t e n s e , as in the tropics, even quartz will dissolve.
4. C. L i m e s t o n e and the calcium carbonate c e m e n t of the sandstone are very susceptible to
dissolution reactions in w e t climates but are m o r e resistant to weathering in dry climates.
Shale is a soft sedimentary rock m a d e from c o m p a c t e d clay and typically weathers rapidly. A silica-cemented quartz sandstone might be as resistant to weathering as granite.
5. A. R u s t y streaks r e p r e s e n t the oxidation of i r o n - b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s . T h e other a n s w e r s are
e x a m p l e s of physical w e a t h e r i n g .
6. B. Rainfall is naturally acidic due to carbonic acid, w h i c h forms w h e n c a r b o n dioxide
from the a t m o s p h e r e dissolves in water. Water passing through soils rich in organic matter dissolves additional carbon dioxide from the decay of the organic matter and b e c o m e s
m o r e acidic.
7. A. Refer to F i g u r e 16.4 in y o u r textbook.
8. D. Table 16.2 s h o w s that calcite, the major m i n e r a l in l i m e s t o n e , is very soluble in wet
conditions.
9. A. Refer to F i g u r e s 16.5 and 16.6.
10. A. Refer to T h e R o l e of Water in W e a t h e r i n g : F e l d s p a r a n d O t h e r Silicates on textbook
pages 3 7 4 - 3 7 5 .
1 1 . C. C h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is m o s t intense in hot and w e t r e g i o n s .
12. B. Soil gases can be rich in c a r b o n d i o x i d e released by the d e c a y of o r g a n i c m a t t e r and
life p r o c e s s e s . W a t e r percolating d o w n t h r o u g h soils rich in o r g a n i c m a t t e r b e c o m e s
m o r e acidic as it dissolves the carbon d i o x i d e in soil g a s . I n c r e a s e d acidity of the water
e n h a n c e s c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g reactions.
13. D. Relative to other silicate minerals, olivine is very susceptible to chemical weathering. Its
simple (less polymerized) silicate crystal structure of single tetrahedra bonded with cations
of iron and/or m a g n e s i u m is easily attacked by chemical agents. Refer to Table 16.1.
14. C. Pollution and gases from volcanic e r u p t i o n s c o m b i n e with rainfall to e n h a n c e the
r a i n ' s acidity. Before air pollution controls, rainfall in s o m e r e g i o n s of the U n i t e d States
w a s a s acid a s l e m o n j u i c e . A c i d s are powerful c h e m i c a l a g e n t s . C h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g
is greatly e n h a n c e d by increasing the acidity of water.
15. D. As t h e c a r b o n a t e c e m e n t dissolves, the quartz sand grains will fall away from the
r o c k surface, but w e a t h e r i n g will have little i m p a c t on the quartz grains t h e m s e l v e s .
Q u a r t z is a very stable m i n e r a l on the E a r t h ' s surface. Refer to Tables 16.1 and 16.2.
16. C. Soil fertility d e p e n d s on the availability of mineral n u t r i e n t s , w h i c h are r e l e a s e d
b y c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g from r o c k - f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s . W h e n c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g i s
very slow, nutrients r e m a i n tied up in the silicate minerals within the r o c k and are not
easily e x t r a c t e d by plant roots. In regions w h e r e c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is intense, m o s t
of the m i n e r a l nutrients are w a s h e d out of t h e soil. T h e r e f o r e , fertile soils form w h e r e
w e a t h e r i n g o c c u r s a t m o d e r a t e rates. T h e p a r e n t r o c k i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t influence o n
soil fertility. W e a k soils d e v e l o p e d on quartz s a n d s t o n e are likely to be n u t r i e n t - p o o r
b e c a u s e quartz is p u r e silicon dioxide and lacks vital mineral nutrients such as potassium,
c a l c i u m , iron, or m a g n e s i u m for plant g r o w t h .
17. D. G r a n i t e is c o m p o s e d mostly of feldspars and quartz. C l a y m i n e r a l s are a major p r o d uct of t h e c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g of feldspar. Q u a r t z is very resistant to w e a t h e r i n g .
18. T h e s a n d s t o n e o b e l i s k deteriorated so q u i c k l y after b e i n g m o v e d from E g y p t to N e w
York City b e c a u s e the c l i m a t e in N e w York is significantly wetter than the c l i m a t e in
E g y p t . As naturally acidic rain dissolves the c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e c e m e n t , the surface of
the s a n d s t o n e deteriorates. O t h e r factors that m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to the e n h a n c e d
w e a t h e r i n g of the obelisk include acid rain g e n e r a t e d by air pollution and frost w e d g ing, s i n c e freeze/thaw c o n d i t i o n s are c o m m o n in N e w York during the winter.
19. A. Site D m a y h a v e t h e best view of the shoreline and site B the b e s t o c e a n view, but
site A is on t h e m o s t stable g r o u n d .
2 0 . B. M a s s m o v e m e n t s o c c u r w h e n the force of gravity e x c e e d s the strength of the slope
materials.
2 1 . A. U n d e r c u t t i n g by a river or w a v e s will o v e r s t e e p e n a hillslope and e n h a n c e the p o t e n tial for s l o p e failure. S i n c e w a t e r c a n act as a lubricant and also adds w e i g h t to the slope
m a t e r i a l s , d r a i n i n g the slope will r e d u c e the w e i g h t of the slope material and increase
friction, t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g the potential for slope failure.
2 2 . C. Talus refers to the b l o c k s of r o c k that collect at the b a s e of a steep slope or cliff.
2 3 . D. T h e a n g l e of r e p o s e for m o s t l o o s e sands is a b o u t 3 5 . T h e a n g l e of r e p o s e varies
significantly w i t h a n u m b e r of factors, o n e of w h i c h is the size of the particles (refer to
F i g u r e 16.13).
2 4 . B. B e d d i n g , j o i n t p l a n e s , or a foliation fabric all are potential p l a n e s of w e a k n e s s within r o c k . T h e orientation of any of t h e s e fabrics parallel to the hillslope c o m p r o m i s e s
s l o p e stability (refer to F i g u r e 16.13).
25. C. Refer to Figure 16.13.
2 6 . A. Solifluction is a result of r e p e a t e d freezing and t h a w i n g .
2 7 . C. D r a i n i n g the w a t e r from the l a n d s l i d e area w o u l d h e l p to r e d u c e the w e i g h t of the
s l o p e m a t e r i a l s and r e d u c e the potential lubricating effects of water.
2 8 . D. B e d d i n g planes, j o i n t planes, and textural fabrics like foliation are zones of w e a k n e s s
w i t h i n r o c k . If they parallel the hillslope, the potential for slope failure is e n h a n c e d .
2 9 . B . Refer t o the section U n c o n s o l i d a t e d M a s s M o v e m e n t s o n p a g e 3 8 6 i n y o u r textbook.
30. D . T h e b a r r e n s l o p e s left b y t h e w i l d f i r e s will e n h a n c e t h e p o t e n t i a l for all t h e h a z a r d s listed.
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CHAPTER 17

