PAK.J.FOODSCI.

,23(2),2013:105123ISSN:22265899

Acomprehensivereviewonwheatflourdough
rheology
MuhammadRizwanAmjid,AamirShehzad,ShahzadHussain,
MuhammadAsimShabbir,MoaazamRafiqKhan,
11,*211

MuhammadShoaibNationalInstituteofFoodScienceandTechnology,University
ofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Pakistan
2

ABSTRACT
Theapplicationsofrheologytothemainprocessesencounteredduringbreadmaking
(mixing,fermentationandbaking)arereviewed.Factorsaffectingdoughrheologyand
influencesofvariousadditivesontherheologicalpropertiesofflourdoughsare
illustratedandthecomponentinteractionsareemphasized.Themostcommonlyused
rheologicaltestmethodsandtheirrelationshipstoproductfunctionalityarereviewed.
Rheologicaltestinghasbecomeapowerfulandpreferredapproachforexaminingthe
structureandthefundamentalpropertiesofwheatflourdoughsbecauseofits
characteristicandsensitiveresponsetothestructurevariationofwheatflourdoughs.Itis
shownthatthemostcommonlyusedmethodforrheologicaltestingofdoughs,shear
oscillationdynamicrheology,isgenerallyusedunderdeformationconditions
inappropriateforbreadmakingandshowslittlerelationshipwithenduseperformance.
Thefrequencyrangeusedinconventionalshearoscillationtestsislimitedtotheplateau
region,whichisinsensitivetochangesintheHMWgluteninpolymersthoughttobe
responsibleforvariationsinbakingquality.Molecularsizeandstructureofthegluten
polymersthatmakeupthemajorstructuralcomponentsofwheatarerelatedtotheir
rheologicalpropertiesviamodernpolymerrheologyconcepts.Interactionsbetween
polymerchainentanglementsandbranchingareseentobethekeymechanisms
determiningtherheologyofHMWpolymers.

DepartmentofFoodScienceandNutrition,CollegeofFoodandAgricultural
Sciences,KingSaudUniversity,Riyadh,SaudiArabiaCorrespondingAuthor:

aamir1326@yahoo.com
Introductionwhatisrheology?
Rheologycanbedefinedasthestudyofhowmaterialsdeform,floworfailwhen
forceisapplied.ThenameisderivatedfromGreekword:rheos,meaningtheriver,
flowing,streaming.Thereforerheologymeansflowscience.Rheological
investigationsnotonlyincludeflowbehaviourofliquids,butalsodeformation
behaviourofsolids.Normally,tomeasurerheologicalproperties,thematerialis
subjectedtoacontrolled,prcisedandquantifiabledistortionorstrainoveragiven
timeandthematerialparameterssuchasstiffness,modulus,viscosity,hardness,
strengthortoughnessaredeterminedbyconsideringthesubsequentforcesor
stresses(DobraszczykandMorgenstern,2003).
Foodrheologyfocusesontheflowpropertiesofsinglefoodcomponents,which
mightalreadydisplayacomplexrheologicalresponsefunction,theflowofa
compositefoodmatrix,andtheeffectofprocessingonthefoodstructureandits
properties.Forprocessedfoodthecompositionandtheadditionofingredientsto
obtainacertainfoodqualityandproductperformancerequiresdeeprheological
understandingofsingleingredientstheirrelationtofoodprocessing,andtheirfinal
discernment(FischerandWindhab,2011).
Rheologyisanothervaluabletoolthatgivesaquantitativemeasurefortheamount
ofstressinthedough,whichiscloselyrelatedtothequalityofthe
molecularglutennetwork(BloksmaandBushuk1988b).Rheological
measurementsondoughareusedtodefineitsphysicalproperties.Theprimary
objectivesofrheologicalmeasurementsare:
Togetaquantitativedescriptionofthematerialsmechanicalproperties.
Togaininformationrelatedtothemolecularstructureandcompositionofthe
material.Tocharacteriseandguessthematerials
performanceduringprocessingandforqualitycontrol(Dobraszczyk,2003).
Rheologicalmeasurementsareanimportant
tooltoaidinprocesscontrolandprocessdesign,ittellsushowdoughwillbehave
underagivensetofconditionsandcanbeusedtodescribeandguessits
performanceduringpracticalprocessing(ScottandRichardson,1997),e.g.,during
mixing,sheeting(Loveetal.,2002;Morgensternetal.,2002;Bindingetal.,
2003),proofing(Shahetal.,1999),andbakingofdough(Fanetal.,1994).
Moreover,itcanalsoberelatedtoproductfunctionality.Manyrheologicaltests

areusedtopredictendproductqualitysuchasmixingbehaviour,sheetingand
bakingperformance(Dobraszczyk,2004a).Inordertoexamineprocessconditions
andexpectproductperformanceandconsumeracceptance,rheological
instrumentationandmeasurementshavebecomeessentialtoolsinanalytical
laboratories(Herhetal.,2005).Herhetal.,(2000)studiedthatinpredicting
storageandstabilitymeasurementsandinunderstandinganddesigning
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texture,knowledgeoftherheologicalandmechanicalpropertiesofdifferentfood
systemsisimportant.
Rheologicalpropertiesshouldbeindependentofsize,shapeandhowtheyare
measured;inotherwords,theyareworldwide,ratherlikethespeedoflightor
densityofwater,whichdonotdependonhowmuchlightorwaterisbeing
measuredorhowitisbeingmeasured.Itwouldbeencouragingtoknowthatthe
stiffnessofbreadorviscosityofdoughmeasuredinalaboratoryinFaisalabad
(Pakistan)willbethesamemeasuredinanylaboratoryintheworld,evenifthey
aremeasuredusingdifferenttests,samplesizesorshapes.Inshort,therheological
approachisthatthepropertiesthataremeasuredarereproducibleandcanbe
comparedbetweendifferentsamples,testsizesandshapes,andtestmethods
(Dobraszczyk,2004b).
Fullunderstandingoftherheologicalbehaviourofflourdoughisofgreat
importancefromthepracticalpointofview.Doughrheologydirectlyaffectsthe
bakingperformanceofflours,andrheologicalanalyseshavebeenmadeinorderto
optimizedoughformulation.Althoughdoughrheologyhaslongbeeninvestigated,
thereremainsasignificantlackofunderstanding.Thislacksofprogressisdueto
thecomplexityofthisbiologicalsystem(Masietal.,2001).
HistoricalBackground
Humankindhasalwaysbeenaperceptivefeelforrheologicaltesting,e.g.in
physicalandvisualevaluationsofmaterialpropertiessuchashardness,stiffness,
flexibility,andviscosity,andtheirrelationtoendusequalitycharacteristics.
Peopleoftennaturallymeasurethequalityofsolidfoodsbygentlysqueezing

them,orliquidviscosityismeasuredbygentlyrotatingtheliquidinitscontainer.
Theseintuitivemeasurementsgraduallybecameformalisedintoquantitative
descriptionsofmaterialpropertiesbyscientistssuchasNewton(1687),Boyle
(1662),Pascal(1663),Hooke(1678),Young(1807)andCauchy(1827)(Tanner
andWalters,1998).
Modernrheologyasanindependentdisciplinecanbedatedbackto1929,when
TheSocietyofRheologywassetupbyanumberofscientistsworkingin
matchingfieldstosecureanabsolutestandardforviscosity,andthename
rheologywassuggestedbyBinghamandReinertodescribethestudyofflowand
deformationofallformsofmatter.Thetargetsofrheologistsaremeasurement,
characterizationandinterpretationoftheflowanddeformationbehaviourof
materials.Sincethenrheologyhasdevelopedquicklyasascienceandcontributed
toanumberofapplicationssuchascolloids,suspensionsandemulsions,polymer
processing,extrusionandpolymermodelling.Recent
PAK.J.FOODSCI.,23(2),2013:105123ISSN:22265899

