Applied Linguistics 22/3: 295323

# Oxford University Press 2001

The Task of Poetry Reading and Second

Language Learning
DAVID IAN HANAUER
Tel-Aviv University, Israel
The aim of the current study was to evaluate the role of the poetry-reading task
for second language learning. The study followed Skehan's (1998) methodological approach to task choice and theoretical position on the importance of
focus-on-form for language learning. The paper rst describes the way poetry is
read and understood by advanced second language learners and then considers
the interaction between this description and the language learning process. The
research methodology chosen was qualitative and consisted of an in-depth
analysis of the protocols of ten dyads of advanced English language learners
reading a poem from a popular song. The most basic contribution of this study is
the development of a coding system that describes the types of responses
elicited during poetry reading. Poetry reading is described as a close reading,
meaning construction task that involves high levels of close consideration,
analysis and elaboration of textual meanings. This coding system reveals how
non-native readers of poetry notice form and consider the gap between input
and output, thus extending their understanding of the potential uses and
meanings of an existing linguistic structure. In addition, it shows how nonnative readers view the distance between the poem's content and their own
knowledge of the target culture and thus nd their cultural awareness
enhanced.

INTRODUCTION
The use of literature within the second language classroom has a long history.
For some early language teaching methods, such as the GrammarTranslation
method, the reading and understanding of literature constituted the main aim
of language learning (Howatt 1984). However, over the last 20 years
developments in the eld of applied linguistics have directly questioned the
role and the relevance of literature for language learning (Edmondson 1997).
One of the main problems is that there is very little actual empirical data
relating to the reading and comprehension of literature within the language
classroom. The aim of the current paper is to address this imbalance by
investigating and presenting data relating to one literary reading taskpairgroup understanding of a poem in a second language.
Within the eld of applied linguistics, there is a history of using linguistic
knowledge to understand literature. Stylistics is an approach to the understanding and interpretation of literature using linguistic description (Jakobson
1960; Leech 1970; Carter 1982; Cook 1994; Fowler 1996; Short 1996; Toolan

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1998). Stylistic research has made a direct contribution to the analysis of the
textual structure of literary texts including poetry. For example, Jakobson's
(1960) classic linguistic analysis of poetry provided new insights into how
poetry was structured and Leech's (1970) discussion of cohesion and
foregrounding provided linguistic tools through which poetry could be
understood. However, much stylistic research involves the analysis of literary
texts, not how real readers, let alone non-native readers, understand these
texts. The main eort of the stylistics approach is to use linguistics to teach
and interpret literature, not to investigate empirically the role literature can
play in the language learning process. Thus at present, it is unclear if it is
actually desirable to use poetry in the language classroom and if so what role
poetry reading would actually have. The aim of the current paper is to explore
the role of poetry reading with advanced L2 learners.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Within the context of applied linguistics, some researchers have proposed that
tasks should be used as a central organizing concept for second language
classroom practice (Candlin 1987; Nunan 1989; Long 1989; Skehan 1998). In
a comprehensive discussion of the denition of a language-based task, Skehan
proposes the following ve criteria that dene a task:
.
.
.
.
.

meaning is primary;
there is some communication problem to solve;
there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities;
task completion has some priority;
the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome (Skehan 1998: 95).

Underlying these criteria is the position that language tasks in the classroom
should have some validity in relation to real-world language activities and
that language instruction should be embedded within authentic activities
conducted by the language learners. The task orientated language classroom
presents to language learners a series of naturalistic tasks that they are
required to complete. The language learner's emphasis is on the task but its
successful completion requires the negotiation of the required language forms.
Thus while focusing on the task the language learner is directed to use the
language resources at her/his disposal and recognize the need for extending
existing language resources in order to successfully complete the task.
Within this approach, the choice and denition of the specic tasks to use is
of central importance. Skehan (1998) proposes two procedures that are
central in the denition of specic tasks and their classroom use: processingbased analyses and selective channelling rationale. Processing-based analysis
involves the empirical investigation of the processing load involved in the
completion of the task. This empirical investigation should provide evidence
relating to the focus of the task and the processes involved in its completion.
The selective channel rationale proposes that specic tasks should be used to

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full dierent aims within the language learning process. These two aspects of
the denition of tasks are interrelated. In order to dene the role of a task, the
actual process of completing the task has rst to be understood through
empirical investigation. By choosing tasks based on an analysis of the
processes involved in their completion, the language-learning syllabus can
be structured in a pedagogically meaningful way.
Empirical research into the nature of dierent tasks has rendered a series of
task features that can be used to dierentiate between tasks. Skehan (1992)
proposes that tasks can be dierentiated in relation to their code complexity,
cognitive complexity, and communicative stress. Brown et al. (1984) use as
features: information type (whether the information in the task changes or
stays the same and whether it is abstract or concrete) and degree of diculty
(amount of information and its interrelationships) of the information. Pica et
al. (1993) dierentiate between tasks through the type of interaction (oneway/two-way) and type of communicative goal (convergent/divergent). As
proposed by Skehan (1998) the importance of these distinctions is in their
ability to allow the language professional to consider the potential interaction
between these task features and language learning processes.
The reading of literature is a naturalistic task that exists within the realm of
real-world language use. This is especially true since the canon wars within
the eld of literary research have redened literature to include a wide variety
of texts and reading situations including the lyrics of popular songs. In
particular many young second language students may be interested in reading
and understanding the lyrics of songs (Edmondson 1997). As naturalistic
reading tasks, literary reading deserves consideration for inclusion within the
language classroom. Skehan's (1998) methodological approach to task choice
would suggest that literary reading tasks need empirical investigation to
determine the process characteristics of completion of these reading tasks and
then theoretical consideration to determine whether specic literary reading
tasks are benecial for the process of learning a second language. Current
arguments both for and against the use of literature in the classroom are
essentially theoretical and are only loosely based on empirical evidence. There
is a need for more in-depth investigation of the processes involved in
completing literary reading tasks in a second language.
On a theoretical level, several arguments have been proposed supporting
the use of literature in the language classroom. The most prevalent argument
for the incorporation of literary reading tasks is that they provide a source of
motivation, enjoyment, and personal involvement (Dubuy 1997; Maley and
Du 1989; Holten 1997; Lazar 1996; McKay 1986). Edmondson (1997) has
argued against this position by claiming that there is no evidence to support
this claim, but that there is some indirect evidence suggesting that second
language learners do not like or want to read literature (Edmondson 1996).
The second argument for the incorporation of literary reading tasks in the
language classroom is that literary texts provide language learners access to
cultural knowledge of the target language community (Kramsch 1993; Lazar