Exercise 1: Evaluating rock materials as potential aquifers
Rock material
Potential as an aquifer
(good, moderate, poor)
Porosity (high,
medium, low)
L o o s e , well-sorted, c o a r s e sand
High
Good
Silt and clay
Low
Poor
Granite and gneiss
L o w I n t e r l o c k i n g grains
Poor
of silicate minerals provide for little p o r e s p a c e .

H i g h l y fractured granite
MediumFracturing
can
Moderate
significantly increase
p o r e s p a c e and i m p r o v e
Permeability.
Sandstone
MediumThe
cement
that
Moderate to good
h o l d s the sand grains

together r e d u c e s p o r e s p a c e .
Nevertheless, sandstones
are typically g o o d aquifers.
L o w F r a c t u r i n g will i n c r e a s e
Shale
Poor
p o r e s p a c e but p e r m e a b i l i t y
m a y still r e m a i n low. Shales are
typically a q u i c l u d e s .
Highly jointed limestone
M e d i u m F r a c t u r i n g and the
Moderate
to
good
formation of a cavern s y s t e m
w i t h i n the l i m e s t o n e c a n
greatly e n h a n c e the porosity
and p e r m e a b i l i t y of l i m e s t o n e s .
C a v e r n s serve as an o p e n
p l u m b i n g s y s t e m for g r o u n d w a t e r .
Exercise 2: Evaluating groundwater wells

Well A p o t e n t i a l for
1. p o l l u t i o n H i g h , b e c a u s e t h e w a t e r table slopes t o w a r d w e l l A, and u p s l o p e is the outh o u s e . T h e c o n e of d e p r e s s i o n p r o d u c e d by p u m p i n g well A e n h a n c e s the potential for
p o l l u t i o n by creating a larger gradient in the w a t e r table b e t w e e n well A and the outhouse.
2. artesian f l o w N o n e . Well A will exhibit no artesian flow b e c a u s e the aquifer is neither
confined n o r sloping.
3. d i s c h a r g e H i g h , b e c a u s e the aquifer is a p o r o u s and p e r m e a b l e s a n d s t o n e of large volu m e and w e l l A is drilled d e e p into t h e aquifer.
Well B p o t e n t i a l for
4 . p o l l u t i o n L o w , a s s u m i n g that the h o u s e d o e s not r e l e a s e p o l l u t a n t s , b e c a u s e the water
table slopes a w a y from well B and the o u t h o u s e is lower. T h e c o n e of d e p r e s s i o n around
w e l l B is small and not an issue.
5. artesian f l o w N o n e . Well B will exhibit no artesian flow b e c a u s e the aquifer is neither
confined n o r sloping.
6. d i s c h a r g e P o t e n t i a l l y h i g h , as l o n g as the w a t e r table d o e s not lower.
7. l o n g - t e r m s u p p l y L o w . B e c a u s e well B is shallow, a lowering of the w a t e r table, d u e

to a c h a n g e in c l i m a t e or d u e to p u m p i n g from wells A and B at rates that e x c e e d
r e c h a r g e , c o u l d c o m p r o m i s e the productivity o f well B .
Well C p o t e n t i a l for
8. p o l l u t i o n L o w , b e c a u s e there is no s o u r c e of pollution s h o w n for the confined sands t o n e aquifer.
9. a r t e s i a n f l o w H i g h , b e c a u s e the aquifer for w e l l C is a tilted and confined layer of
s a n d s t o n e and the r e c h a r g e area for the aquifer appears to be h i g h e r in elevation than
the t o p of the well.
10. d i s c h a r g e H i g h , b e c a u s e with h i g h m o u n t a i n s t o the east there s h o u l d b e g o o d
r e c h a r g e of this artesian aquifer. T h e shale layers a b o v e and b e l o w the sandstone confine
the p o r o u s and p e r m e a b l e s a n d s t o n e and thereby allow for the d e v e l o p m e n t of significant w a t e r p r e s s u r e within the aquifer. Refer to F i g u r e 17.10.
Answers to Review Question