developmentsinpolymerrheologyhaveestablishedaquantitativelinkbetween
themolecularsizeandstructureofpolymerstotheirrheologyandenduse
performance(deGennes,1979;DoiandEdwards,1986).
Rheologicalmeasurementsaremoreandmorebeingusedasrapid,sensitive
indicatorsofpolymermolecularstructureandforecastersofenduseperformance
andarebeingappliedtobreaddoughsasindicatorsoftheglutenpolymer
molecularstructureandpredictorsofitsfunctionalbehaviourinbreadmaking
(MarinandMontfort,1996).
Rheologicalmeasurements
Therearemanytestmethodsusedtomeasurerheologicalproperties.Itisnot
feasibletoexplainalltheavailabletestingmethodshere,andreferredtogeneral
reviewsofrheology(Ferry,1980;Barnesetal.,1989;Whorlnow,1992),
rheologicaltestingoffoods(Sherman,1970;Carter,1990;RaoandSteffe,1992;
DobraszczykandVincent,1999;vanVlietetal.,1992)andcerealproducts
(BloksmaandBushuk,1988a;FaridiandFaubion,1986;FaridiandFaubion,
1990;Muller,1975).Itiscommontoclassifyrheologicaltechniquesaccordingto
thetypeofstrainimposed:e.g.compression,extension,shear,torsion,andalsothe
relativemagnitudeoftheimposeddeformation,e.g.smallorlargedeformation.
Themaintechniquesusedformeasuringcerealpropertieshaveconventionally
beendividedintodescriptiveempiricaltechniquesandfundamentalmeasurements
(Dobraszczyk,2004b).

1.Descriptiveempiricalrheologicalmeasurements
Withinthecerealsindustrytherehasbeenalonghistoryofusingdescriptive
empiricalmeasurementsofrheologicalproperties,withinstrumentssuchasthe
penetrometer,texturometer,consistometer,amylograph,farinograph,mixograph,
extensigraph,alveograph,variousflowviscometersandfermentationrecording
devices(Muller,1975)and(Shuey,1975)(Table1).
Empiricaltestsareeasytocarryoutandareoftenusedinpracticalfactory
situations,providingdatathatareusefulinassessingperformanceduring
processingandforqualitycontrol.Theinstrumentsareoftenvigorousandcapable
ofresistingdemandingfactoryenvironments,anddonotrequirehighlyskilledor
technicallytrainedpersonnel.Simplybecausetheydonotprovidedatain
fundamentalunitsdoesnotmeanthatthesetestsarevalueless:infact,theyhave
providedagreatdealofinformationonthequalityandperformanceofcereal
productssuchasconsistency,hardness,texture,viscosity,etc.However,these
measurementsarenotstrictly`rheological'testssince:
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Thesamplegeometryisvariableandnotwelldefined.
Thestressandstrainstatesareuncontrolled,complexandnonuniform.
Itisnotpossibletodefineanyrheologicalparameterssuchasstress,
strain,strainrate,modulusorviscosity.Therefore,thesetestsareentirely
descriptiveanddependentonthetypeofinstrument,sizeandgeometryofthetest
sampleandthespecificconditionsunderwhichthetestwasperformed.For
example,empiricaltestshavebeenusedtocharacterisethebehaviourofbread
doughsduringprocessing,suchastheFarinographandMixograph.Theproblem
withtheuseoftheseinstrumentsforrheologicalstudiesisthatwecannotdefine
thestressonthesampleatanymomentoftimeduringthetest.Forexample,ina
mixographbowl,onlyasmallpartofthedoughisincontactwithapinatany
giventime,andtheshapeofthesample(dough)changesinaverycomplicated
andunpredictableways.Thus,itisimpossibletodeterminethestressonthe
dough,aswedonotknowthegeometryofourtestpiece.Asaresult,the
measurementmadeusingamixographarevalidonlyforthemixograph,and
measurementsmadeusingthefarinographarerelevantonlytothefarinograph.
Moreovermanyoftheseareusedas`singlepoint'tests,whereasingleparameter

isoftenarbitrarilyselectedfromawholerangeofdataacquiredduringthetestas,
forexample,inselectingthepeaktorquefromamixingtraceandthenusingthis
tocorrelatewithperformance.Thisneglectsalargepartoftherecordeddata,and
isappropriateonlytothesetofconditionsunderwhichthattestwasperformed
andisgenerallynotapplicabletoanyotherdeformationconditions(Dobraszczyk
andSchofield,2002;WikstromandBohlin,1996).Sincedoughexperiencesa
widerangeofconditionsofstressstatesandstrainratesduringprocessingand
baking,andtherheologicalpropertiesofdougharedependentbothontimeand
strain,thereisoftenadifferencebetweensuchsinglepointtypetestsandactual
performanceontheplant,whereconditionsofstrainandstrainratemaybepoorly
definedandverydifferentfromthoseinthelaboratorytest(Bloksma,1990a;
Stojceskaetal.,2007).Whilethismaygivesatisfactorycorrelationswitha
texturalorprocessingparameter,itisimpossibletocompareresultsbetween
differenttestingmachines,ortoextrapolatetheresultstootherdeformation
conditions(Dobraszczyk,2004b).Mostfoodmaterialsareviscoelasticand
thereforetheirpropertiesdependonhowquicklythetestisperformed(thestrain
rateorfrequency).Thisisimportantinmanyaspectsofdoughprocessing:ifthe
doughisdeformedquickly,suchasinmixingor
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sheeting,thentherheologicalpropertiesofthedoughwillbeverydifferentwhen
measuredatthetypicallyslowerratesofdeformationfoundinconventional
testingmachines.Alternatively,duringprocessingdoughwillexperiencestrains
verydifferentinmagnitudeandnaturethanthosegenerallyavailableina
rheologicaltest.Manyfoodprocessesoperateunderextensionalflow,whilemost
rheologicaltestsonfoodsareperformedinshear.Testsunderonlyoneparticular
setofconditionsofrate,temperatureandstrainwillalmostcertainlynotbe
applicabletoanothersetofdeformationconditions.Whatisnecessaryistodefine
thesetofdeformationconditionsthatthefoodenduresinpracticeandperform
testsundersimilarconditions(DobraszczykandMorgenstern,2003).
2.Fundamentalrheologicalmeasurements
Fundamentalrheologicaltestsdeterminewelldefinedphysicalproperties
independentofsize,shapeandhowtheyaremeasured,andcanbeusedfor
processdesigncalculationsandtomodelcomplexprocessingsituationsnot
amenabletodirectmeasurement.Problemsencounteredwithsuchfundamental
testsare:complexinstrumentationwhichisexpensive,timeconsuming,difficult
tomaintaininanindustrialenvironmentandrequireshighlevelsoftechnicalskill;
ofteninappropriatedeformationconditions;difficultyininterpretationofresults;
andslipandedgeeffectsduringtesting(Dobraszczyk,2003).

Themaintypesoffundamentalrheologicaltestsusedincerealtestingare:(i)
dynamicoscillation,(ii)creepandstressrelaxation,(iii)extensional
measurements,(iv)flowviscometry(Dobraszczyk,2004b)(Table1).
Factorsaffectingdoughrheology
Thereareawidevarietyofsubstancesaddedtothedoughmixthatmightbe
generallyclassedasprocessingaidsandwhichmayhavesecondaryeffectson
doughrheology.Stear(1990)givesausefulsummaryofthese.Buthere,ourmain
concernisthosesubstancesthathaveaprimaryeffectonrheologyandthrowlight
onthefactorscontrollingtheresponsetotheinputofmechanicalenergy.
Thesubstancesofinterestarelistedbelow:
Water
D2O(deuteriumoxideheavywater)
Esterifyingagentsforglutamineresidues
Urea
Salts
Agentsaffectingdisulfidebonding
TheproteinsubunitspresentWaterisofcourseaprerequisitefor
makingdough:waterplasticisesdough,andthecontrolofwatercontentisof
criticalimportanceinmixing.It
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determinestheratioofloopstotrainsandhencetheabilityofthedoughtobe
extendedandtoresistextension(Belton,2003).Theactuallevelofhydrationin
doughisquitelow;typicallythelevelofaddedwatertoflourisintheorderof0.6
gofwaterpergramofflour.Sincetheintrinsiclevelofwaterintheflourisofthe
orderof14%,thetotalwaterisabout0.75gpergram.Ifthewaterisequally
partitionedbetweenthecomponentsoftheflourthiswillmeanthatthereisabout
0.75gofwaterpergramofgluten.Inmoleculartermsthismeansthattherewill
beabout5.5watermoleculesperaminoacidresidue.Thisrepresentsahighly