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1996; Littlewood 1986; McKay 1986). Edmondson (1997) argues against this
position by pointing out that literature that is written from a single
individual's perspective has an unclear relationship with the culture of the
whole community. Finally, a central argument for the use of literature in the
language classroom is the psycholinguistic position that literary texts and the
process of literary reading have special characteristics that make it a benecial
task for the language learning process (Chan 1999; Hanauer 1997, 1999;
McKay 1986). Edmondson (1997) points out that there is no evidence to
directly support this claim and that none of the theories of language learning
directly state a role for literary reading within the language learning process.
Arguments supporting the use of poetry reading in the language classroom
have focused on the psycholinguistic position (Chan 1999; Hanauer 1997;
Widdowson 1975, 1992). The central argument for using poetry reading as a
task is that poetry is a natural discourse context that directs the reader's
attention to textual features of the poem while staying within a meaning
construction framework (Hanauer 1997). As proposed by Ellis (1995) the
conscious consideration of form, as manifest in second language knowledge,
facilitates L2 knowledge in two main ways:
1. It directs the learners' attention to the linguistic properties of the input,
and thus, oers the opportunity of widening the learners' intake.
2. It enhances the language learners' ability to notice the gap between the
input and their own output and thus enhances their ability to evaluate
their own implicit knowledge of the language.
However, previous research has shown that many language tasks do not
actually direct the language learner to focus on the form of language
(VanPatten 1990). The language learners' natural processing focus is on
meaning, leaving few processing resources for form (VanPatten 1996).
Accordingly, the claim has been made that tasks that direct attention to
form need to be constructed and employed for language learning to take place
(Sinclair 1991; Skehan 1996). Reading poetry presents an eminently suitable
task in relation to this issue, for here, meaning construction and focus on form
are naturally linked. For L1 readers, research has shown that the construction
of meaning while reading a poem involves close consideration of the specic
linguistic forms used to express this meaning (Hanauer 1998, 2000). As
described by Widdowson (1975), the de-familiarization of language used in
poetry destabilizes the learners' familiar relation of words to world and sets
them on a search for gaps in their own linguistic knowledge of the target
language. Thus potentially for the second language learner, the reading of
poetry would involve language input which is foregrounded, unusual, and
draws attention to itself. This would then lead to a process of searching for
ways of understanding the structures that are used and would result in a
widening of the options of usage for the structures that were noticed and
negotiated in the meaning construction process.
Accordingly, the psycholinguistic argument can be proposed that the

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reading of poetry in a second language directs the reader to focus on form and
thus has the potential of raising the reader's ability to notice input and notice
the gap between input and output and thus enhance the language learning
process. In addition, as proposed by supporters of the use of literature in the
language classroom, poetry may have the function of enhancing discourse
and cultural awareness and creating personal motivation in the classroom.
Following Skehan's (1998) methodological approach to task choice, the aim
of the current study is to describe the way poetry is read and understood by
advanced second language learners and then consider the interaction between
this description and the language learning process. The research methodology
chosen was qualitative and consisted of an in-depth analysis of the protocols
of ten dyads of advanced English language learners reading a poem from a
popular song. Specically two questions will be addressed in this study:
1. What is the process by which pairs of advanced second language learners
understand a poem?
2. Does the task of poetry reading have a useful role to play in second
language acquisition?
These two questions are interrelated. The rst question will be answered
through the analysis of the data collected in the qualitative study. The second
question will be answered on the basis of a theoretical discussion of the results
of the rst question.

METHOD
In order to investigate these questions a situation was constructed in which
poetry could be discussed between second language readers. The methodology
chosen was the small group discussion framework. For this specic study, the
participants discussed poetry in pairs. Previous research has suggested that
dyads are an appropriate grouping for the second language classroom (Du
1986; Doughty and Pica 1986; Kowal and Swain 1994). In addition, the pairgroup discussion of poetry has the advantage of providing a protocol of the
participants' considerations while completing the poetry reading task without
the cognitive overload and articiality of verbalizing all their thoughts as in a
think-aloud reading exercise.

Participants
Twenty female college students participated in this study. All the participants
were native Hebrew speakers enrolled in a teacher's training college in Israel.
Their ages ranged from 20 to 24 years. All the participants were enrolled in
or had just completed an advanced level EFL reading course. None of the
participants had degrees in English or Hebrew literature. All the participants
explicitly agreed to take part in the study which required speaking in
English.

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Materials
A single poem by Leonard Cohen was used in this study. The poem was
`Suzanne takes you down' (Cohen 1969). The poem was photocopied in
order to preserve the original typeface and graphic presentation (see
Appendix for full poem). This poem was chosen because it functions both
as the lyric for a known pop song and as a poem in its own right. The
advantage of this type of poetry is that it is close to the learners' own literacy
experiences and can function as a more authentic poetry reading task
without impairing the quality of the poetry itself. Many language learners
listen to popular music and are interested in understanding and discussing
the lyrics of the songs.

Task
The participants of this study were presented with a poetry-reading task in a
small group format. The participants were told to read and discuss the poem
together in order to understand the poem. The specic instructions given in
English were as follows:
In this study, you will read and discuss a poem. The poem you will read
is `Suzanne takes you down' by Leonard Cohen. Read the poem
together and try to understand what the poem is about. Express your
thoughts to one another so that your partner will be able to follow your
understanding of the poem. The aim of your reading is to understand
the poem.

Procedure
The twenty participants were divided into ten pairs. They were allowed to
choose their partners. The data were collected in an individual session for
each pair of subjects. Each individual session was held in a quiet room on
campus with the researcher present. The participants were seated next to one
another at a table. The researcher presented them with two photocopies of the
poem and a card with the instructions. The instructions were read with the
participants and any clarication questions were answered. Once the
researcher was satised that the participants understood the instructions,
the participants were told that the session would be audiotaped and when
they were ready to begin the tape recorder would be turned on. A small
recording tape was placed at the side of the table and was used for the audio
recording. None of the participants objected to the recording of the session.
Once the participants signalled that they were ready to begin, the tape
recorder was turned on and the session began. During the session the
researcher was seated in the corner of the room so as to be as unobtrusive as
possible. The researcher did not intervene in the participants' discussion.
However, if there was a period of silence longer than a few seconds, the
researcher prompted the participants with statements such as `Please let one

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another know what you are thinking' or `Can you think of anything else that
you would like to relate to'. Direct questions to the researcher from the
subjects relating to the poem were answered by reassuring the participants
that whatever they were doing was ne and they should continue as they
thought suitable. The session stopped as soon as the participants decided that
they had nothing more to say. Following the session the audiotapes were
transcribed.

Data analysis
The current study employed a grounded theory approach to the analysis of
the transcribed protocols of the participants (Strauss and Corbin 1990). This
approach involved a cyclical procedure of reading the written protocols,
reaching conclusions, and then evaluating these conclusions by re-reading
and re-analysing the data in order to develop an understanding of the task of
poetry reading. In all, four stages of analysis were conducted.

