Business

Research Methods
Dr Bikramjit Rishi

Survey Research

Survey in Action
Assume you are planning to interview
shoppers in a shopping mall about their
views on increased food prices and what
the government should do about them. In
what different ways might you try to
motivate shoppers to cooperate in your
survey?

Survey in Action
A survey of the residents of a new subdivision
on why they happened to select that area in
which to live. You also wish to secure some
information about what they like and do not
like about life in the subdivision.

Survey in Action
A poll of students at a University on their
preferences among three candidates who
are running for president of the student
union.

Survey in Action
A survey of 58 wholesale grocery
companies scattered over India, on their
personnel
management
policies
for
warehouse personnel.

Surveys
Surveys ask respondents for information
using verbal or written questioning

Respondents
Respondents are a
representative
sample of people

Gathering Information via

Surveys

Quick
Inexpensive
Efficient
Accurate
Flexible

Problems
Poor Design
Improper Execution

Random Sampling Error

A statistical fluctuation that occurs because
of change variation in the elements selected
for the sample

Systematic Error
Systematic error results from some
imperfect aspect of the research design or
from a mistake in the execution of the
research

Sample Bias
Sample bias - when the results of a sample
show a persistent tendency to deviate in one
direction from the true value of the
population parameter

Respondent Error
A classification of sample bias resulting
from some respondent action or inaction
Nonresponse bias
Response bias

Nonresponse Error
Nonrespondents - people who refuse to
cooperate
Not-at-homes
Self-selection bias
Over-represents extreme positions
Under-represents indifference

Response Bias
A bias that occurs when respondents
tend to answer questions with a certain
slant that consciously or unconsciously
misrepresents the truth

Acquiescence Bias
A category of response bias that results
because some individuals tend to agree with
all questions or to concur with a particular
position.

Extremity Bias
A category of response bias that results
because response styles vary from person to
person; some individuals tend to use
extremes when responding to questions.

Interviewer Bias
A response bias that occurs because the
presence of the interviewer influences
answers.

Auspices Bias
Bias in the responses of subjects caused by
the respondents being influenced by the
organization conducting the study.

Social Desirability Bias

Bias in responses caused by respondents
desire, either conscious or unconscious, to
gain prestige or appear in a different social
role.

Administrative Error
Improper administration of the research task
Blunders
Confusion
Neglect
Omission

Administrative Error
Interviewer cheating - filling in fake
answers or falsifying interviewers
Data processing error - incorrect data entry,
computer programming, or other procedural
errors during the analysis stage.
Sample selection error -improper sample
design or sampling procedure execution.
Interviewer error - field mistakes

Time Period for Surveys

Cross-sectional
Longitudinal

Cross-Sectional Study
A study in which various segments of a
population are sampled
Data are collected at a single moment in
time.

Longitudinal Study
A survey of respondents at different times,
thus allowing analysis of changes over time.
Tracking study - compare trends and
identify changes
consumer satisfaction

Consumer Panel
A longitudinal survey of the same sample of
individuals or households to record (in a
diary) their attitudes, behavior, or
purchasing habits over time.

Emerging Methods
CAPI Computer Assisted Personal
Interview
CATI Computer Assisted Telephonic
Interview

Measurement Scales
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Primary Scales of Measurement

Scale
Nominal

Numbers
Assigned
to Runners

Finish
7

Finish

Ordinal

Interval
Ratio

Rank Order
of Winners

Performance
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale
Time to
Finish, in
Seconds

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Third
place

Second
place

First
place

8.2

9.1

9.6

15.2

14.1

13.4

Nominal Scale (Illustration)

A survey of retail stores is done on given two dimensions; (a) way

of maintaining stocks in the store and (b) daily turnover of
consumers in their store. Questions can be asked in following
manner:
Q. How do you stock items:
By product category ( )
Department wise
( )
At a centralized store ( )
A single warehouse ( )
Q. Daily turnover of consumer in your store is :
Between 100-200 ( )
Between 200-300 ( )
Above 300
( )
A two-way classification can be made; and association between
the two variables can be tested (2x2 analysis); cell with the
highest frequency can be seen by using this method.