concentratedproteinsystem.Resultsreportedusingnuclearmagneticresonance
(NMR)tomeasuretheamountofmobileprotein,inpreparationofhigh
molecularweight(HMW)subunitsofgluten(Beltonetal.,1994),indicatesthatin
thisregionofwatertoproteinratio,thequantityofmobilematerialishighly
sensitivetowatercontent(Fig.1).Inbreadmaking,theTable1:Rheological
methodsusedforcerealproducts
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watercontentofdoughisthuschosentobeinaregionwheresmallchangesin
watercontentarelikelytomakealargechangeinthebehaviouroftheproteins.
ChangingH2OtoD2Ohastheeffectofstrengtheningthedough(Tkachukand
Hlynka,1968).Thismustindicatearoleforhydrogenbondinginthedough,asthe
hydrogenbondsformedbyD2Oaresignificantlystrongerthanthoseformedby
H2Oandthereseemtobenoothersignificantdifferencesbetweenthetwoisotopic
formsthatcouldhaveaneffect.Whereasstrengtheninghydrogenbonds
strengthensthedough,treatmenttoesterifyglutaminesresidues,thusremoving
theirhydrogenbondingabilityweakensthedough(Beckwithetal.,1963;Mita
andMatsumoto,1981).Theindicationofthiseffectisthattheglutamineamino
sidechainsareinvolvedinsomehydrogenbondingnetworkthatisimportantin
controllingdough
Methods
EmpiricalMethods:
Mixers:Farinograph,Mixograph,Reomixer
Extensigraph
TAXT2/KiefferRIG

Alveograph

AmylographRVA
Consistometer
Flowcup
Fallingball
Flowviscosimeters
Fermentometers
Penetrometers

Texturometer,TPA
Fundamentalmethods:
Dynamicoscillation,Concentriccylinders,Parallelplates
Tubeviscometers:Capillary,Pressure,Extrusion,Pipeflow
Transientflow:Concentriccylinders,Parallelplates

Extrusion:Uniaxial,Biaxial,Doughinflationsystem,Lubricatedcompression
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Fig.1:Aplotforthevariationinthemobilefractionofhighmolecularweight
subunitswithwatercontent

Fig.2:RelationshipbetweenGofgluten(stress25Pa,frequency1Hz)andloaf
volumeforflours
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5
rheology.Inasimilarmanner,theweakeningeffectsofureaondoughrheology
(Wrigleyetal.,1998)havebeeninterpretedasbeingduetodisruptionof
hydrogenbonding.
Themoleculareffectsofsaltscanbequitesubtleandthedetailsofthe
mechanismsoftheinteractionsofsaltswithproteinsarenotcompletely
understood.Saltscanaffectbothhydrogenbondingandproteinsolubility,bothof
whichwillaffectthecohesivenessofthe
Formetalchloridesalts,theglutenstrengthisincreasedwiththechargedensityof
themetalion.Sincegenerallyhigherchargedensitiesresultinamorehydrogen
bondedwaterstructure,thismaybetakentoimplythatincreasingthehydrogen
bondingcapacityofthesolventincreasestheglutenstrength.Conversely,the
extractiondataforaseriesofsodiumsaltsshowedthatthegreaterthecapacityof
thecounteriontobreakdownhydrogenbondingstructure,themoreitfacilitated
proteinextraction.Apartfromtheobviouseffectsofshieldingelectrostaticcharge
interactions,theroleofsaltsinproteinisdifficulttounderstandandmuch
discussionhasgoneonintheliterature.Howeverspectroscopicresultsongluten

atconstantwatercontent(Wellneretal.,2003)indicatethatfortheseriesNaCl,
NaBrandNaI,increasingcounterionsize,andhencewaterstructurebreaking
capacity,causeanincreaseintheamountofbetaturnpresentandthe
system.EliassonandLarsson(1993)havereviewedtheeffectsofsaltsonthe
behaviourofdough.Theadditionofsodiumchloridetodoughinfluencesgas
retention,increasesthetimetooptimumdoughdevelopmentandincreasesthe
stabilityofthedough.Theseeffectsmayarisefromavarietyofcausesnotdirectly
linkedtotheinteractionsoftheproteins.Theremaybeeffectsonenzymesand
yeast;however,moreextensivestudieshaveshownthatbothglutenstrength
(Preston,1989)andextractabilityofproteins(Preston,1985)aremodifiedbythe
additionofsalts.
amountofmobileproteinpresent.ThisresultisconsistentwiththoseofPreston
(1985,1989).
Theroleofdisulfidelinkagesinthecontrolofdoughrheologyisoftheutmost
importance.Ifdisulfidebondsarereducedbyachemicalagent,suchas
dithiothreitol,adramaticreductionindoughstrengthisobserved(Wrigleyetal.,
1998)whichisrecoveredonreoxidation.Theadditionsofvariousoxidizingand
reducingagentsthatcanaffecttheinterchangeofdisulfidebondsalsohavemajor
effects(EliassonandLarsson,1993).Theactualmodeofactionofthevarious
agentsthatcanaffectboththeinterchangeamong,andthenumberofdisulfide
bonds,isnotentirelycleartillnow(Weegelsetal.,1994).However,theireffectis
profound.Indeed,theroleofdisulfideinterchangeindoughrheologyhasled
Bushuk(1998)toremarkthatTheimportanceofthedisulfideinterchange
reactioninthedevelopmentandstressrelaxationofbreaddoughscannotbe
overemphasised.
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Fig.3:Dynamicresponsesofdurumdoughenrichedwith2%gluten,gliadinand
glutenin,respectively(Edwardsetal.,2001)

6
Theroleofthenatureofthevariousproteinsubunitsindoughrheologyandloaf
qualityhasbeenthesubjectofintensiveresearch.Gliadinsaregenerallyagreedto
contributetotheviscousnatureofthedoughandgluteninstotheelasticnatureof
thedough.OfthegluteninsthemostimportantaretheHMWsubunitseventhough
theyonlyconstitute12%ofthetotalflourproteinsor11.7%oftheflourdry
weight(Shewryetal.,2001).
Wheatgrainsandrheology
Thephysicochemicalandrheologicalpropertiesofflourdiffersignificantlyamong
wheatvarietieswhichhavefarreachingeffectsontheendusequalityofwheat.
Therheologicalcharacteristicsofflourvarybetweenvarieties(Stathopoulosetal.,
2008).Actualqualityofwheatisthesummationofeffectsofsoil,climateand
seedstockonthewheatplantandkernelcomponents.Thewheatgrainsaremilled
intoflourandusedindifferentenduseproducts.Thequalityoftheendproduct
dependsuponqualityofwheatgrain.Thewheatsuitableforoneparticularuse
mayhavecertainpropertiesthataretotallyunsatisfactoryforotheruse(Faridiet
al.,1989;Anjumetal.,2008).