Stage one
The rst stage of analysis lasted approximately two months and consisted of
carefully reading the written protocols of the ten dyads taking part in the
poetry reading task. The aim of this initial analysis and reading process was to
propose a coding system that could be used to analyse the participants'
responses. The researcher carefully read each protocol while keeping notes on
the type of response provided by each participant. A series of meetings was
then held between the researcher and a research assistant in order to discuss
the category system. The result of this stage of analysis was a tentative and
partial coding system for the data.

Stage two
The second stage of analysis lasted approximately a month and consisted of
the verication and modication of the partial coding system. During this
stage, all the participants' written data were re-analysed using the partial
coding system from stage one. Each of the participants' utterances was
compared to the coding system and notes were kept on the appropriateness of
the categories in the coding system. As in the case of stage one, the researcher
analysed the utterances independently and then a series of meetings were
held with the research assistant in order to discuss the developing category
system. Particular emphasis was placed on creating clear dierentiation
between the categories of the coding system and ensuring that all utterances
be included within the coding system. The result of this stage was a coding
system that was exhaustive and exclusive in relation to the utterances of the
participants in this study.

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Stage three
The third stage of analysis consisted of the evaluation of the reliability of this
coding system. The researcher and research assistant independently reanalysed every utterance in the total data set using the coding system from
stage two. Reliability was computed by submitting the independent ratings of
the two researchers for the utterances of 25 per cent of the data to a measure
of internal consistency. Cronbach's alpha coecient was computed and the
measure of internal consistency was 0.864. This reects moderately high
levels of agreement between the two researchers' independent use of the
coding system on the data set. In addition, during this stage, a summary table
of the dyads' frequency of use of the categories was compiled. A Spearman
Rho rank order correlation coecient was calculated for each of the dyads in
comparison to every other dyad. Finally in this stage the time duration of each
dyad protocol was recorded.

Stage four
The fourth stage of analysis lasted approximately two months and consisted of
analysing the process of the development of the dyads' understanding of the
poem. The initial stage of this analysis consisted of considering the clusters of
categories found in each protocol. The temporal relations of the categories
found in each protocol were analysed and notes were taken in relation to the
dierent types of progression found in each protocol. Progression in this study
refers to a series of categories that appear together with specic temporal
relations. The progressions of each protocol were then compared across the
ten protocols. A nal list of 12 common progressions was dened and each
protocol was then re-analysed using the list of common progressions. The
research assistant independently analysed 25 per cent of the data set using the
list of 12 progressions. Reliability was computed by submitting the independent ratings of the two researchers to a measure of internal consistency.
Cronbach's alpha coecient was computed and the measure of internal
consistency was 0.823. This reects moderately high levels of agreement
between the two researchers' independently using the progression coding
system on the data set.
Following this, an analysis of the function of the dierent progressions was
conducted. Several dierent progressions were found to full the same
function. The analysis of functions yielded a series of ve functions that dene
the role of each of the 12 individual progressions. Finally a summary table of
the dyads' frequency of use of the dierent functions was compiled and a
hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted. The hierarchical cluster analysis
allowed an analysis of the underlying structure of similarities among the
dyads in relation to their use of the dierent functions (Blasheld and
Aldenderfer 1988).

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RESULTS
The results section of this paper is organized according to the hierarchy of the
analysis. For each stage, the rst section presents the coding system and its set
of internal categories. The second section presents the summary table of the
frequency of use of the categories by the ten dyads and the time duration of
each protocol. The third section presents the list of functions and the specic
progressions of categories. The nal section presents a summary table of the
frequency of function use by the ten dyads.

Coding system
The most basic result of this study is the coding system that was developed to
analyse the individual utterances of the participants. This coding system was
the basis for the subsequent analyses of the task of reading and understanding
a poem in a small group format. In itself, this coding system oers denitions
of the type of responses that are elicited while conducting the poetry reading
task. Nine categories were found that covered all the responses of the
participants: noticing, questioning, interpretive hypothesis, re-statement of
interpretive hypothesis, counter-statement of interpretive hypothesis, elaborative statement of interpretive hypothesis, integrative interpretive statement, presentation of world knowledge, and general statement. Each category
will now be dened and specic examples from the data set provided.

Noticing
A noticing response is dened as an utterance in which the speaker directs her
and her partner's attention to a specic aspect of the text. This aspect of
directing attention to the text could consist of pointing out and/or quoting
specic lines, clauses or words of the poem; noticing repetitions and/or
dierences between specic lines, clauses or words in the poem; noticing
unusual grammatical usage in the poem; and noticing and noting specic
literary features manifest in the poem itself. Noticing in the way it is used in
this study refers to direct evidence of close textual reading in which the
speaker specically notices and points out sections and aspects of the text. For
example, one participant from dyad 9 stated the following: `Look here it says
``you've touched her perfect body'' but here it says ``he touched your perfect
body'' see'.

Questioning
A questioning response is an utterance in which the speaker asks a question
relating to a section or aspect of the poem. This aspect of questioning could
consist of asking questions relating to the specic meaning of a sentence, line,
clause, or word in the poem or asking questions relating to the content of the
poem. Questioning as it is used in this study refers to evidence of the speaker's

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deliberation over the meaning of a section of the poem. For example, one
participant from dyad 5 quoted from the poem `she holds the mirror' and then
stated `Is there another meaning of mirror?' Or later in the same protocol, the
same participant asked, `What is Salvation Army?'

Interpretive hypothesis
An interpretive hypothesis response is an utterance in which the speaker
proposes a new option for understanding specic sentences, lines, clauses, or
words of the poem, unclear connections, unclear references or answers to
questions that have been posed. The proposed understanding involves
interpreting a section or aspect of the poem. In many cases, this is an
inferential process in which the reader adds information that is beyond the
explicit information in the poem. As used in the current study, the term
interpretive hypothesis refers to direct evidence of the participant's process of
constructing of meaning. For example, in the protocol of dyad 7, one
participant poses the question `What does ``only drowning men could see
him'' mean?' The second participant in the dyad responded by saying `that
means that only people in a very dicult state are looking for salvation'. The
response of the second participant provides a new understanding of a dicult
line of the poem in response to a direct question posed by the rst participant.

Re-statement of an interpretive hypothesis

A re-statement of an interpretive hypothesis response is an utterance in which
the speaker conrms a previously stated interpretive hypothesis. This restatement is a repetition of a previously stated understanding of a section or
aspect of the poem. The re-statement of the interpretive hypothesis is usually
not verbatim but rather a paraphrase of the content of a previously stated
understanding. As used in the current study, the term re-statement of an
interpretive hypothesis refers to direct evidence of the participant's tracking,
repetition, and conrmation of previously stated meanings. The re-statement
of an interpretive hypothesis means that the reader has kept the original
interpretation active so that it can be used in later meaning construction
processes. For example, early in the protocol of dyad 8, one participant
noticed that the chorus of the last stanza is dierent from the other two
stanzas and she then interprets this as meaning `it is as if she is alone'. A bit
further on in the protocol the other participant returns to this interpretation
and states, `yes, in the end she stays alone'. This re-statement of the
interpretive hypothesis both repeats and conrms the original interpretive
hypothesis.