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Nominal Scale (Illustration-1)

A two way classification
Stock
Method

Product
Category

Dept.
Wise

Centralized
Store

Single
Warehouse

Daily Turnover

100-200
200-300
Above
300
Total:
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

100

Nominal Scale (Illustration-2)

A two way classification)
Age-wise consumption of Breakfast Drink
Breakfast Drink

Milk

Respondents
Age

Below
30
years
Above
30
years
Total

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Tea /
Coffee

Fruit
Juice

Total

13

10

30

14

20

17

24

50

Ordinal Scale
(Illustration)
Rank order the following attributes
on their importance in a microwave
oven (from 1 to 5, 1 for most
important and 5 for least important).
A. Company Name
B. Price
C. Functions
D. Comfort
E. Design

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Interval Scale (Illustration)

Q. How do you rate your present T.V. for the following qualities?

Company Name

Less Known 1

Function
Price
Design

Few
Low
Poor

1
1
1
Overall satisfaction Highly Dis-Satis.1

Well Known

2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4

5
Many
5
High
5 Good
5 Highly Satisfied

The data obtained from the interval scales can be used to calculate the mean scores of each attribute over all the
respondents.

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Primary Scales of
Measurement
Scale
Nominal

Ordinal

Interval
Ratio

Basic
Characteristics
Numbers identify
& classify objects

Common
Examples
Social Security
nos., numbering
of football players
Nos. indicate the Quality rankings,
relative positions rankings of teams
of objects but not in a tournament
the magnitude of
differences
between them
Differences
Temperature
between objects (Fahrenheit)
Zero point is fixed, Length, weight
ratios of scale
values can be
compared

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Marketing
Permissible
Descriptive
Examples
Brand nos., store Percentages,
types
mode

Statistics
Inferential
Chi-square,
binomial test

Preference
Percentile,
rankings, market median
position, social
class

Rank-order
correlation,
ANOVA

Attitudes,
opinions, index
Age, sales,
income, costs

Factor
analysis,
Coefficient of
variation

Range, mean,
standard
Geometric
mean, harmonic
mean

Some Comparative Scales, Used More

Frequently in Consumer Research

Paired Comparison Scaling

A respondent is presented with two
objects and asked to select one
according to some criterion.
The data obtained are ordinal in
nature.
Paired comparison scaling is the most
widely used comparative scaling
technique.
With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired
comparisons are required

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Comparative Scaling Techniques

Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with

several objects simultaneously
and asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.
It is possible that the respondent
may dislike the brand ranked 1 in
an absolute sense.
Furthermore, rank order scaling
also results in ordinal data.
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Preference for Toothpaste Brands

Using Rank Order Scaling
Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order
of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like
most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most
preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this
procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste
in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be
assigned a rank of 10.

No two brands should receive the same rank number.

The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no
right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Preference for Toothpaste Brands

Using Rank Order Scaling
Form
Brand

Rank Order

1. Pepsodent

_________

2. Colgate

_________

3. Anchor

_________

4. Babool

_________

5. Close up

_________

6. Meswak

_________

7. Vicco

_________

8. Cibaca

_________

9. Colgate active _________

10. Colgate Herbal

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

_________

Comparative Scaling Techniques

Constant Sum Scaling

Respondents allocate a constant sum

of units, such as 100 points to
attributes of a product to reflect their
importance.
If an attribute is unimportant, the
respondent assigns it zero points.
If an attribute is twice as important
as some other attribute, it receives
twice as many points.
The sum of all the points is 100.
Hence, the name of the scale.
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes

Using a Constant Sum Scale

Instructions
On the next slide, there are eight attributes of
bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the
attributes so that your allocation reflects the
relative importance you attach to each attribute.
The more points an attribute receives, the more
important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all
important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is
twice as important as some other attribute, it should
receive twice as many points.

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes

Using a Constant Sum Scale

Form
Average Responses of Three Segments
Attribute
1. Mildness
2. Lather
3. Colour
4. Price
5. Fragrance
6. Packaging
7. Moisturizing
8. Cleaning Power
Sum
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Segment I
8
2
3
53
9
7
5
13
100

Segment II

Segment III

2
4
9
17
0
5
3
60
100

4
17
7
9
19
9
20
15
100

Measurement and
Scaling:
Non-comparative
Scaling
Techniques
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Non-comparative Scaling
Techniques
Respondents evaluate only
one object at a time, and for
this reason non-comparative
scales are often referred to
as monadic scales.
Non-comparative techniques
consist of continuous and
itemized rating scales.
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Continuous Rating Scale

Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a line that runs from one
extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Sears as a department store?
Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
0 10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Version 3

Very bad

Neither good
Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - Probably the best
0 10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Itemized Rating Scales

The respondents are provided with
a scale that has a number or brief
description associated with each
category.
The categories are ordered in terms
of scale position, and the
respondents are required to select
the specified category that best
describes the object being rated.
The commonly used itemized rating
scales are the Likert, semantic
differential, and Stapel scales.
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Itemized Rating Scales/Attitude Scales

In Attitude scalesresearchers often present
respondents with a list of products or product
attributes for which they are asked to indicate their
relative feelings or evaluations.