Wheatfloursfromvariousclassesandcultivarsdisplaygreatdiversityintheir
functionalproperties.Thevariationsinfunctionalpropertiesofawheatcultivar
areattributedlargelytoitsglutenqualityandquantity(Raoetal.,2000).The
farinographtestisoneofthe
waterhydratestheflourcomponentsandthedoughisdeveloped(Fuetal.,2008).
Mixingtimedefineasthetimeinminutestakenbythecurvetoreachthepeak.
Peakheightistheheightattainedbythecurveatpeakincmasmeasuredfromthe
centerofthepeaktothebaselineandmixingtolerancemeasuredastheanglein
degreesformedbytheascendinganddescendingcurvesattheapex,locatedinthe
centerofthecurve(Singhetal.,2003).
Glutenisrichingliadinsandglutenins.Dynamicrheologicalparametersof
glutensareabletoindicatethewheatquality.Glutensfrompoorquality
reconstitutedusingglutensofdifferentwheatcultiversandacontentsourceof
starchandwatersoluble(KhatkarandSchofield,2002a).Wheatarerheologically
characterizedaslesselasticandmoreviscousthanthosefromgoodqualitywheat
(Khatkaretal.,1995).Glutensfromgoodbreadmakingwheatarecrosslinkedin
ahigherdegreesothatthefrequencydependenceofGissmallerthanthatof
glutensfrompoorbreadmakingwheat(Janssenetal.,1996b).Storageandloss
moduliGandGofglutensshow
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mostcommonlyusedflourqualitytestsintheworld.Theresultsareusedas
parametersinformulationtoestimatetheamountofwaterrequiredtomake
dough,toevaluatetheeffectsofingredientsonmixingproperties,toevaluateflour
blendingrequirementsandtocheckflouruniformity.Theresultsarealsousedto
predictprocessingeffects,includingmixingrequirementsfordoughdevelopment,
tolerancetoovermixinganddoughconsistencyduringproduction.Farinograph
resultsarealsousefulforpredictingfinishedproducttexturecharacteristics.For
example,strongdoughmixingpropertiesarerelatedtofirmproducttexture.
Brabenderfarinographhasbeenusedtopredictdoughingpropertiesofflours.
Doughispreparedduringmixingandresistancetoshearisrecorded.Graphfor
strongwheatflourgiveshighwaterabsorption,showsrapiddevelopmentand
minimalbreakdown.Weakwheatfloursalsoexhibitrapiddevelopmentbuttheir
breakdownisgreateraswellashaslowwaterabsorptioncapacity.Farinographic
waterabsorptionofflourprovidesanindicationofthepotentialoftheprotein
moleculestoabsorbmoisture(DobraszczykandSalmanowicz,2008).
Doughstabilityisdefinedasthetimedifferencebetweenthepointwherethetop
ofthecurvefirstinterceptsthe500BUlineandthepointwherethetopofthe

curveleavesthe500BUline(Simetal.,2011).Doughdevelopmenttimeisthe
timefromwateradditiontotheflouruntilthedoughreachesthepointofthe
greatesttorque.Duringthisphaseofmixing,thesignificantpositivecorrelations
withloafvolume(Khatkaretal.,2002).Especially,Gofglutendoughscanbe
directlyrelatedtothebreadmakingperformance,explaining73%ofvariationin
loafvolume(Fig.2)(KhatkarandSchofield,2002a).Thetanvaluesofglutens
arerankedasweakglutens>strongglutens>extrastrongglutenswhiletheG
andGvaluesshowthereversetendency.Theweakglutensespeciallyundergoa
substantialstructuralchangefromsolidliketoliquidlikebehaviourswith
increasingfrequencywhilethestrongglutensmaintaintheirelasticcharacterstoa
greatextent(Khatkar,2004).
Wheatflourwaterabsorption57.5%infarinographisobserved.Canadianwheat
cultivarshave60.765.9%waterabsorption,2.2513minutesdevelopmenttime
and525minutesstabilitytimeinfarinograph(IndraniandRao,2007).Water
absorptionofdifferentwheatvarietieswererangesfrom58.166.4%andthe
doughdevelopmenttimewithaveragevalueof6minutes(Hruskovaetal.,2006).
Inanotherexperiment,wheatwith53.6%waterabsorption,1.53minutesdough
developmenttimeand1.40minutesdoughstabilityisdetermined
(Paraskevopoulouetal.,2010).Studies
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7
showedthattheIrish,GreekandCanadianwheatvarietieshadwaterabsorption,
doughdevelopmenttimeanddoughstabilityrangesfrom50.761.5%,1.56
minutes15minutesrespectively.In2010,itisreportedthattheIrishwheat
varietieshadthewaterabsorption,developmenttimeandstabilityrangesfrom50
65.5%,1.56minutesand19minutesrespectively(Ktenioudakietal.,2010).
Mixographtestwasthebestpredictorsforchewinessandfirmnessbecauseitis
simple,requiresrelativelysmallsamplesizeandtheresultsobtainedarehighly
correlatedwithsensorydata.Itisthemostusefultesttopredicttheendusequality
(Kovacsetal.,1997).Inmixograph,themixingtimevariesfrom2.37.9minutes
andpeakdoughresistancefrom52.365.2AUshowedbyRaoetal.,(2000).The
valuesfordoughdevelopmenttimeanddoughstabilitydecreasedwithreduced
proteincontent,butthevalueofmixingtoleranceindexincreased(Fuetal.,
2008).
Bothquantityandqualityofproteininfluencewaterabsorption(Kennyetal.,
2001;AkuborandUkwuru,2003;Paraskevopoulouetal.,2010).Hefnawyetal.,

(2012)reportedthattheincreaseinproteincontentincreasedthewaterabsorption.
WaterabsorptionisanimportantcharacteristicofthewheatflourandinIndo
Pakistanwheatvarietiesrangedfrom6076%waterabsorption(Sila,2010).
Compositeflourtechnologyandrheology
Thereisagrowinginterestinfortifyingwheatflourwithhighlysinematerial,such
asdrybeanstoimprovetheessentialaminoacidbalanceofbakedfoodproducts.
Usingcompositefloursmaybeadvantageousindevelopingcountrieswhere
adequatetechnologyfortheproductiondryproteinconcentrates/isolatesisnot
availableoraffordableinordertoutilizethebeanproteins.Alsothedevelopment
ofsuchblendscouldleadtoimprovedutilizationofindigenousfoodcropsin
countrieswhereimportofwheatflourisanecessityanddrybeanproductionis
morethanadequate.Increasinglevelsofcowpeaflourintheblendsaffectedmost
doughpropertiesandresultedinchangedfarinographandextensograph
characteristics,mainlybyincreasedwaterabsorption.Increasedwaterabsorption
ofwheatbeancompositefloursmayprovidemorewaterforstarchgelatinization
inthedoughsduringbakingandmaypreventstretchingandtearingofgluten
strands(Hallenetal.,2004).
Inthecaseofwheatdough,rheologicalanalysishasbeensuccessfullyappliedas
indicatorofthemolecularstructureofglutenandstarch,andaspredictorsoftheir
functionalityinbakingperformance(CollarandBollain,2005;Bollainetal.,
2006).Despiteglutenfreematrixesarestructurallydifferentthanglutendough;
PAK.J.FOODSCI.,23(2),2013:105123ISSN:22265899

rheologicalassessmentoftheglutenfreematrixesmightgiveanindicationofits
furtherfunctionality.Thecohesivenesswassignificantlyaffectedonlybysoybean
proteincontent(MarcoandRosell,2008).Legumessuchassoybeanandchickpea
proteinsshowshigheremulsifyingactivityandemulsionstability(Tmskziet
al.,2001).Theyareusedinfoodtechnologyforsupplyingdesirablefunctional
propertiessuchasemulsification,fatabsorption,moistureholdingcapacity,
thickening,andfoaming(MarcoandRosell,2008).Theadditionof20%soyflour
towheatproducedasignificantpositiveeffectontheemulsifyingactivityofthe
samples(Ahnetal.,2005).
Farinographcharacteristicsofflourblendsshowedthatastheproportionofsoy
flourincreasedtherewasaslightincreaseinwaterabsorptionanddecreasein
doughstability.Theresultsshowedthatincorporationofsoyflourincreasedthe
waterabsorptioncapacity.At20%levelofsoyflourthewaterabsorptionwas77
%andat40%level,itwas80%.Thestabilityofthedoughwasfoundtodecrease