L B . E v a p o r a t i o n from t h e o c e a n s i s m o r e than six times that from the land surface. Refer
to F i g u r e 17.2.
2. D. P o l a r ice c a p s and glaciers c o n t a i n a b o u t 2 . 9 7 % of all w a t e r on Earth. T h i s is t h e seco n d largest reservoir for water. Refer to F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 .
3. A. Refer to Figure 17.1.
4. C. R o c k particles typically c a n c o m p a c t m o r e efficiently as grain size d e c r e a s e s , w h i c h
r e d u c e s porosity and permeability. Refer to F i g u r e 17.7 and Table 17.2.
5 . B . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 17.8.
6. C. P e r m e a b i l i t y is t h e ability of a solid to allow fluids to p a s s t h r o u g h it. Generally, but
not a l w a y s , p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s as porosity increases. P e r m e a b i l i t y also d e p e n d s on
t h e sizes of the p o r e s , h o w w e l l they are c o n n e c t e d , and h o w tortuous a path the w a t e r
m u s t travel to p a s s t h r o u g h the material.
7. A. A stalactite h o l d s " t i g h t " to the ceiling.
Memory Tip
You can easily r e m e m b e r the difference b e t w e e n a stalactite and a stalagmite b e c a u s e
stalactites hold " t i g h t " to the ceiling and stalagmites " m i g h t " reach the ceiling of a cave.
8. C. C a r b o n a t e r o c k s , like l i m e s t o n e , are susceptible to dissolution. A w e t c l i m a t e favors

cave formation.
9. D. An aquifer is a r o c k that will yield a g o o d flow of g r o u n d w a t e r .
10. C. Refer to t h e section W a t e r D e e p in the C r u s t in C h a p t e r 17.
1 1 . D . S h a l e s are typically a q u i c l u d e s .
12. D . P o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y b o t h influence h o w m u c h w a t e r a n aquifer c a n p r o d u c e .
P o r o s i t y r e p r e s e n t s the total a m o u n t of p o r e space in w h i c h g r o u n d w a t e r c a n be stored.
P e r m e a b i l i t y is linked to porosity and r e p r e s e n t s the ability of w a t e r to flow t h r o u g h the
rock. S o m e shales and lava flows have moderate to high porosity but very low permeability b e c a u s e the pore spaces are not interconnected. S o m e rocks, like granite, are m o d e r ately p e r m e a b l e b e c a u s e of extensive fracturing. H o w e v e r , their porosity m a y be low
b e c a u s e the fracturing is very tight.
13. B . L o o s e sand typically exhibits h i g h porosity and p e r m e a b i l i t y b e c a u s e t h e r o u n d sand
g r a i n s c a n n o t p a c k t o g e t h e r very efficiently. Refer to F i g u r e 17.7.
14. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 1 .
15. B. R i v e r s that flow c o n t i n u o u s l y are fed by springs from a shallow g r o u n d w a t e r table
that intersects the stream c h a n n e l . Refer to F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 1 .
16. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 17.10.
297
298

18. B. S a n d a n d gravel typically exhibit a high porosity and permeability.
19. D. S a n d s t o n e s are typically g o o d aquifers. S i n c e w a t e r flows d o w n h i l l , it t e n d s to collect and r e c h a r g e aquifers located b e n e a t h t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y low spots like valleys.
2 0 . B. T h e c o n e of depression a r o u n d well B has l o w e r e d the w a t e r table e n o u g h that effluent l e a c h e d from the o u t h o u s e will flow t o w a r d w e l l B even t h o u g h the t o p o g r a p h y
slopes t o w a r d the river. Refer to F i g u r e s 17.12 and 17.20.
2 1 . B. Well B will be the m o s t p r o d u c t i v e w a t e r well b e c a u s e it taps into a larger s a n d s t o n e
aquifer. Well A is not likely to be p r o d u c t i v e since it b o t t o m s out in a shale that typically has very low permeability. Well C will yield w a t e r since it b o t t o m s out in the sandstone a b o v e a shale unit that creates a p e r c h e d w a t e r table. T h e v o l u m e of w a t e r from
w e l l C will be limited.
2 2 . C. Refer to F i g u r e 17.14.
2 3 . A. T h e spring is least likely to be c o n t a m i n a t e d by t h e o u t h o u s e b e c a u s e it is p r o d u c e d
from a p e r c h e d w a t e r table well a b o v e and i n d e p e n d e n t of the aquifer that is affected
by the pollutants from the o u t h o u s e .
24. C. h/1 for A = 0.04, B = 0 . 0 3 , C = 0 . 0 5 , and D = 0 . 0 0 6 .
CHAPTER 18

Exercise 1: Stream velocity
Variable affecting
stream velocity
Relationship of variable to
stream velocity
G r a d i e n t t h e slope
A s g r a d i e n t d e c r e a s e s , stream velocity d e c r e a s e s .
You tend to walk faster down a
of the s t r e a m c h a n n e l
Velocity is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the gradient.
steeper
Analogy
slope.
N o t e : In h e a d w a t e r s of s t r e a m s (in the m o u n t a i n s
w h e r e gradient is h i g h e s t ) , other factors ( d e c r e a s e d
d i s c h a r g e and i n c r e a s e d c h a n n e l r o u g h n e s s )
will c o u n t e r t h e effect of the h i g h gradient.
Dischargethe amount
A s d i s c h a r g e increases, s t r e a m velocity
Will you move into a new house slower
of w a t e r in the s t r e a m
i n c r e a s e s . Velocity is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
or faster
discharge.
helping
you?faster.
As the availability of s e d i m e n t i n c r e a s e s , the
Typically,
will you
s t r e a m velocity will d e c r e a s e .
slower if you
N o t e : Various factors, s u c h as the b e d r o c k , a

landslide, erosion of soil from a b u r n e d area, and
c o n s t r u c t i o n , c a n influence the availability of
s e d i m e n t load.
your
channel
if you
have
more people
N o t e : Surprisingly large objects c a n m o v e

a river d u r i n g a flood.
S e d i m e n t load
are
travel faster or
carrying
more
in
backpack?slower.
C h a n n e l characteristics
Channel roughness
As
will
Channel shape
channel
roughness
increases,
velocity
Cross-country
hiking
without
trail
tends to slow one down.
decrease.
The stream has more contact with the channel
When you have more contact with
surface if the channel shape is very wide or
ground surface,
very narrow.
More
contact with the
Crawling
will
drag
and decrease
increase
channel
velocity.
is
you
slower
move
than
slower.
walking.
the
299
Exercise 2: Relationship between stream flow and groundwater

S t r e a m s in desert regions typically flow intermittently, and s t r e a m s in m o r e t e m p e r a t e
regions, like N e w E n g l a n d , flow year-round, b e c a u s e effluent streams are fed by springs from
a water table that intersects the stream channel. T h e water table is well b e l o w the c h a n n e l of an
influent stream, w h i c h flows in r e s p o n s e to rainfall but quickly dries up as runoff from a storm
decreases. Infiltration of stream flow into the channel b o t t o m sediments m a y help to recharge
the groundwater table beneath the channel.
Exercise 3: How do rivers cut through mountain ranges?