Counter statement of an interpretive hypothesis

A counter statement of an interpretive hypothesis response is an utterance in
which the speaker opposes a previously stated interpretive hypothesis and/or

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proposes a counter understanding. The counter statement of a previously

stated hypothesis relates to the same aspect of the poem as the original
interpretive hypothesis, however the statement either directly or indirectly
negates the original hypothesis. A counter statement of an interpretive
hypothesis fulls the function of changing the direction of the development of
the interpretive hypothesis. For example, in the protocol of dyad 6, the two
participants were discussing the meaning of the lines `that's why you want to
be there/ she feeds you tea and oranges/ that come all the way from China'.
One participant proposed the interpretive hypothesis that `he is a sailor, he
brought the tea and oranges with him from his trip'. The other participant
negates this interpretive hypothesis with the following statement, `He didn't
bring her anything, it says so'.

Elaborative statement of an interpretive hypothesis

An elaborative statement of an interpretive hypothesis is an utterance in
which the speaker repeats and then elaborates on a previously stated
interpretive hypothesis. The previous statement is referred to and then
extended beyond its original content. This can be done by adding a new idea
and new information to the hypothesis or by modifying the strength of the
original statement by changing the degree of the statement. Elaborative
statements of previously stated interpretive hypotheses allow the development of the ideas being proposed. For example in the protocol of dyad 2, one
participant proposes the interpretive hypothesis that the poem `is a religious
poem'. The other participant elaborates on this idea by stating, `Yes, it is trying
to tell us that in everyone is something divine'. The rst participant further
elaborates this interpretive hypothesis when she states, `the divine thing is
love'.

World knowledge
A world knowledge statement is an utterance in which the speaker presents
general knowledge from her long-term memory as a response to an
interpretive hypothesis, a specic section of text or in answering a question
that has been posed. A world knowledge statement does not involve the direct
analysis of the content or a specic aspect of the poem. It is the activation of
knowledge held in long-term memory that relates to the individual's
knowledge of the world. While it is not the result of the analysis of the
poem, it does provide information that can later be used to understand the
poem. For example in the protocol of dyad 2, the two participants entered into
a discussion of their knowledge about Jesus. One participant stated, `Jesus did
walk on the water'. The other participant added from her own world
knowledge that `Jesus revealed himself on the water and they said he was
god'.

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Integrating knowledge
As used in the current study, an integrating knowledge statement is an
utterance that connects two previously stated utterances and thereby
produces a new and more comprehensive interpretation of the poem or a
section of it. Integrative statements make connections between two (or more)
interpretive hypotheses or between interpretive hypotheses and a statement
of world knowledge. For example in the protocol of dyad 1, in the rst 12
minutes of discussion several ways of understanding the chorus and the
content of the poem were proposed. One participant proposed that the line
`he touched your perfect body with her mind' meant that the speaker has a
fantasy of Suzanne. The same participant had also proposed that Suzanne has
a `spiritual' side to her. The second participant proposed that the poem is
about a `love relationship and they had sex'. Both participants had discussed
the idea that people `followed her blindly'. After these individual interpretive
hypotheses, the rst participant presented the following integrative statement
`Ahmm, he fantasizes about her all the time, with his head he keeps coming
back to her, perhaps he only had one time with her but because he touched
her, he didn't only touch her, but spiritually as well and now he can't let go,
that's what happened'. This nal statement integrates various interpretive
hypotheses that have been presented during the dyad's initial discussion and
thereby presents a more comprehensive understanding of this section of the
poem.

General statement
A general statement is an utterance in which the speaker makes a personal
comment not directly connected to the analysis of the poem or sections of
it. The personal statement does not directly develop the understanding of
the poem but can relate to the general nature of the task or present a
personal comment. For example close to the end of the protocol of dyad 9,
one of the participants began to discuss her present relationship with her
boyfriend. The participant retold certain aspects of her relationship with her
boyfriend to her fellow participant. The discussion was outside the context
of the poem and was solely based on the participant's experience. This
discussion was a response to the poem but not a result of analysis or new
insight resulting from the poem. The discussion of her boyfriend did not
lead to a new insight into the character of the speaker in the poem or any
other additional analysis in the poem. In this sense, it is a personal
comment, elicited by the poem, but outside the immediate understanding
of the poem.

Category summary table

Using the above category system, a summary table for the frequency of
distribution of number of utterances of a specic category in the protocol of

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each dyad was calculated. Table 1 presents the frequency counts of categories
for each dyad and the time duration for the completion of the poetry-reading
task.
As can be seen in Table 1, there are large dierences in the time each pair
spent on the completion of the poetry-reading task. The range of times was
from 3.53 minutes to 25.6 minutes. This seems to suggest dierences in the
nature of the task conducted. However, a visual analysis of the distribution of
the categories within each dyad reveals similarities in the rank orders of usage
of the categories across the ten dyads. The categories of Noticing and
Interpretive hypothesis were the most highly used categories by all groups.
32.6 per cent of all utterances across all dyads were statements of Noticing and
this category was the most highly used category for all dyads except dyad 4.
25.3 per cent of all utterances across all dyads were Interpretive hypotheses.
This category was consistently the second most highly used category for nine
of the ten dyads. In dyad 4 the category of Noticing and Interpretive
hypothesis were tied ranks with the highest usage. Together the categories of
Noticing and Interpretive hypothesis account for 57.9 per cent of all the
utterances made by the participants.
Since Noticing was the most prevalent category, additional analysis was
conducted on this category to see what exactly was being noticed. Out of the
385 utterances from the category of Noticing, 61.55 per cent (237 utterances)
consisted of pointing out and/or quoting specic lines, clauses, or words of the
poem, 10.64 per cent (41 utterances) noticed grammatical usage in the poem,
10.9 per cent (42 utterances) noticed repetitions and/or dierences between
specic lines, 9.87 per cent (38 utterances) noticed and noted specic literary

Table 1: Frequency distribution of the number of utterances used for each

category of response for 10 dyads completing the poetry-reading task
(N = 20).
One

Two

Three Four Five

Six

Seven Eight

Noticing

83

22

17

12

58

18

41

Questioning

27

14

Integrating knowledge

16

World knowledge

11

10

10

Interpretive
hypothesis

48

19

13

12

42

13

34

59

33

26

Elaborative statement

23

14

16

Re-statement

44

20

25

Counter statement

10

General statement

27

Time in mins

25.23

5.27

4.25

3.53 12.45

6.57

8.48

Nine

Ten

65

42

27

25

21

4
25.6

2
12.38

1
5.93

308 THE TASK OF POETRY READING AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

features in the poem, and 7.05 per cent (27 utterances) noticed the graphic
form of the poem.
In order to further analyse the overall data and test the visual analysis that
the rank order of category use was similar across the dyads, Spearman Rho
correlation coecients were calculated for dyads. All dyads were signicantly
positively correlated to each other at the 0.02 level. The only exception to this
was the correlation coecient for dyads 4 and 9 (rs = 0.6432, p < 0.062). This
result shows that although there are dierences in the absolute number of
utterances and timing for each of the 10 dyads, the rank order of frequency of
use of the category in each pair is very similar.