from4.5to3.0minuteswhenthesoyflourcontentincreasedfrom20to40%.
Doughdevelopmenttimeandmixingtoleranceindexremainedalmostsameforall
flourblendsthatare4.5minutesand110BUrespectively(Senthiletal.,2002).In
anothertrailasthepercentageofsoyflourincreasedfrom5to10%,water
absorptionincreasefrom57.2to57.9%.Asthelevelofflourblendsincomposite
doughsincreased,farinographabsorptionandmixingtoleranceindexincreased,
butmixingtimeanddoughstabilitydecreased(Doxastakisetal.,2002).
RheologicalcharacteristicsindifferentwheatvarietiesofPakistanshowed55.20
62.13%waterabsorption,3.3316.42minutesdoughstabilitytimeand3.589.92
minutesdoughdevelopmenttime(Huma,2004).Furtherstudiesreportedthat
waterabsorptionofwheatis61.24%.Aspercentageofchickpeaincrease,water
absorptionincrease.Waterabsorptionin10%chickpeaishigherthan7.5%and5
%thatis67.85,67.45and66.85%respectively.Similarlyincreasedinthedough
developmenttimeanddoughstabilitytimeastheconcentrationofchickpea
increased.Whilerheologicalbehaviourofthecompositeflourspreparedby
blendingcommercialwheatflourwithlentil,chickpeaandguargumshowed
decreaseinwaterabsorptionandincreaseindoughdevelopmenttimeinastorage
periodof60days(Shahzadietal.,2005).Incontrast,studiedshowedthatat5,10,
15,20and30%replacementofchickpeawithwheatthewaterabsorption
decreasedfrom62,60,57,56.6and53.3%respectively.Inreplacementofcorn
flouratthesamepercentagethewaterabsorptionincreasedfrom63.3,
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8
76.6,83.3,90and93.3%respectively(GujralandPathak,2002).
Ingredientsandrheology
Rheologicaltesting,especiallyinthelinearviscoelasticregion,hasbeenusedto
followthestructureandpropertiesofdoughsandtostudythefunctionsofdough
ingredients(Janssenetal.,1996a).Thistestingsimultaneouslymeasuresthe
viscousandelasticcharactersofdoughexpressedinstorageandlossmoduli,G
andG,andlosstangenttan.Itisgenerallyfoundthatdoughsmadefromgood
qualityflourhavetanvalueslowerthandoughsmadefrompoorqualityflour.
Themagnitudeofmodulusatintermediateandhighstrainsisintheorderofextra
strong>strong>medium>weak(SafariArdiandPhanThien,1998).
Nevertheless,dynamicrheologicaltestsonflourdoughfailtopredictthebaking
potentialofwheatcultivars(Autioetal.,2001).

Influenceofwater
Doughisamacroscopicallyhomogeneousmixtureofstarch,protein,fat,salt,
yeast,andothercomponents.Atoptimummixing,thedoughisfullyhydratedand
hasthehighestelasticity.Waterplaysanimportantroleindeterminingthe
viscoelasticpropertiesofdough.BothGandGdecreaseaswatercontent
increases.Thedynamicviscoelasticbehaviour
offlourdoughscanbeunderstoodbytakingintoaccountthedualroleofwater
thatbehavesasinertfillerreducingthedynamicpropertiesproportionallyandasa
lubricantenhancingtherelaxation(Masietal.,1998).
Influenceofstarch
Starch,makingup~80%ofwheatflourondrybasis,isabletoformacontinuous
networkofparticlestogetherwiththemacromolecularnetworkofhydratedgluten.
Thesetwoindependentnetworksandtheirinteractiongiverisetotherheological
propertiesofdoughs.Thoughtheinteractionplaysanimportantrole,therelative
contributionsofthetwosourcesaredifficulttoresolve.Thecomponent
interactionsdependonstresslevel.Thestarchstarchinteractionsdominateover
proteinproteininteractionsatlowstresseswhiletheproteinprotein
interactionsplaydominantroleatlargedeformations(KhatkarandSchofield,
2002b).Thenonlinearrheologicalbehaviourofstarchislargelyresponsiblefor
thebehaviourofdough(Watanabeetal.,2002).
Instarch/glutenblendwithconstantwatercontent,Gincreasesrapidlywith
increasingproteincontent.Thereconstituteddoughsbehavequalitativelylike
flourdoughswithcomparablecompositions.Whenstarch
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granulesareapparentlyhomogeneouslydispersedintheglutennetwork,
increasingstarchcontentgivesrisetoanincreaseinGvalue(Watanabeetal.,
2002)thusenhancingtheelasticity(Edwardsetal.,2002).Flourdoughscannotbe
viewedsimplyasaconcentratedsuspensionofstarchgranulesinhydratedgluten
matrix.Mixingstarchesfromdifferentwheatcultivarsintodoughwithconstant
glutencontentleadstolargerheologicaldifferences,indicatinganactiveroleof
starch(PetrofskyandHoseney,1995).
Influenceofproteins
TheproteincontentoffloursshowsaninverserelationshipwithGandGupto
~14%protein(Khatkar,2005).Glutencontributestotheviscoelasticpropertiesof

doughtovaryingdegreesdependingonitssourcedifferingwithboth
gliadin/gluteninratioandLMWGS(Edwardsetal.,2001;Edwardsatel.,2003).
Gliadinenhancesviscousflowofdough.Anadditionof2%gliadinresultsin
increaseddoughextensibilityandtanascomparedtoglutenandglutenin
additions.Gluteninaddition,ontheotherhand,resultsinmoreelasticdoughin
comparisonwithglutenandgliadinadditions(Fig.3)(Edwardsetal.,2001).
Additionofgluteninsatconstantproteinbasiscontributestothedoughstrength
withmarkeddifferencesamongdonorcultivars(Edwardsetal.,2003).Increasing
theglutenin/gliadinratioimprovesmaximumshearviscosityanddoughstrength
(Uthayakumaranetal.,2000).
Bothlowmolecularweightgluteninsubunits(LMWGS)andhighmolecular
weightgluteninsubunits(HMWGS)contributetooveralldoughstrengthbut
LMWGSenrichmentimprovestheelasticitybyintroducinggreaternumberof
physicalcrosslinks(Edwardsetal.,2001).ThesourceofLMWGSinfluencesthe
viscoelasticcharacteristicsofdoughswhilesourceofHMWGSdoesnotshow
suchaneffect(Edwardsetal.,2003).
Influenceofotheradditives
Rheologicalpropertiesofmaterialsdependonthestructureandalsoonthe
arrangementofingredientsandtheforcesbetweenthem(Singhetal.,2003).The
importanceofthesolublefractionofflourindeterminingtherheological
propertiesofdoughsubjectedtolargedeformationsanditspossibleconsequence
forbreadmakingperformanceswasdemonstratedbymeasuringshearand
extensionalviscositiesofnativewheatflourandreconstituteddoughsusingcreep
recoverytestsandlubricatedsqueezingflowtests(LSF).Theviscosityplateau
decreaseswithincreasingadditionsofsolublefractions.Theyshowedpoor
discriminatingpropertiescompared
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9
withresultsoflubricatingsqueezingflowtests(Rouilleetal.,2005).Dairy
ingredientsareaddedtobakeryproductstoincreasenutritionalandfunctional
properties.Dynamicoscillationtestingdeterminedtheeffectsoftheingredientson
fundamentalrheologicalproperties.Adding4%sodiumcasienate(SC)decreased
resistancetoextension,whileadding4%wheyproteinconcentrate(WPC)
increasedextensibility(Kennyetal.,2001).Functionalfoodadditivessuchas
surfactantsarewidelyusedtoimprovethequalityofbread.Thepercentwater