T w o w a y s a river can cut t h r o u g h a t o p o g r a p h y obstruction like a m o u n t a i n r a n g e :
A . A n t e c e d e n c e , w h e r e the river existed before the p r e s e n t t o p o g r a p h y w a s c r e a t e d
and m a i n t a i n e d its original c o u r s e despite c h a n g e s in t h e u n d e r l y i n g r o c k s and
topography
B. S u p e r p o s i t i o n , w h e r e the river w a s established at a h i g h e r level on a u n i f o r m surface before e r o d i n g d o w n and s u p e r i m p o s i n g itself on a b u r i e d g e o l o g i c structure,
like an anticline

1. B. G r a v i t y is t h e force that drives w a t e r d o w n hill.
2. B. D i s c h a r g e is the v o l u m e (typically m e a s u r e d in c u b i c feet or m e t e r s ) of w a t e r flowing p a s t a p o i n t on the stream c h a n n e l for a given interval of t i m e (typically s e c o n d s ) .
3. A. Velocity is directly p r o p o r t i o n a l to gradient. An increase in slope increases velocity
if all other factors do not c o u n t e r the c h a n g e in slope.
4. B. S t r e a m velocity is the m o s t i m p o r t a n t variable d e t e r m i n i n g the b e h a v i o r of a stream.
5. A. T h e c h a n g e in elevation w a s 2 0 0 feet over the 2 0 0 m i l e s c a n o e d . 2 0 0 feet / 2 0 0 miles
= 1 foot per m i l e .
6. B. Refer to F i g u r e 18.7 (3).
7. A. S t r e a m c o m p e t e n c y is a m e a s u r e of the size of particles a s t r e a m c a n transport.
S t r e a m capacity is a m e a s u r e of the a m o u n t of s e d i m e n t load a s t r e a m c a n transport.
8. B. C o a r s e r particles, like p e b b l e s , settle out before sand and silt.
9. B. T h e outer b a n k a r o u n d a m e a n d e r is m u c h m o r e likely to be e r o d e d b e c a u s e s t r e a m
velocity is fastest a r o u n d the outside of the m e a n d e r i n g c h a n n e l w h e r e w a t e r d e p t h is
greater. On the inside of a m e a n d e r , water d e p t h is lower, velocity slows, and t h e s t r e a m
is m o r e likely to deposit s e d i m e n t and form a p o i n t bar. Refer to F i g u r e 18.3.
10. C. An increase in rainfall or in stream gradient or a l o w e r i n g in b a s e level i n c r e a s e the
s t r e a m ' s velocity and give the stream r e n e w e d ability to d o w n c u t . Typically, the stream
e n t r e n c h e s its c h a n n e l along its preexisting m e a n d e r i n g c o u r s e .
1 1 . C. Refer to F i g u r e 18.24.
12. C. R e g u l a r addition of s e d i m e n t load is likely to c a u s e the stream velocity in t h e d i s turbed stretch to d e c r e a s e d u e to the i n c r e a s e d availability of l o a d and a r e d u c e d g r a d i ent. A r e d u c t i o n in velocity m a y i n d u c e deposition.
13. D. T h e net effect of straightening out the river c h a n n e l by cutting off a m e a n d e r b e n d
is to i n c r e a s e the gradient of the stream c h a n n e l in the cutoff section. An i n c r e a s e in gradient will result in an increase in velocity and i n c r e a s e d potential for c h a n n e l erosion.
14. D. A 50-year flood event has a 2% chance of occurring in any year over a 50-year period.
15. D . T h i s m a y surprise y o u , but stream velocity typically increases d o w n s t r e a m . T h e
reduction of s t r e a m gradient is c o u n t e r e d by the increase in d i s c h a r g e f r o m tributary
c h a n n e l s . T h e lazy old Mississippi River r u n s faster p a s t V i c k s b u r g , M i s s i s s i p p i , t h a n
u p s t r e a m at St. L o u i s , M i s s o u r i .
300
16. C. A l o w e r i n g of b a s e level increases the stream gradient, giving the s t r e a m r e n e w e d

ability to e r o d e and transport r o c k material. E r o s i o n will b e g i n in the vicinity of the
change.
17. B. Refer to F i g u r e 18.25 and associated text. A n s w e r s A a n d C are incorrectly stated
b e c a u s e velocity w o u l d d e c r e a s e with a d e c r e a s e in gradient, and an i n c r e a s e in disc h a r g e w o u l d result in erosion, not deposition.
18. D. C h o i c e s A - C are all possible results of regional uplift, w h i c h w o u l d raise the headw a t e r s o f the d r a i n a g e s y s t e m , w h i c h w o u l d increase s t r e a m g r a d i e n t and e n h a n c e the
potential for s t r e a m erosion. S e e F i g u r e s 18.2 and 18.26.
19. A. H o u s e A is located on the outside of a m e a n d e r b e n d , w h i c h is m o s t susceptible to
b a n k erosion. Refer to F i g u r e 18.3.
CHAPTER 19
Answer to Practice Exercise