Functions and progressions of categories

As described in the data analysis section above, the protocols of the
participants were analysed in relation to the clusters and temporal relations
between categories found in the protocol of each dyad. The relationship
between these progressions was then analysed in order to dene the functions
of these progressions. This analysis resulted in the denition of 5 functions
and a series of progressions of categories that full each function.
In the section that follows, each function is dened and the progressions
that belong to this function are presented. For each function, specic
examples from the data set are provided. In the symbolic notation of the
progression, the categories are presented by their initials (Noticing = N;
Questioning = Q; Integrating Knowledge = IK; World Knowledge = WK;
Interpretive Hypothesis = IH; Elaborative Statement = ES; Re-Statement = RS;
and Counter Statement = CS). The plus sign (+) denotes the sequential
relations between categories. A forward slash sign (/) before a category
denotes that the category is not always present in the progression.

Function 1: Collecting data

Function 1 is dened as the process of collecting data that can be used in the
subsequent analysis of the poem. The collection of data involves noticing and
questioning dierent aspects of the poem. As seen in the protocols of the ten
dyads, the initial stages of the poetry-reading task were characterized by the
function of data collection. The function of data collection also appears later in
the poetry reading task and seems to mark the stage where the development
of an interpretation has reached a dead end and a new direction or new
information is required. The function of data collection was also found at the
end of the protocols signalling that additional analysis could have been
conducted and that the proposed interpretations did not integrate all the
information within the poem.
Two progressions of categories were found to full the function of data
collection:

DAVID IAN HANAUER

309

Progression 1.1: Noticing sequence

N+N+N
Progression 1.1 consists of a series of noticed aspects of the poem. In this
sequence one or both participants direct their attention towards specic lines
or aspects of the poem. There is no attempt to integrate or interpret the
noticed elements. The noticed aspects are presented by the participants for
consideration.

Progression 1.2: Noticing and questioning sequence

N+Q+N
Progression 1.2 consists of a series of noticed aspects of the poem interspersed
with a question. Within the framework of the sequence the question is not
answered and the noticed elements are not interpreted or integrated within
the analysis of the poem. As with progression 1.1, in this sequence the noticed
elements and the question are presented by the participants for consideration.
As an example of the data collection function consider the following section of
the protocol of dyad 6:
Participant 1: See in the beginning, Suzanne . . . `because she lives by
the river' . . . then in the end its says, `she's wearing rags and feathers'.
What does it mean?
Participant 2: She also shows you where to look `garbage and owers'.

In this short section at the very beginning of the protocol of dyad 6, the
participants start by noticing dierent lines of the poem. They do not have an
interpretation or explanation for these lines. But this stage functions as an
initial stage of data collection, where the participants seem to be collecting
data in relation to the nature of Suzanne as a character.

Function 2: Constructing a local interpretation

Function 2 is dened as the process of constructing an interpretive understanding of specic sentences, lines, clauses, or word of the poem, unclear
connections, unclear references, or answers to questions that have been
posed. The interpretation is local in that it does not relate to a large section of
text but only to a specic section or aspect. The interpretation can be based on
world knowledge and is preceded by a noticed section of the poem. This
function is prevalent in the rst third of the protocols but also appears in later
sections of completing the task. The importance of this function is that it
creates localized understandings of the poem that can later be used,
elaborated, and integrated in a more comprehensive understanding of the
poem.
Three progressions of categories were found to full the function of
constructing a local interpretation:

310 THE TASK OF POETRY READING AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Progression 2.1: From noticing to interpretive hypothesis

N + IH
Progression 2.1 is characterized by an initial stage of noticing a specic section
or aspect of the poem followed by the presentation of an interpretive
understanding of the noticed section. The combination of a noticed element
and an interpretive hypothesis is a very basic pattern that generates
interpretive understandings of limited sections of the poem.

Progression 2.2: From question to interpretive hypothesis

Q + N + IH
Progression 2.2 is characterized by an initial stage of posing a question relating
to the poem. This is followed by noticing a specic section or aspect of the
poem. Following the question and the noticed section or aspect of the poem,
an interpretation is proposed that is limited to the noticed aspect of the poem.
This interpretation presents an answer to the question and an interpretation
of the specic section or aspect that has been noticed.

Progression 2.3: From world knowledge to interpretive hypothesis

WK + N + IH
Progression 2.3 is characterized by an initial presentation of some aspect of
world knowledge that is interpreted locally in relation to a specic section or
aspect of the poem. This interpretation follows the world knowledge
statement and produces an interpretation of a specic section or aspect of
the poem but does not directly integrate the previous elements.
As an example of the construction of a local interpretation function
consider the following section from the beginning of the protocol of dyad 5:
Participant 1: Let's start with the title
Participant 2: `Suzanne takes you down'
Participant 1: I understand that . . . `takes you down' . . . It is as if
something negative . . . something bad happens to you . . . to him.

In this short section, the participants start by directing attention to the title.
The title is read and an initial interpretation is presented. This initial
interpretation is localized to the title itself and as yet is not developed into a
wider understanding or interpretation of the poem. The interpretation is not
fully worked out and consists of only an initial and limited understanding of
the title.

Function 3: Developing a local interpretation

Function 3 is dened as the process of developing and extending a local
interpretation. This development can have several forms. It can involve

DAVID IAN HANAUER

311

elaborating an interpretation that already exists through the accumulation of

additional understandings relating to the original interpretive hypothesis, or
through new pieces of evidence that support an existing interpretation. This
function appears only after some local interpretations have been constructed.
In the current data set this function was used after the rst third of the
protocol. The importance of this function is that it creates extended
understanding of sections of the poem that go beyond the initial local
understandings. It dierentiates between those local interpretations that are
going to be used and can be extended, and those local interpretations that are
really limited to the initial understanding. This increased eort directed at a
specic section or aspect of the poem produces directions and understandings
that can be used to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the
poem.
Two progressions of categories were found to full the function of
developing a local interpretation:

Progression 3.1: Elaboration of a stated interpretation

IH + ES + /ES
Progression 3.1 is characterized by the initial presentation of an interpretive
hypothesis that is then developed by one or more elaborative statements.
These elaborative statements extend the original interpretation by adding a
new idea and new information to the hypothesis or by modifying the strength
of the original statement by changing the degree of the statement. The
addition of elaborative statements to an initial interpretation develops the
original idea.