absorptionincreasedsignificantlywiththeadditionofsurfactants(mono
diglycerideandlecithin)aloneorincombination.Moreover,theoveralldough
rheologicalcharacteristicsandbakingqualityimprovedandfurtherthese
surfactantsretardedtherateofstalinginbread(Azizietal.,2003).The
performanceofdifferentfatreplacersatvariouslevels(Inulinpowder,Inulingel
andSimplesse)inwheatbreadanddoughcomparedtoacontrolcontainingblock
fatwasexamined.Empiricalandfundamentalrheologicaltestswerecarriedouton
thedoughs.Theadditionofinulingelwasfoundtoincreasewaterabsorption.
Moreovercomplexmodulusfordoughscontainingfatwassignificantlylowerthan
thedoughscontainingthefatreplacers.Theadditionofsimplesseandinulin
increasedthedoughcomplexmodulussignificantly(OBrienetal.,2003).
Dynamicrheologicaltestinghasbecomeapowerfulandpreferredapproachfor
examiningthestructureandthefundamentalpropertiesofwheatflourdoughsand
proteinsbecauseofitscharacteristicandsensitiveresponsetothestructure
variationofwheatflourdoughsandproteins(SongandZheng,2007).Additionof
carbohydratessuchasarabinoxylans,glucans(Izydorczyketal.,2001),
carrageenan,alginate(Howellatel.,1998)andguargum(YuandNgadi,2006)
improvethefunctionalpropertiesofwheatbreadthroughassociativeinteractions
withglutenproteinsthatsignificantlyincreasesGofdoughsatthesamewater
content.
DefattingimprovesproteininteractionthusincreasesGandGsignificantly
(Georgopoulosetal.,2006).Additionofnonpolarlipidstothedefattedflourat
theirnaturallevelmightpartiallyrestoretherheologicalbehaviorwhilehigher
levelsofadditionhavenofurthereffect.Ontheotherhand,additionofpolarlipids
hasamorepronouncedbeneficialeffect(Papantoniouetal.,2004).Additionof
watersolublesdramaticallyshortenstheoptimummixingtimeofthereconstituted
flouranddecreasesGoftheresultantdough(MillerandHoseney,1999).
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Enzymesareusedinbakingtoimprovedoughhandlingpropertiesandthequality
ofbakedproducts.Glucoseoxidase(GO)isanenzymewithoxidizingeffectdue
tothehydrogenperoxidereleasedfromitscatalyticreaction.Areinforcementor
strengtheningofwheatdoughandanimprovementofbreadqualitycanbe
obtainedwiththeadditionofGO,althoughinverseeffectswereobtainedwhen
excessiveenzymelevelswereadded.TheGOtreatmentmodifiedglutenproteins
(gliadinsandglutenins)throughtheformationofdisulfideandnondisulfide
crosslinks.ExcessiveadditionofGOproducedanexcessivecrosslinkinginthe
glutennetwork,responsibleofthenegativeeffectonthebreadmakingproperties.
Rheologicalcharacteristicssuchaswaterabsorptionanddoughtoleranceshowed

asignificantenhancementwhenaddedthehigherconcentrationofglucose
oxidase.Thus,theadditionofGOpromotesanincreaseindoughstabilitywhen
overmixing(Bonetetal.,2006).
Processingconditionsandrheology
Doughprocessingisanimportantfactordeterminingthequalityofbread.The
mostimportantmechanicalstepsinindustrialdoughprocessingarekneading,
extrusion,andmolding.Inalloftheseprocessingsteps,considerablechangesin
thestructureandpropertiesofthedoughcanoccur.Onalaboratoryscalelevel,
these(structural)effectsarewellcharacterizedbut,sofar,alittledataisavailable
forlargescaleindustrialdoughprocessingline.Themolecularandmicrostructural
changesthatcantakeplaceduringthekneadingsteprevealedthatthedough
showsawelldevelopedglutennetworkwithahomogeneousdispersionofstarch
particles(atoptimumkneadingtime).Aftertheextrusionstep(asheeting
procedure),thestructureofthedoughbecomescoarserandthedoughgluten
networkisorientedandpartiallydisrupted.Thisisaccompaniedwithanincrease
inbothrheologicalstressandwatermobility.Aftermolding,thenetworkstructure
isrestoredandboththerheologicalstressandthemobilityofwaterdecrease.
Thesefindingshelpsinoptimizationofindustrialdoughprocessinglines(Esselink
etal.,2003).
Doughrheologicaltechniquesarefrequentlyusedfortheanalysisofwheatflour
bakingvalue.Whendoughissubjectedtomechanicalperturbationitshows
viscoelasticbehaviour.Thatis,themechanicalforceappliedtothedoughresults
indimensionalchangesthatarepartiallybutnotfullyreversedwhentheforceis
removed.Theobservationofamaximumofresistanceduringthemixingprocess
impliesthatthedoughstoressomeofthemechanicalenergyexpendedaselastic
potentialenergy.(Hruskovaetal.,2006).Thedistinctiverheologicalfeaturesof
doughcanpredict
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10
abouttheirexpectedbehaviourundervariousprocessingconditionsthatinturn
mayhelptoselectsuitablerawmaterialsandtheirproportions,andtodecidethe
appropriateprocessequipment.Asaresult,thequalityofthefinishedproduct
includingtexture,andhence,consumeracceptabilityisaffected.Theroleofwater
contentinthisconditionplaysanimportantroleasitactsasaplasticizerthat
affecttherheologicalbehaviourmarkedly(Bhattacharyaetal.,2006).

Amongthecerealflours,onlywheatflourcanformthreedimensionalviscoelastic
doughwhenmixedwithwater.Characterizationofrheologicalpropertiesofdough
isoppressiveinpredictingtheprocessingbehaviourandincontrollingthequality
offoodproducts.Farinograph,mixographandextensographarethemostcommon
empiricalinstrumentsusedforcharacterizingdoughrheology(SongandZheng,
2007)andinevaluatingtheperformanceduringprocessingandforqualitycontrol.
Testsbasedontheseinstrumentsareusefulforprovidingpracticalinformationfor
thebakingindustrieswhiletheyarenotsufficientforinterpretingthefundamental
behaviourofdoughprocessingandbakingquality(Dobraszczyk,2003).Thewater
absorptioncapacityofflouroftendefinesitsqualityanditstendencytoform
viscoelasticdough.Thehydrationofflourissevereinthefoodindustry,becauseit
affectsitsfunctionalpropertiesandthequalityofcookingproducts(Bertonetal.,
2002).
Itisstudiedthatmildheatingimprovesthestrengthofsubstandardbreadflour
suchassoftwheatflour.Heatingsoftwheatflourat80Cfor15min.improved
itsbreadmakingpotential(Gelinasetal.,2001).Theglutenfractionsinthe
differentwheatvarietiesvariedintheproportionofHMWgluteninsandLMW
gliadins.ThefractionscontainingahigherproportionofHMWgluteninswere
associatedwithapredominantlyelasticcharacter,whereasfractionscontaining
mostlygliadinsexhibitedaviscouslikebehaviour.Thefrequencydependent
rheologicalbehaviouroffractionscontainingHMWproteinswaslesssusceptible
toheat,andtheirelasticcharacterwasmaintainedafterheating,whereasthe
rheologyofintermediatefractionsandfractionscontainingmostlygliadinswas
moresusceptibletoheating,indicatingarapidchangefromviscoustoelastic
behaviourafterheating.Moreoverglutenwaseasiertoextractanditstexturewas
slackerafterheating,itsignificantlyincreaseddoughmixingstabilityand
developmenttime(GelinasandMcKinnon,2004;Stathopoulosetal.,2006).
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Rheologicaleffectonmixing
Mixingisacriticaloperationinfoodprocessingwhere,apartfromtheobvious
functionofmixingingredients,thestructureofthefoodisoftenformed.Itiswell
knownthatinordertooptimizebreadquality,mixingmustbestoppedatthe
correctlevelofmechanicalinput.Theactualprocesscalledmixinginrealityhas
twoseparateprocessesgoingonwithinit:oneisthehomogenizationofthe
variousingredientsofthedough,whichisatruemixingprocess,andtheotheris
thedevelopmentofdoughstructurebythemechanicsofmixingenergyintothe
system.Althoughtheformerisofvitalimportance,itisaprocesscommontomost
foodpreparationprocesses;itisthelatterprocessthatdemonstratestheuniqueness