Exercise: Sand dune types
Dune type
Characteristics
Sand supply
Wind direction/strength
Barchan
C r e s c e n t - s h a p e d with a r m s p o i n t i n g
Limited
Unidirectional/strong
Abundant
Unidirectional/strong
d o w n w i n d . Slip face is a c o n c a v e
curve advancing downwind.
Transverse
L o n g , w a v y ridges oriented at right

a n g l e s to the prevailing w i n d
Blowout
C r e s c e n t - s h a p e d with a r m s p o i n t i n g
Limited to
moderate
Unidirectional/gusty
u p w i n d (into the w i n d ) . Slip face forms

a convex curve advancing downwind.
Linear
L o n g , straight ridges m o r e or less parallel
( S e e F i g u r e 19.8.)
to g e n e r a l direction of wind.
Moderate
Variable direction/
m o d e r a t e t o strong

1. D. Refer to F i g u r e 19.1 and the text section W i n d Belts.
2. A. R i s i n g air is characteristic of equatorial latitudes w h e r e t h e s u n ' s radiation is m o r e
c o n c e n t r a t e d . As the air rises, it cools and releases a b u n d a n t rainfall typical of tropical
r e g i o n s . T h e other three a n s w e r s all contribute to desert c o n d i t i o n s .
3. D. Refer to F i g u r e 1 9 . 1 1 .
4 . D . Refer t o F i g u r e 19.11 and the text section H o w S a n d D u n e s F o r m and M o v e .
5. C. Refer to F i g u r e 19.18. B e c a u s e it is so flat and s m o o t h , a p l a y a (dried lake b e d ) in
the M o j a v e D e s e r t east of L o s A n g e l e s is a regular l a n d i n g site for s p a c e shuttles.
6. A. L o e s s is fine w i n d - b l o w n dust.
8. B. Silt a n d clay are c a r r i e d in s u s p e n s i o n . S a n d is t y p i c a l l y t r a n s p o r t e d by saltation,
s l i d i n g , and r o l l i n g .
9. B. Refer to F i g u r e 19.1 and the text section W i n d B e l t s .
10. D. T h e a r m s of the barchan point d o w n w i n d . Since the wind is blowing from south to north,
the a r m s are pointing north and the town is in the opposite direction.
1 1 . B (south). T h e a r m s of blowout d u n e s point into the w i n d (upwind). Since the wind b l o w s
inland from t h e coast, the a r m s of the d u n e point to the b e a c h .
12. D. All the a n s w e r s are a p p r o p r i a t e .
13. desert varnish. Refer to F i g u r e 19.16.
CHAPTER 2 0

Exercise 1: Profile from the shoreline to the ocean floor
Exercise 2: Passive versus active continental margins

A passive m a r g i n is a continental b o r d e r l a n d far from an active plate boundary. In contrast,
active m a r g i n s are a s s o c i a t e d with s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s and transform faults. T h e volcanic activity and frequent e a r t h q u a k e s give these n a r r o w and tectonically d e f o r m e d c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s
their n a m e . C o n t i n e n t a l s h e l v e s are b r o a d and relatively flat at passive continental m a r g i n s
a n d are n a r r o w a n d u n e v e n at active m a r g i n s .
A. passive
B. passive
C . active ( s u b d u c t i o n / c o n v e r g e n t plate b o u n d a r y )
D . passive
E.
active
F.
passive

1. C. T h e w i n d g e n e r a t e s m o s t of the w a v e s in the o c e a n s .
2. C. T h e e d g e of the c o n t i n e n t is rarely if ever the shoreline. T h e e d g e is the continental
s l o p e a n d rise, w h i c h m a y be h u n d r e d s of k i l o m e t e r s from the shoreline.
3. A. M a f i c v o l c a n i s m at the o c e a n i c spreading centers generates n e w o c e a n crust.
301
302
4. D. Wave refraction is the tendency of a w a v e to b e n d into the shoreline it approaches.

W a v e s b e n d a s t h e w a v e b o t t o m " d r a g s " o n the s h a l l o w i n g b o t t o m before t h e shoreline,
s l o w i n g that portion o f the w a v e d o w n . S e e F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 .
5 . A . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 20. I d and p a g e s 4 8 7 ^ 1 8 8 .
6. A. Mafic v o l c a n i s m at divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s g e n e r a t e s the basaltic seafloor crust,
w h i c h is, over t i m e , b u r i e d in p e l a g i c s e d i m e n t s .
7. A. S e a m o u n t s are extinct s u b m a r i n e v o l c a n o e s m a d e m o s t l y of basalt.
8. B. Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . I d .
9. D. 4 0 0 0 to 6 0 0 0 m e t e r s is the depth of the abyssal o c e a n floor.
10. A. T h e sea level a p p e a r s to be rising a b o u t 4 m i l l i m e t e r s p e r year.
1 1 . A . Turbidity c u r r e n t s , often triggered b y e a r t h q u a k e s , p l u n g e d o w n t h e continental
slopes. T h e y are flowing m a s s e s of turbid m u d s s u s p e n d e d in water, d e n s e r than the
clear w a t e r a b o v e t h e m . S e e F i g u r e 2 0 . 1 6 ,
12. A. Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . 3 .
13. C. T h e groin will b l o c k t h e drift of sand p a s t y o u r b e a c h in the surf z o n e . R o b b e d of a
c o n t i n u o u s supply of sand, l o n g s h o r e currents will carry sand from y o u r property,
w h i c h will not be replenished by the sand supply up current. Your s a n d y b e a c h is likely
to d i s a p p e a r in a few y e a r s .
14. B. W a v e e n e r g y is focused on p o i n t s and h e a d l a n d s by w a v e refraction.
15. C . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 0 . 1 2 illustrating the sand b u d g e t t h e d y n a m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n
i n p u t s a n d outputs of sand a l o n g the shoreline.
16. A. R i p currents are g e n e r a t e d by rapidly m o v i n g b a c k f l o w s and r u n p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the
b e a c h . T h e r e f o r e , the best w a y to e s c a p e f r o m the grip of a rip tide is to s w i m parallel
t o t h e b e a c h , u n l e s s y o u are u p for s o m e l o n g - d i s t a n c e s w i m m i n g .
17. C. Reef-forming corals require sunlight to grow and do not thrive in water m u c h deeper
t h a n 20 m e t e r s . T h e r e f o r e atolls begin as fringing reefs a r o u n d a v o l c a n i c island. O v e r
t i m e , as the volcanic island slowly subsides, the coral reef g r o w s u p w a r d , m a i n t a i n i n g
a shallow m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t . Refer to F i g u r e 5.18 and E a r t h I s s u e s 5 . 1 .
18. C . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 .
19. A. Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 .
20. C. Turbidity currents (flows) are a g e n t s of e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n of s e d i m e n t a l o n g the
c o n t i n e n t a l slope a n d adjacent o c e a n floor. Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . 1 6 .
2 1 . T h e l o n g s h o r e current will flow parallel to the b e a c h in the surf z o n e and to t h e left,
since the w a v e s are c o m i n g in at an a n g l e from t h e l o w e r right. T h e best a n s w e r has the
arrow c l o s e to t h e beachfront in the surface z o n e . S e e F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 .
22. A. Refer to F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 4 .
CHAPTER 21