Progression 3.2: Conrming a local interpretation

IH + /ES + /N + RS
Progression 3.2 is characterized by the initial presentation of an interpretive
hypothesis that is supported and conrmed by a re-statement of the same
hypothesis. The restatement of the hypothesis may follow a process in which
new sections or aspects of the poem have been noticed or the original
interpretive hypothesis has been elaborated on. By conrming the original
interpretive hypothesis with newly noticed sections or aspects of the poem,
the original interpretive hypothesis is developed.
As an example of developing a local interpretation function, consider the
following section from the middle of the protocol of dyad 4:
Participant 1: This piece `you want to want to travel with her' because
she is good to him
Participant 2: `you touched her perfect body with your mind'
Participant 1: He had sex with her, that's how she is good.
Participant 2: Good in bed.

312 THE TASK OF POETRY READING AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

In this short section, the two participants elaborate on the meaning of the
interpretive hypothesis that the speaker travels with Suzanne because `she is
good'. The elaboration involves explicating and adding information to the
original idea of being good. The elaboration of this idea leads to the
interpretation that the speaker and Suzanne had sex. This constitutes a
development of the initial interpretive hypothesis.

Function 4: Re-directing an interpretation

Function 4 is dened as the process of changing the way an interpretation of a
section or aspect of the poem develops. This change in the direction of
development involves the addition of a new interpretation to a section or
aspect of the poem following the noticing of new information and/or the
discussion of world knowledge or the countering of a stated interpretive
hypothesis following the noticing of new information. The re-direction of an
interpretation involves proposing new options for interpretation that are
dierent from the interpretations already proposed. In this way the understanding of the poem can be cumulative and involve new directions for
understanding. This function appears after some interpretive hypotheses have
been oered and developed. The importance of this function is that it creates
more complex and diversied understandings of the poem.
Three progressions of categories were found to full the function of redirecting an interpretation:

Progression 4.1: New interpretation following world knowledge

IH + WK + IH
Progression 4.1 is characterized by the proposal of a new understanding
following a world knowledge statement. Initially an original interpretive
hypothesis is proposed that is followed by a world knowledge statement. After
the world knowledge statement a new interpretive hypothesis is presented.
The new interpretation is not an elaboration of a previously proposed idea but
rather a new understanding and new direction for the development of the
interpretation.

Progression 4.2: New interpretation following additional noticing

IH + N + IH
Progression 4.2 is characterized by the proposal of a new understanding of a
section or aspect of the poem following the process of additional noticing. In
this sequence, an initial interpretation is presented which is followed by
additional noticing by one of the participants. The process of additional
noticing leads to the proposal of a new understanding of the section or aspect
of the poem being discussed. This new understanding presents a new direction
for understanding the poem.

DAVID IAN HANAUER

313

Progression 4.3: New interpretation following counter statement

IH + /N + CS + IH
Progression 4.3 is characterized by the proposal of a new understanding
following a counter statement of an earlier interpretive statement. In this
sequence, after the proposal of an initial interpretive hypothesis, a counter
statement is made. A process of noticing might in some cases precede the
counter statement. Following the counter statement a new understanding and
new direction for development are proposed. This sequence is the result of the
participants evaluating their own interpretive hypotheses and seeing the need
for a new and more promising direction.
As an example of re-directing an interpretation function, consider the
following section from the protocol of dyad 1:
Participant 1: Look at the last lines `you've touched her perfect body' . . .
here `he touched your perfect body'
Participant 2: There is something about sexuality
Participant 1: Its clear to me that it's not a woman.
Participant 2: I've got a crazy idea
Participant 1: What?
Participant 2: Think about drugs, a drug addict has highs and lows
Participant 1: mmm
Participant 2: he can hear things
Participant 1: Perhaps `Suzanne' is a name of a drug

In this short section, the two participants re-direct their interpretation. They
start by noticing and discussing the lines of the chorus. This leads to the initial
interpretive hypothesis that the section is about sexuality. The statement that
Suzanne is not a woman counters this direction. Following the counter
statement, a new interpretive hypothesis is proposed that involves a new
direction for understanding. The idea proposed is that the poem is about
drugs. This direction is then elaborated on and the idea that Suzanne is a type
of drug is proposed.

Function 5: Constructing global interpretations

Function 5 is dened as the process of constructing interpretations of the
poem that relate to signicant sections of the poem and/or integrate the
participants' previously stated interpretive processes. This function allows the
presentation of more comprehensive understandings of large sections of the
poem and uses interpretive hypotheses that have already been developed. The
construction of a global interpretation is based on the presence within the
discussion of previously stated local interpretations and world knowledge. The

314 THE TASK OF POETRY READING AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

global interpretation takes these diverse statements and combines them into a
more inclusive and comprehensive understanding of the poem. The
integrative function of this is important because it allows the participants to
create a more coherent understanding of the poem which takes into account
previously stated interpretations, world knowledge, elaborated interpretations, and noticed sections or aspects of the poem. This function appears in the
middle and last third of the protocols and allows the participants to make
more inclusive statements about their understanding of the poem.
Two progressions of categories were found to full the function of
constructing a global interpretation:

Progression 5.1: Integration of interpretive hypotheses

IH + /ES + /N + IH + /ES + IK
Progression 5.1 is characterized by the presence of an integrative statement
that incorporates previously stated interpretive hypotheses and their elaborations and noticed sections of the poem. The sequence starts with a series of
interpretive hypotheses that might be elaborated. Following these local
interpretations, a statement is made which integrates the diverse elements
into a cohesive single statement and understanding.

Progression 5.2: Integration of world knowledge and interpretive

hypothesis
IH + /ES + /N + WK + /IH + IK
Progression 5.2 is characterized by the presence of an integrative statement
that incorporates previously stated interpretive hypotheses, their elaborations,
noticed elements, and world knowledge statements. The sequence starts with
an interpretive hypothesis and a world knowledge statement, followed by an
integrative statement that integrates both the world knowledge and the
interpretive hypothesis into a single cohesive statement and understanding.
As an example of the construction of a global interpretation function
consider the following section from the protocol of dyad 10:
Participant 1: What's it about? Perhaps through religion . . . religion
and Jesus help them to nd themselves.
Participant 2: Could be that in the beginning she is a thing that can't be
reached that only he managed to touch her and through Jesus she
understood . . . thinking about herself . . . touching herself she
discovered the world.

In this section, the participants integrate world knowledge relating to religion

and Jesus with interpretive hypotheses relating to Suzanne's actions and
character. This integration of information takes into account large sections of
the poem and attempts to produce a more comprehensive understanding of
one of the main characters of the poem.