ofwheatflourdough.Asmechanicalenergyisputintothedough,itsresistanceto
extensionincreasesandthenaftersomecriticalpointdecreasesagain.Optimum
breadqualityisachievedbychoosingtostopmixingattheappropriatepointon
themixingcurve(usuallycloseto,butnotat,themaximumresistance)(Belton,
2003).Forexample,intheproductionofbatters,pastesanddoughs,thenatureof
themixingactionresultsinthehydrationofflourparticlesleadingtodevelopment
oftheviscoelasticpropertiesglutenmatrixandalsoincorporatesair,whichhasa
majoreffectontheirrheologyandtexture(DobraszczykandMorgenstern,2003;
Singhetal.,2003;Dobraszczyketal.,2006).
Mostofthestudiesondoughshavebeenontherelationshipsbetweenmixing,
rheologyandbakingperformance,becauserheologicalchangesoccurinthegluten
viscoelasticnetworkduringmixingandhaveimportanceforproductquality.
Thereisanintimaterelationshipbetweenmixing,aerationandrheology:the
designandoperationofthemixerwilldeveloptexture,aerationandrheologyto
differentextents(CampbellandShah,1999),andconverselytherheologyofthe
foodwillaffectthetimeandenergyinputrequiredtoachieveoptimal
development.Thisisseeninthegreatvarietyofmixersusedinthefoodindustry
andthefactthatcertainmixersarerequiredtoproduceadesiredtextureor
rheologyinafood(Campbell,1995).
Studiesontherheologyofmixinghavefocusedonanumberofareas:(i)the
effectsofmixerdesignandoperationonthedevelopmentofrheologyandtexture;
(ii)empiricalmeasurementofrheologyduringmixingfrommixertorqueorpower
consumption;(iii)effectofrheologyonmixingpatternsandperformance;and(iv)
simulationandpredictionofmixingflowdeformationpatternsasfunctionsof
mixergeometryandrheology.Despitetheobviousimportanceofmixinginthe
developmentofrheologyandtextureindoughs,thereisverylittleinformationin
theliteratureonthesechanges
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11
duringthedifferentstagesinthemixingprocess.Mostworkhaseither
concentratedonempiricalmeasurementofmixermotortorque,voltageorpower
consumptionduringmixingasaqualitativeindicationofchangingrheology,or
measurementofrheologicalchangesatsometimeaftermixing.Problems
associatedwiththeseapproachesare:failuretotakeintoaccountmotoranddrive
losses,frictionalandsurfaceeffectsbetweenthedoughandthemixer,varying
signaldampinganddataacquisitionrates,effectsofaerationonrheology,and

rheologicalrelaxationeffects.Sincedoughisaviscoelasticmaterialwhichshows
rapidrelaxationafterdeformation,whichvariesbetweendifferentflours,such
measurementsarenotidealandruntheriskofgivingmisleadinginformation.
Nevertheless,muchusefulinformationhasbeenobtainedabouttheeffectof
mixingonglutenstructure,rheologyandbakingperformance(Weegelsetal.,
1996;Skerritetal.,1999).Extensiveworkondoughmixinghasshownthat
mixingspeedandenergy(workinput)mustbeaboveacertainvaluetodevelop
theglutennetworkandtoproducesatisfactorybreadmaking(KilbornandTipples,
1972),andanoptimuminworkinputormixingtimehasbeenrelatedtooptimum
breadmakingperformance(Skeggs,1985),whichvariesdependingonmixertype,
flourcompositionandingredients(Manietal.,1992).Forexample,mixing
doughsbyelongationalflowinsheetingtoachieveoptimumdevelopmentrequired
only1015%oftheenergynormallyusedinconventionalhighspeedshear
mixers(KilbornandTipples,1974),suggestingthatmuchhigherratesofwork
inputcanbeachievedduetotheenhancedstrainhardeningofdoughsunder
extension.Numerousstudieshaveshownthatrheologicalmeasurementsafter
mixingparallelchangesinmixertorqueandpowerconsumption(Manietal.,
1992;Zhengetal.,2000;Anderssenetal.,1998),especiallyifrheological
measurementsaremadeunderlarge,nonlineardeformationconditionscloserto
thoseexperiencedinthemixer(Manietal.,1992;HwangandGunasekaran,
2001).Recentstudieshavesuggestedthatqualitativeelongationalrheological
informationduringmixingcanbederiveddirectlyfromthetorque/power
consumptionofadoughmixer(Grasetal.,2000).
Extensiveworkondoughmixinghasshownthatmixingspeedandenergy(work
input)mustbeaboveacertainvaluetodeveloptheglutennetworkandtoproduce
satisfactorybreadmaking,andanoptimuminworkinputormixingtime(peak
development)hasbeenrelatedtooptimumbreadmakingperformance,which
variesdependingonmixertype,flourcomposition,andingredients.Ifdoughis
undermixedormixedwellbeyonditspeakdevelopment,thenbreadofinferior
qualityisproduced.KilbornandTipplesina
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seriesofpapersfrom197277investigatedfactorsaffectingdoughdevelopment.
Theirresultsindicatedthat:(i)foragivenflour,thereisaminimummixingspeed
andenergyinput(thecriticalmixingspeedorenergy)belowwhichdevelopment
couldnotbeachieved,resultinginaloafofpoorvolume,colour,andtexture;(ii)
thetotalenergyinputrequiredforpeakdevelopmentdiffersbetweenflourtypes;
and(iii)boththetotalenergyrequiredandthecriticalmixingspeedforagiven
flourdifferbetweenmixerswithdifferentmixingactions.Moreoverbothaeration
andrheologicalcharacteristicsofdougharedependentonboththetotalworkinput

andtheworkinputrate(ChinandCampbell,2005).
Rheologicaleffectonproofing,bakingandfinaltextureofbread
Proofing(fermentation)isanimportantstepinthebreadmakingprocess,where
theexpansionofairbubblespreviouslyincorporatedduringmixingprovidesthe
characteristicaeratedstructureofbread,whichiscentraltoitsappeal
(Dobraszczyketal.,2000).Doughexpansionduringfermentationprocess
(proofing)isgreatlyinfluencedbymaincomponentsofflourandrheological
propertiesofdough.Basicallyitdependsontheoptimumdevelopmentofthe
glutenproteinsnetworkintoacohesivedoughmass,encapsulatingstarchgranules
andotherfillermaterialsorcomponentsandairnuclei(Bloksma,1990b).
Althoughfermentationisclearlyimportantinbreadmaking,mostrheologicaltests
areperformedondoughswithoutyeastandatroomtemperature.Fewstudieshave
beenmadeonthechangingrheologicalpropertiesduringfermentationandbaking.
Directrheologicalmeasurementshavebeenmadeonyeastedbreaddoughs
(KilbornandPreston,1981),cakebatters(Massey,2002;Sahi,1999),sourdoughs
(WehrleandArendt,1998),andcrackerspongeanddough(OliverandBrock,
1997).Suchmeasurementssufferfromtheproblemoftheevolvinggasvolume
andmetabolitesfromfermentationconfoundingtherheologicaldata.Thedecrease
indensityasaresultofincreasinggasvolumewouldbeexpectedtohavethe
effectofdecreasingmodulusandviscosity,butthecompressibilityofairmay
counteractthiseffect,especiallyathighergasvolumesandlowdensitieswhere
themoduliofthesolidandgasphasesconverge,suchasincakebatters,where
shearmodulusisdirectlyrelatedtotheaircontent(Massey,2002).Fermentation
metabolitessuchaslacticandaceticacidmayalsoexertrheologicaleffects
throughchangesinpH(Wehrleetal.,1997).
Otherapproacheshavebeentomeasuretheincreaseinheightorvolumeofthe
fermentingproductusing
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12
devicessuchastherheofermentometerorrisograph,buttheseprovidenodirect
informationabouttherheologyofthematerial,sincetheydonotmeasureforceor
deformationperchangeinunitdimensions.Changesinaerationhavebeen
predictedfrommodellingtheincreaseindoughheight(Shahetal.,1999),orby
directlymeasuringinternalgaspressureduringfermentation(Matsumotoetal.,
1975).Anotherapproachhasbeentopreventfermentationbyinactivatingthe