Exercise 1: The glacially sculpted landscape
T h e text section Glacial L a n d s c a p e s and F i g u r e s 2 1 . 1 7 , 2 1 . 1 8 , and 2 1 . 1 9 will b e very helpful
for c o m p l e t i n g t h e brief descriptions of glacial features. A list of p o s s i b l e glacial features that
m i g h t be f o u n d a n d interpreted by a seasonal r a n g e r i n c l u d e t h e following.
F e a t u r e s f o r m e d b y t h e erosive p o w e r o f glacial ice
S t r i a t i o n s s c r a t c h e s and g r o o v e s c a r v e d in b e d r o c k over w h i c h t h e glacier flowed.
Cirque
U - s h a p e d valley
H a n g i n g valley
Fjord
Arete
Glacial features f o r m e d by deposition of r o c k material by glacial ice
G l a c i a l m o r a i n e s t h e different types are d e s c r i b e d in Table 2 1 . 1 .
Drumlins
Esker
Kame
Kettle
Varve
Kettle
A l l of t h e s e glacial features are described in the t e x t b o o k and are a p p r o p r i a t e a n s w e r s .
Exercise 2: Your personal budget as a metaphor for a glacial budget

S e e t h e text section Glacial B u d g e t s : A c c u m u l a t i o n M i n u s A b l a t i o n .
A p e r s o n a l c h e c k b o o k is a g o o d m e t a p h o r for the d y n a m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n a c c u m u l a t i o n
and ablation on a glacier. For e x a m p l e , if y o u deposit m o n e y into y o u r c h e c k i n g a c c o u n t faster
than y o u w i t h d r a w it, the cash b a l a n c e g r o w s . Similarly, as snow a c c u m u l a t e s faster than the
rate of ablation (loss), the glacier e x p a n d s and advances. If you w i t h d r a w m o n e y from your
c h e c k i n g a c c o u n t faster than y o u deposit it, y o u r account shrinks. Similarly, if a glacier's rate
of ablation e x c e e d s the rate of a c c u m u l a t i o n , the glacier will shrink and retreat u p s l o p e . It
m i g h t d i s a p p e a r altogether if ablation e x c e e d s a c c u m u l a t i o n for an extended period.
Exercise 3: Glacial advances and retreats

Rarely does a glacier actually r e m a i n stationary. Driven by the force of gravity, glacial ice and
the rock material that it carries are m o v i n g downhill. T h e words advance, retreat, and halt are
u s e d to describe the m o v e m e n t , or location, of the toe, or terminus, of the glacier; they do not
refer to the actual m o v e m e n t of glacial ice within the glacier. T h e terminus of the glacier will
r e m a i n stationary (halt), retreat up the valley, or a d v a n c e d o w n the valley d e p e n d i n g on the glacial b u d g e t . Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 9 . F o r e x a m p l e , if the s n o w a c c u m u l a t i n g in the u p p e r reaches of the glacier equals the loss (ablation) of glacial ice from the lower and w a r m e r reaches of
the glacier, the size of the glacier will r e m a i n constant and the glacial t e r m i n u s will r e m a i n stationary. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the glacial ice is still flowing d o w n s l o p e with rock material and m a y pile
up a sizeable e n d m o r a i n e . Refer to Table 2 1 . 1 .

1. C. G l a c i a l ice b e s t fits the general definition of a m e t a m o r p h i c rock. Refer to the section Ice as a R o c k in y o u r textbook.
2. D. G r a v i t y is t h e force that pulls glacial ice d o w n h i l l . In r e s p o n s e to gravity, glacial ice
m o v e s by plastic flow and basal slip.
3. B. Refer to Figure 21.7.
4. A. Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 9 .
5. D. M o r a i n e s are d e p o s i t s of till. Refer to text section Glacial S e d i m e n t a t i o n and Sedim e n t a r y L a n d f o r m s and Table 2 1 . 1 .
6. D. D r u m l i n s are s t r e a m l i n e d hills of till and b e d r o c k . B e c a u s e d r u m l i n s parallel the
d i r e c t i o n of ice m o v e m e n t , they c a n be used to reconstruct the direction of m o v e m e n t
for the ice sheet.
7. D .
8. A. W a t e r is tied up as glacial ice on land. T h e r e f o r e , the sea level d r o p s .
9. D. Refer to Figure 15.11.
303
304
10. B . Refer t o 1 5 . 1 1 .
1 1 . B. K a m e s are small hills of sand and gravel d u m p e d n e a r or at the e d g e of t h e ice. Refer
to F i g u r e 2 1 . 1 9 .
12. A. S i n c e glacial ice is c a p a b l e of c a r r y i n g r o c k particles of a great variety of sizes, and
since p h y s i c a l w e a t h e r i n g d o m i n a t e s in glacial e n v i r o n m e n t s , it is very unlikely for a
glacial till to consist of p u r e quartz sand.
13. A .
14. A. Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 9 .
15. C. Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 2 4 .
16. D. E a c h factor listed p l a y s a role in c l i m a t e c h a n g e and n e e d s to be c o n s i d e r e d as a c o m p o n e n t of a m o d e l that a t t e m p t s to describe the c a u s e of the ice a g e s .
17. D. T h e m a s s of t h e floating ice is e q u a l to the m a s s of the w a t e r t h e iceberg d i s p l a c e s .
W h e n the ice m e l t s , it simply replaces the water it d i s p l a c e s , so there is no c h a n g e in
t h e sea level.
CHAPTER 2 2