DAVID IAN HANAUER

315

Function summary table

Table 2 presents the frequency counts of functions for each dyad for the
completion of the poetry-reading task.
As can be seen in Table 2, Function 2 (constructing a local interpretation)
and Function 3 (developing a local interpretation) have the highest usage in
the data set. Function 2 accounted for 40.17 per cent of all the functions used
and Function 3 for a further 20.85 per cent. Function 2 was the function used
most frequently by eight of the ten dyads and Function 3 was used most
frequently by two of the dyads. 17.72 per cent of the functions used were
Function 1 (collecting data); 8.4 per cent of the functions used were Function
4 (re-directing an interpretation); and 7.8 per cent of the functions used were
Function 5 (constructing a global interpretation). Overall the data show that
the participants used mainly the rst three functions. The central characteristics of the dyad poetry-reading task involve collecting data, proposing
interpretive hypotheses, and then developing these interpretive hypotheses.
In order to further analyse the overall data, a hierarchical cluster analysis
was conducted to search for similarities among the dyads on the function data.
Dyad number was used as the independent variable and the ve dierent
function types were used as the dependent variables. This analysis revealed
that the dyads formed two large clusters. The rst cluster consisted of an initial
close grouping of dyads three, four, and two that were later joined with dyads
six, seven, and ten. The second cluster consisted of a core grouping of dyads

Table 2: Frequency distribution of the number of uses for each function for
10 dyads completing the poetry-reading task (N = 20).
One

Two

Three Four Five

Six

Seven Eight

Nine

Ten

Function 1
Collecting data

26

22

17

13

34

16

11

12

34

32

45

32

23

45

12

14

28

26

14

12

12

15

Function 2
Local interpretation
Function 3
Developing
interpretation
Function 4
Re-directing
interpretation
Function 5
Global interpretation

316 THE TASK OF POETRY READING AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

eight and nine that were later joined by dyad ve and at a much later stage by
dyad one. Thus the second cluster was a much looser grouping than the rst.
As can be seen in Table 2, the rst cluster (dyads three, four, two, six, seven,
and ten) is characterized by relatively low frequencies of occurrence for all
function types and a much greater usage of function 2 (constructing a local
interpretation) than other functions. The second cluster is characterized by
high frequency of occurrence for functions 1, 2, and 3. Dyads six and one are
unusual in the clusters in that they both have function 3 (developing an
interpretation) occurring with the highest frequency.

DISCUSSION
Following Skehan's (1998) position on task based syllabus design, the current
study has a double aim:
1. to describe the process of reading and understanding a poem in a second
language;
2. to discuss the interaction between this description and the second
language learning process.
The results of the current study show that the task of poetry reading is
primarily a close reading, meaning construction process. Of the nine
categories dened for analysing the participants' protocols, eight of them
are associated with meaning construction and only one categorygeneral
statementis not directly connected with the construction of meaning.
Accordingly, 95.94 per cent of all statements made while doing the poetryreading task were connected to the on-line construction of meaning. The
analysis of the categories further shows that the two most prevalent categories
used were those of noticing and the construction of a local interpretive
hypothesis. The high frequency of these two categories shows that the
participants were involved in a close reading and comprehension task. The
category of noticing was further analysed to see what exactly was being
noticed. This analysis shows that the participants were mainly directing their
attention at a specic line or section of the poem, at grammatical usage, or
repetition. The category of noticing and the category of interpretive
hypothesis made up 57 per cent of all utterances in the protocols and
emphasizes the close reading description of the poetry reading task.
The analysis of the functions and progressions of categories further supports
this description of the poetry reading task. The three most prevalent functions
were the collection of the data, the construction of a local interpretation, and
the development of a local interpretation. These functions involve close
reading of the poem, and the proposal and extension of an understanding.
The progressions that make up function 2 (constructing a local interpretation)
connect noticing, world knowledge, questioning, and proposing an interpretive hypothesis. Accordingly, this function describes the process of closely
reading and interpreting a text. As shown in the data, this function was 40.17

DAVID IAN HANAUER

317

per cent of all the functions used. Function 3 (developing a local

interpretation) was 20.85 per cent of all the functions. The progressions
that make up function 3 consist of elaborating, noticing, and re-stating an
interpretive hypothesis. This function describes the process in which the
participants go beyond the local interpretation and continue to add and
connect information to their understanding. Function 1 (collecting data) was
17.7 per cent of all functions used and involves noticing and questioning
specic sections of the poem. Taken together these three functions describe a
task that involves closely reading and analysing the poem.
The complete list of functions shows that while reading a poem the
participants go beyond the analysis of single lines or sections of the poem. The
functions of developing a local interpretation (function 3), re-directing an
interpretation (function 4), and constructing a global interpretation (function
5) demonstrate that the participants put some degree of eort into developing
their interpretations and attempted to integrate information from the poem
and their own interpretations in order to create a wider and more
comprehensive understanding of the poem. In sum, the task of reading a
poem in a second language would seem to be a meaning construction task
that involves close reading of the poem and the gradual development of an
interpretation of the poem. The majority of the time spent while doing this
task would seem to be directed at the understanding of specic lines and
sections of the poem. This understanding process involves looking closely for
specic lines, unusual grammatical usage, and patterns of repetition.
Although the current study does not allow a direct empirical comparison
between L1 and L2 poetry reading, the description provided above is
reminiscent of theoretical and empirical descriptions of the L1 reading process
and would seem to follow the same guidelines. Empirical descriptions of rst
language poetry reading have emphasized the importance of formal textual
features for the categorization and comprehension of poetry. While reading a
poem, readers direct their attention to the formal features of the poem and
use these features as an information source in the interpretation of the poem
(Hanauer 1995, 1996a, 1996b, 1998, 2000; Maill and Kluiken 1996; van Peer
1986, 1990). Theoretical discussions of L1 poetry reading make similar claims.
Culler (1975) has described poetry reading as a convention driven activity in
which readers search for veiled meanings in the text and expect all levels of
linguistic information to function in unison in establishing the meaning of the
poem. Jakobson (1960) and Mukarovsky (1964) have described poetry as a
linguistically directed reading process in which the specic patterns of
language found in the poem cause the reader to focus attention on the
formal features of the poem during reading. Accordingly, the results of the
current study would seem to be closely related to the theoretical and empirical
results relating to L1 poetry reading. The central claim of L1 poetry reading is
that the reader directs attention towards the formal language structures of the
poem and uses these to construct meaning. The results of the current study of
the L2 poetry-reading task would seem to support this description.