yeastbyfreezingandthawing(Newberryetal.,2002),orbymixingunderoxygen
torapidlysaturatetheyeastactivity(ChamberlainandCollins,1979).
Duringproofandbakingthegrowthandstabilityofgasbubbleswithinthedough
determinestheexpansionofthedoughandthereforetheultimatevolumeand
textureofthebakedproduct(HeandHoseney,1991).Thelimitofexpansionof
thesebubblesisrelateddirectlytotheirstability,duetocoalescenceandthe
eventuallossofgaswhenthebubblesfail.Therheologicalpropertiesofthe
expandingbubblewallswillthereforebeimportantinmaintainingstabilityagainst
prematurefailureduringbaking,andalsoinrelationtogascellstabilizationand
gasretentionduringproof,andthustothefinalstructureandvolumeofthebaked
product(Dobraszczyketal.,2000).Therelevantrheologicalconditionsaroundan
expandinggascellduringproofandbakingarebiaxialextension,largestrain,and
lowstrainrate.Anyrheologicaltestswhichseektorelatetobakingperformance
shouldthereforebeperformedunderconditionssimilartothoseofbaking
expansion.Methodssuchasbubbleinflationandlubricatedcompressionofferthe
mostappropriatemethodformeasuringrheologicalpropertiesofdoughs.The
majoradvantageofthesetestsisthatthedeformationcloselyresemblespractical
conditionsexperiencedbythecellwallsaroundtheexpandinggascellswithinthe
doughduringproofandovenrise,i.e.,largedeformationbiaxialextensioncanbe
carriedoutatthelowstrainratesandelevatedtemperaturesrelevanttobaking
(Dobraszczyketal.,2003).
Recentworkhasshownthatbreaddoughsexhibitstrainhardeningunderlarge
extensionaldeformations,andthattheseextensionalrheologicalpropertiesare
importantinbakingperformance(vanVlietetal.,1992;Dobraszczykand
Roberts,1994;Janssenetal.,1996b;Dobraszczyk,1997;WikstromandBohlin,
1999;Dobraszczyketal.,2003).Strainhardeningallowstheexpandinggascell
wallstoresistfailurebylocallyincreasingresistancetoextensionasthebubble
wallsbecomethinner,andprovidesthebubblewallsgreaterstabilityagainstearly
coalescenceandbettergasretention.Itisthereforeexpectedthatdoughswith
good
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strainhardeningcharacteristicsshouldresultinafinercrumbtexture(e.g.,smaller
gascells,thinnercellwalls,andanevendistributionofbubblesizes)andlarger
bakedvolumethandoughswithpoorstrainhardeningproperties.Ithasbeen
shownthatgoodbreadmakingdoughshavegoodstrainhardeningpropertiesand
inflatetolargersinglebubblevolumebeforerupture,whereaspoorbreadmaking
doughsinflatetolowervolumesandhavemuchlowerstrainhardening
(DobraszczykandRoberts,1994;Dobraszczyk,1997).Loafvolumeforanumber

ofcommercialwhiteflourdoughshasbeenrelateddirectlytothefailurestrainand
strainhardeningpropertiesofsingledoughbubblesmeasuredatelevated
temperaturesinbiaxialextension(Dobraszczyketal.,2003).Strainhardeningand
failurestrainofcellwallswerebothseentodecreasewithtemperature,withcell
wallsingoodbreadmakingdoughsremainingstableandretainingtheirstrain
hardeningpropertiestohighertemperatures(60C),whilstthecellwallsofpoor
breadmakingdoughsbecameunstableatlowertemperatures(4550C)andhad
lowerstrainhardening.Bubblewallstabilityisincreasedtoprogressivelyhigher
temperatureswithincreasingbakingvolume,allowingthebubblestoresist
coalescenceandretaingasformuchlonger.Bubblewallinstabilityinpoorer
breadmakingvarietiesoccursatmuchlowertemperatures,givingearlierbubble
coalescenceandreleaseofgas,resultinginlowerloafvolumesandpoorertexture
(Dobraszczyketal.,2003).
Thesteamingofwheatflourforvariousperiodsweakenedtheglutennetwork
structurewhilstPrakashandRao,(1999)havestudiedtheeffectsofheat
processingofcerealgrainsonthepasteviscosityofcerealflours.
Endproductqualityandrheology
Thelinkbetweendoughrheologyandbakingqualityislongestablished,mainly
duetoempiricalevidencefrommanualassessmentssuchaskneadingorstretching
ofdoughbybakersaftermixing.However,theresultsfromconventional
descriptivemethodsandfundamentalrheologicalstudiesondoughshaveoften
givendisappointingcorrelationswithbakingquality,mainlybecausethe
deformationconditionsinthesetestsareverydifferentthanthoseoccurringduring
proofandbaking.
Doughrheologyisofconsiderableimportanceinbreadandbiscuitmanufacturing
asitinfluencesthemachinabilityofdoughandthequalityofendproduct(Indrani
andRao,2007).Doughistheintermediateproductbetweenflourandbiscuits.
Doughwhichistoofirmortoosoftwillnotprocesssatisfactorilyonthe
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13
appropriatedoughformingequipmentandwillnotyieldasuitableproduct.
Doughsthataretoostrongdonotallowproperdevelopmentofthebubblesand
resultintheformationofdense,unpalatableloavesofsmallvolume,whiledoughs
thataretooweakcannotretainthebubblesandresultinlargeholesintheloafor

inthecollapseoftheloaf.Itisreportedthatdoughconsistencyinfluencesthe
qualityofbiscuits(ManoharandHaridasRao,2002;AngioloniandCollar,2008).
Thequalityofbakedproductsisgovernedbyrheologicalpropertiesofdough
(Stathopoulosetal.,2006).Thisprecedingrheologicalevaluationofthedoughis
goodindicatorofdoughhandlingproperties.Doughrheologycharacterizationis
animportantparameterintheevaluationofbiscuitwheatqualityandindicates
doughhandlingpropertiesandthetendencyofthedoughtocontract(Pedersenet
al.,2004).Severalmethodsincludingmixograph,farinographandextensograph
areusedforcharacterizationoftherheologicalpropertiesofbiscuitdough(Ross
etal.,2004)andproteinspresentinwheatflourgovernedtheserheological
properties.Molecularsizeandstructureoftheglutenpolymersthatmakeupthe
majorstructuralcomponentsofwheatarerelatedtotheirrheologicalpropertiesvia
modernpolymerrheologyconcepts.Interactionsbetweenpolymerchain
entanglementsandbranchingareseentobethekeymechanismsdeterminingthe
rheologyofHMWpolymers.Thesestructuralandrheologicalpropertiesofthe
insolublepolymerfractionaremainlyresponsibleforvariationsinbaking
performance(Dobraszczyk,2004a).
Therheologicalcharacterizationofwheatflourdoughisnecessaryforthe
successfulmanufacturingofbakeryproductsbecauseofitsinfluenceon
mechanicalhandlingandqualitycharacteristicsofthefinishedproducts(Agyare
etal.,2005)Thesuitabilityofwheatflourfortheproductionofdifferentbaked
productslikebreads,cakes,biscuitsandchapattisdependsprimarilyonparticular
rheologicalpropertiesofdoughsuchaswaterabsorption,doughstability,strength,
extensibility,elasticityetc.(Karaoglu,2011).Duringbreadmaking,rheological
propertiesofdoughchangeateverystageofbreadmakingprocess.Whenthe
doughismixedinahighspeedmixer,itisconvertedintoanelasticandcoherent
massduetohighstressconditionsprevailingatthisspeed(Stojceskaetal.,2007).
Rheologicalbehaviourisassociateddirectlywithtexturalqualitiessuchasmouth
feel,tasteandshelfstability(Herhetal.,2000).
Conclusion
Itcanbeconcludedfromtheavailableliteraturethatthedynamicrheological
techniqueoffrequencysweep
PAK.J.FOODSCI.,23(2),2013:105123ISSN:22265899

undersmalldeformationsishighlypromisingforelucidatingthestructureof
wheatproteinsandtheprocessibilityofwheatflourdough.Thesestudies
demonstratethatthecomponentinteractionsarefairlyimportantfordetermining

therheologicalbehavioursofglutenandflourdoughs.Itwouldappearthatfor
HMWpolymerssuchasgluten,largedeformationextensionalrheological
propertiesaremoresensitivetochangesinpolymerentanglementsandbranching
thansmalldeformationdynamicshearproperties,basedonsoundpolymerphysics
principlesandexperimentaldata.InsolubleHMWgluteninshavebeenshownto
bebestrelatedtovariationsinbakingquality,andtothepresenceoflong
relaxationtimes,indicatingentanglementsoftheHMWpolymers.Strain
hardening,whichhasbeenshowntobeasensitiveindicatorofentanglementsand
longchainbranchinginHMWpolymers,isseeninlargeextensionaldeformation
ofdoughsandglutens,andiswellrelatedtobubblewallstability,longrelaxation
timesandtovariationsinbakingperformanceamongstdifferentwheatvarieties.
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