Exercise 1: Landscapes: Tectonic and climate interaction flowchart
Exercise 2: Comparison of some landforms

Landform
Important feature(s)
Mesa
A small plateau with steep slopes on
(See F i g u r e 22.8.)
!Sketch (Hint: Keep it very simple)
all sides. H e l d up by u n d e r f o r m e d
S e d i m e n t a r y layers or lava flows.
Cuesta
A structurally controlled cliff. S o m e
( S e e F i g u r e 22.14.)
w h a t tilted beds alternating w e a k

and resistance to erosion. Typically
u n d e r c u t and a s y m m e t r i c a l .
Hogback
A structurally controlled cliff with b e d s
(See F i g u r e 22.15.)
that are steeply d i p p i n g to vertical.

A r i d g e is m o r e or less s y m m e t r i c a l .
Valley r i d g e
In y o u n g m o u n t a i n s , upfolds (anticlines)
topography
form ridges and d o w n f o l d s (synclines)
(See Figures 22.10
form valleys. A s tectonic activity
and 22.11.)
m o d e r a t e s and e r o s i o n digs d e e p e r into

the structures, the anticlines m a y f o r m
valleys
v a u e y s and
a n a syncline
s y n c n n e ridges.
nages.

1. A. River valleys begin with a V-shaped profile. As the sides of the steep valley retreat
and the floor of the valley w i d e n s , a floodplain and relatively flat-floored valley will
e v o l v e . T h e g r a d i e n t in a youthful river s y s t e m is steep but d e c r e a s e s t h o u g h t i m e unless
other g e o l o g i c events are s u p e r i m p o s e d on the history of the d r a i n a g e . Glaciers carve
U - s h a p e d valleys. Refer to F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 2 .
2. B. Elevation is the result of the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n tectonic activity (uplift and subsid e n c e ) a n d erosion.
3 . A . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 2 . 3 .
4. D. T e c t o n i c activity, erosion, c l i m a t e , and type of b e d r o c k are i m p o r t a n t controls on
l a n d s c a p e evolution.
5. D. E a r t h ' s surface has t w o f u n d a m e n t a l levels, the continents, w h i c h on a v e r a g e are
a b o u t half a mile a b o v e sea level, and the o c e a n floor, w h i c h on average is a b o u t 2.5
m i l e s b e l o w sea level.
6. B. A l t h o u g h m o u n t a i n s form at all four of t h e s e tectonic settings, the longest a n d highest m o u n t a i n r a n g e s form at convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s .
7 . A . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 7 and p a g e s 5 4 1 - 5 4 3 .
8 . D . R e f e r t o F i g u r e s 2 2 . 1 0 , 2 2 . 1 1 , and 2 2 . 1 9 .
9. A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 2 .
10. B . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 5 .
1 1 . A . R e f e r t o Earth Issues 2 2 . 1 .
12. D . R e f e r t o text p a g e s 5 4 7 - 5 4 8 .
305
306
CHAPTER 2 3

l . B . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 1 2 .
2. C. U r a n i u m is not a fossil fuel.
3. B. O z o n e depletion in our a t m o s p h e r e is largely influenced by the release of chlorofluoroh y d r o c a r b o n s ( C F C s ) , synthetic c h o r i n e , and fluorine c o m p o u n d s u s e d w i d e l y i n
aerosols and refrigerants t h r o u g h m u c h of the last century.
4. B. O i l a n d gas form from o r g a n i c m a t t e r derived from m a r i n e o r g a n i s m that thrive in
shallow coastal w a t e r s .
5. D. Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 6 .
6. B. U . S . oil p r o d u c t i o n r e a c h e d a m a x i m u m in 1970 a n d is n o w in decline.
7. C. Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 3 .
8. C. Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 5 . T h e r e are 42 gallons to a barrel of oil, of w h i c h a b o u t half is
refined into g a s o l i n e for a u t o m o b i l e s . F r o m t h e rest c o m e j e t fuel, diesel and other fuels,
solvents, lubricants, g r e a s e s , and asphalt.
9. D. S e e the section Distribution of Oil R e s e r v e s and F i g u r e 2 3 . 7 .
10. B . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 1 2 .
1 1 . B . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 1 2 .
12. B. Sulfur d i o x i d e c o m b i n e s with r a i n w a t e r to form sulfuric acid, a m a j o r c o m p o n e n t of
acid rain. For this reason, low sulfur coals are e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y m o r e favorable to burn.
13. C. Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 1 8 .
14. B. Sulfur d i o x i d e g e n e r a t e d by b u r n i n g fossil fuels high in sulfur c o n t e n t is t h e major
s o u r c e of acid in rain. T h e sulfur d i o x i d e c o m b i n e s with rainfall, w h i c h is already
slightly acidic from the dissolved c a r b o n d i o x i d e to p r o d u c e sulfuric acid.
15. B. Well B is m o s t likely to p r o d u c e oil b e c a u s e it is drilled into a tilted sand layer, w h i c h
is confined by the salt d o m e . H y d r o c a r b o n s are likely to a c c u m u l a t e in sand b e c a u s e of
its high porosity and permeability. B e c a u s e salt d e p o s i t s are essentially n o n p o r o u s and
i m p e r m e a b l e , the d o m e w o u l d seal off the sand layer and prevent the fluid h y d r o c a r b o n s from e s c a p i n g to the surface. Well A is drilled in shale, w h i c h c a n be a g o o d s o u r c e
r o c k for h y d r o c a r b o n s , but its low p e r m e a b i l i t y m a k e s it a very p o o r reservoir r o c k .
Well D is drilled into a sand layer that is not sealed off by the salt d o m e . T h e r e f o r e ,
h y d r o c a r b o n s w o u l d m i g r a t e a l o n g the well D sand layer to the surface and be lost.
Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 6 .
16. A. Refer to the text section Stratospheric O z o n e D e p l e t i o n .
17. C. Refer to the text section Stratospheric O z o n e D e p l e t i o n .
18. C. B u r n i n g fossil fuels releases C 0 , a g r e e n h o u s e g a s , into the a t m o s p h e r e .
2
19. B . Refer t o E a r t h Policy 2 3 . 1 .