318 THE TASK OF POETRY READING AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

The question that now has to be dealt with is the relevance of this task for
second language learning. On the basis of the results of the present study the
task of poetry reading would seem to be a task that directs readers' attention
to a very close consideration, analysis and interpretation of the specic lines
and sections of the poem. As stated above, the categories of noticing and
interpretive hypothesis consisted of 57 per cent of all utterances made by the
participants. The presence of high levels of textual analysis increases the
language learners' potential for noticing and interpreting the linguistic
properties of the input. This is especially true when the linguistic structures
of poetry may in themselves be unusual and of low frequency. Accordingly, a
task that directs the reader to closely consider the meaning of specic
linguistic structures provides an opportunity for the language learner to
diversify and thus enhance her/his own linguistic knowledge of the target
language. The results of the current study show that L2 readers put a lot of
eort into trying to construct meaning for specic lines and sections of a
poem. The functions of constructing a local interpretation and developing an
interpretation involve the discussion and negotiation of the meaning of
specic lines. The main aspect of this task seems to be the application of
existing linguistic knowledge by the advanced L2 learner to new uses of the
linguistic structure. As seen in the current study, the poetry reading task is a
complex meaning construction task and the participants use their linguistic
and schematic knowledge sources in order to nd a meaning in the poem. As
seen in the progressions which constitute the functions of constructing and
developing local interpretations, re-directing interpretation and constructing a
global interpretation, the language learner does not only interpret a line of
poetry in isolation but continues to consider and propose additional understandings. From a language-learning viewpoint this is the process of extending
the way a linguistic structure can be used and understood. One aspect of
noticing the gap between input and output is the extension of potential uses
and meaning for an existing linguistic structure. The task of poetry reading
with advanced second language learners would seem to direct a process of this
kind. For advanced language learners the task of reading poetry can develop
their knowledge of the target language by providing a context within which
their language resources are stretched and applied to the understanding of
new and perhaps unusual uses of linguistic and semantic form.
It is also possible that within this task the language learner will notice and
contend with new types of input presented within the poem. However, the
present study does not provide evidence of L2 acquisition in the strict sense of
learning a completely new form that was not known before the reading and
discussion of the poem. The participants in the current study did focus on the
linguistic structure of the poem and as such they did focus on form. But, the
complexity of constructing meaning in the poem meant that they were rst
required to apply linguistic knowledge that they had already acquired and to
do this in a creative fashion in order to construct meaning. On the basis of the
current study, the psycholinguistic argument that can be proposed in relation

DAVID IAN HANAUER

319

to the poetry-reading task with advanced language learners is that it directs a

process in which language learners extend their understanding of the
potential range of uses and meanings of an existing linguistic structure.
One objection to the poetry reading task as an enhancer of second language
knowledge is that what is actually noticed by the language learners relates to
literary rather than linguistic form. The current study presents evidence that
does not support this position. The sub-analysis of the category of noticing
shows that only 9.87 per cent of the elements of the poem that were noticed
and commented on were directly literary in nature. The major categories of
noticing were pointing out specic lines, noticing unusual grammatical usage
and noticing repetition in the poem. Together these consisted of 84 per cent of
all the noticing utterances. Since the subsequent proposal of interpretive
hypotheses was based on what was noticed, the data seem to show that the
language learners were involved in the analysis and understanding of specic
lines and aspects of the poem and were not directly concerned with the
literary analysis of the poem. This is not to say that the participants did not
have any literary knowledge. It is clear by the presence of some literary terms
in the protocols that they did have experience with literary texts. However, in
the task itself it seems that their main concern was not with constructing a
literary interpretation but rather with just trying to understand the poem.
The data from the current study present indirect evidence that the poetry
reading task may also be useful for developing cultural awareness. The
extensive negotiation of the potential meanings of a line or lines of poetry
involves both world knowledge and linguistic resource. This process of
negotiation between two individuals trying to understand a line or section of
poetry and using both linguistic and world knowledge sources can create a
situation in which the language learner realizes that there is a meaning
present within the text that is beyond the denotative understanding that can
be constructed. In this case the process of noticing the gap applies to world
knowledge as well as linguistic information. In the current study all the dyads
discussed the meaning of Jesus and used world knowledge relating to this
historical, religious, and cultural gure. The relationship between the poetry
of an individual poet and the cultural community within which it was written
is not a straightforward one. Poets can and do subvert common cultural
beliefs, play with cultural meanings and construct personal symbolic codes.
However, in doing so they also activate the cultural context within which
they are functioning (Widdowson 1975). The process of questioning,
negotiating, proposing interpretations, and using world knowledge which
are part of the process of understanding a poem involve activating any world
knowledge the language learner has in relation to the cultural context of the
poem. This process can direct the reader to view the distance between the
poem's content and her/his own knowledge of the target culture. It is in this
way that the poetry reading task can enhance cultural awareness.

320 THE TASK OF POETRY READING AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

CONCLUSION
The aim of the current paper is to evaluate the role of the poetry-reading task
for second language learning. The results of the study categorize the task of
poetry reading as a close reading, meaning construction task that involves
high levels of close consideration, analysis, and elaboration of textual
meanings. This task oers advanced language learners the possibility of
extending their understanding of the potential uses and meanings of an
existing linguistic structure. In addition, this task can direct the reader to view
the distance between the poem's discourse and content and her/his own
knowledge of the target culture. It is in this way that the poetry reading task
can enhance cultural awareness. Accordingly, the study supports the position
that poetry be used in the second language classroom with advanced language
learners as a task that can enhance linguistic and cultural knowledge of the
target language.
(Revised version received August 2000)

APPENDIX
`Suzanne Takes You Down' by Leonard Cohen
Suzanne takes you down
to her place by the river,
you can hear the boats go by
you can stay the night beside her.
And you know that she's half crazy
but that's why you want to be there
and she feeds you tea and oranges
that come all the way from China.
Just when you mean to tell her
that you have no gifts to give her,
she gets you on her wave-length
and she lets the river answer
that you've always been her lover.
And you want to travel with her,
you want to travel blind
and you know that she can trust you
because you've touched her perfect body
with your mind.
Jesus was a sailor
when he walked upon the water
and he spent a long time watching
from a lonely wooden tower
and when he knew for certain
only drowning men could see him
he said All men will be sailors then
until the sea shall free them,

DAVID IAN HANAUER

321

but he himself was broken

long before the sky would open,
forsaken, almost human,
he sank beneath your wisdom like a stone.
And you want to travel with him,
you want to travel blind
and you think maybe you'll trust him
because he touched your perfect body
with his mind.
Suzanne takes your hand
and she leads you to the river,
she is wearing rags and feathers
from Salvation Army counters.
The sun pours down like honey
on our lady of the river,
as she shows you where to look
among the garbage and the owers,
there are heroes in the seaweed
there are children in the morning,
they are leaning out for love
they will lean that way forever
while Suzanne she holds the mirror.
And you want to travel with her,
you want to travel blind
and you're sure that she can nd you
because she's touched her perfect body
with her mind.

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