2 0 . B . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 2 2 .

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Student Study Guide

Grotzinger, Jordan, Press, and Siever'

Reed Mencke, Ph.D.

Brief Preview of the Study Guide

e k n o w from personal e x p e r i e n c e that studying g e o l o g y can be very r e w a r d i n g .

Before Lecture: Preview

Part II: Chapter-by-Chapter Study Resources

2 Plate Tectonics: T h e Unifying T h e o r y

6 Metamorphism: Modification of R o c k s by T e m p e r a t u r e and P r e s s u r e

11 Geobiology: Life Interacts with the Earth

14 Exploring Earth's Interior

16 Weathering, E r o s i o n , and M a s s Wasting: Interface B e t w e e n C l i m a t e and Tectonics

18 Stream Transport from M o u n t a i n s to O c e a n s

2 2 L a n d s c a p e s : Tectonic and C l i m a t e Interaction

Appendix A: Eight-Day Study Plan

Answers to Practice Exercises and Review Questions

During Lecture: Take an Excellent Set of Notes

N o t e taking i s not confined j u s t t o lecture. N o t e s can almost

T h e p u r p o s e o f the intensive study session i s t o m a s t e r the

r e a d . " You will learn a n d r e m e m b e r m o r e s c i e n c e m u c h faster.

Meet the Authors of Understanding

s you begin y o u r study of geology, first take a m i n u t e or t w o to get a c q u a i n t e d with

Clues and Tools: "What's Important?"

Time Saver Tip

Time Saver Tip

s o m e data, affording you the opportunity to see h o w g e o l o g i s t s interpreted the d a t a a n d

Questions and Exercises to Help You Learn

P s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f actively l e a r n i n g b y a s k i n g ourselves q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n w e are a t t e m p t i n g t o learn and t h e n s e e k i n g t h e

Text-Marking Strategy for Understanding Earth

Useful markings for geology

1. Read before you mark. To avoid overusing underlining, set y o u r

1. U s e y o u r o w n w o r d s . Putting ideas into y o u r o w n w o r d s is a

Circled n u m b e r s in the margin indicate s e q u e n c e s , such as t h e

a geological p r o c e s s . C h o o s e a section that c o n t a i n s a g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s

3. Try s o m e a n n o t a t i n g . W h e r e w o u l d circled n u m b e r s be helpful in this c h a p t e r ?

How to Be Successful in Geology

c a d e m i c success is largely a matter of strategy. If you m a n a g e y o u r t i m e well a n d

Customize Each Strategy to Your Learning Style

c o m p e t i n g . We w o u l d do better to seek a w a y of u s i n g o u r best skills and talents. It is o u r

Visual learners learn by seeing. T h e y often h a v e a g o o d m e m o r y for

pictures and even w o r d s of text.

A u d i t o r y learners learn by listening. T h e y are g o o d listeners a n d

Kinesthetic learners learn by m o v i n g . T h e y learn and r e m e m b e r

best w h e n they get to practice an activity.

T h r o u g h o u t the Study G u i d e w e will m a k e s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t h o w particular strategies m i g h t

Make Geology Lecture a High-Priority Activity

c o n s t r u c t i n g this g u i d e . T h e entire S t u d y G u i d e i s o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d lecture. E v e r y c h a p t e r

W h e r e do y o u get the o v e r v i e w ? T h e a n s w e r is surprisingly simple. Just spend a few m i n u t e s

O r g a n i z e y o u r notes in a three-ring b i n d e r so that y o u c a n easily r e o r g a n i z e t h e m .

Sit n e a r the front of the r o o m n o t to be a t e a c h e r ' s pet but s i m p l y so that y o u c a n

D a t e e a c h d a y ' s notes so that y o u c a n find material later.

Take notes in a format that m a k e s the m a i n topics and c o n c e p t s easy to identify.

K e e p the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in front of y o u during lecture. Be sure to leave class

M a r k areas w h e r e y o u n e e d to do follow-up w o r k w i t h y o u r text, instructor, or tutor

I n d i c a t e p o s s i b l e test q u e s t i o n s by writing TQ (test question) in the left margin

W r i t e a s s i g n m e n t s in the left c o l u m n w h e r e you can easily find t h e m . After class

Check Your Notes: Have y o u . . .

written legible notes? (Rewrite t h e m if you n e e d to!)

filled in the h o l e s ( m i s s i n g material) w h i l e the lecture w a s still fresh in y o u r shortterm memory?

m a r k e d areas w h e r e you d o n ' t r e m e m b e r w h a t w a s said for a f o l l o w - u p session with

indicated possible test questions ( T Q ) in the m a r g i n ?

a d d e d additional visual material?

r e w o r k e d notes into a form that is efficient for y o u r learning style?