The instruments most frequently used to capture this

evaluative data are called attitude scales.
The most frequently used attitude scales are Likert
scales, semantic differential scales, behavior intention
scales, and rank-order scales.
Likert scales ask the respondent to check or write the
number corresponding to their level of agreement or
disagreement to statements.
Semantic differential scales ask the respondent to
evaluate a concept, etc., on the basis of each attribute
by checking the point on the continuum that best
reflects their feelings.
Behavior intention scales measure the likelihood that
consumers will act in a certain way in the future, such
as buying the product again or recommending it to a
friend.
Rank-order scales ask the respondent to rank items in
order of preference in terms of some criterion, such as
quality or value for the money.

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of
agreement or disagreement with each of a series of
statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Neither
agree nor

Agree

Strongly
agree

disagree

1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 1

2. Sears has poor in-store service.

3. I like to shop at Sears.

The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis

(profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be
calculated.
When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the
negative statements by the respondents should be scored by
reversing the scale.

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating
scale with end
points associated with bipolar labels that have
semantic meaning.
SEARS IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable
--:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
The negative adjective or phrase sometimes
appears at the left side of the scale and
sometimes at the right.
This controls the tendency of some respondents,
particularly those with very positive or very
negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand
sides without reading the labels.
Individual items on a semantic differential scale
may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7
scale.

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring SelfConcepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate

2) Excitable

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm

3) Uncomfortable

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable

4) Dominating
5) Thrifty

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent

6) Pleasant
7) Contemporary

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete

8) Organized
9) Rational
10) Youthful
11) Formal

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal

12) Orthodox
13) Complex
14) Colorless
15) Modest

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful
:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten
categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a
neutral point (zero). This scale is usually
presented vertically.
SEARS
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
HIGH QUALITY
-1
-2
-3
-4X
-5

+5
+4
+3
+2X
+1
POOR SERVICE
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be

analyzed in the same way as semantic differential
data.
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Basic Non-comparative
Scales
Scale

Basic
Characteristics

Examples

Advantages

Disadvantages

Continuous
Rating
Scale

Place a mark on a
continuous line

Reaction to
TV
commercials

Easy to construct

Scoring can be
cumbersome
unless
computerized

Likert Scale

Degrees of
agreement on a 1
(strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree)
scale

Measurement
of attitudes

Easy to construct,
administer, and
understand

More
time - consuming

Semantic
Differential

Seven - point scale

with bipolar labels

Brand,
product, and
company
images

Versatile

Controversy as
to whether the
data are interval

Stapel
Scale

Unipolar ten
- point
scale, - 5 to +5,
witho ut a neutral
point (zero)

Measurement
of attitudes
and images

Easy to construct,
administer over
telephone

Confusing and
difficult to apply

Itemized Rating
Scales

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Balanced and Unbalanced

Scales
Gillette Shaving Lotion for Men is

Gillette Shaving Lotion for Men is

Extremely good
Very good
Good
Bad
Very bad
Extremely bad

Extremely good
Very good
Good
Somewhat good
Bad
Very bad

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Rating Scale Configurations

A variety of scale configurations may be employed to measure
the gentleness of Nirma detergent. Some examples include:
Nirma detergent is:
1) Very harsh

---

2) Very harsh

--2

---

---

---

---

---

Very gentle

Very gentle

3) . Very harsh
.
.
Cheer
. Neither harsh nor gentle
.
.
. Very gentle
4) ____
____
____
____
Very
Harsh
Somewhat Neither harsh
harsh
Harsh
nor gentle

____
Somewhat
gentle

____
Gentle

____
Very
gentle

5)

-3

-2

Very
harsh

Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

-1

0
Neither harsh
nor gentle

+1

+2

+3
Very
gentle

Some Unique Rating Scale

Configurations
Thermometer Scale
Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers by
coloring in the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature
level that best indicates how strong your preference is.

Form:

Like very
much

100
75
50
25
0

Dislike
very much

Smiling Face Scale

Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie
Doll. If you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked
it very much, you would point to Face 5.

Form:
Dr. Bikramjit Rishi

Home Work
You are working on a consumer perception study of
four brands of bicycles. You will need to develop
measurement questions and scales to accomplish the
tasks listed below. Be sure to explain which data
levels (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) are
appropriate and which quantitative techniques you
will use.
Provide a comparison of the brands for each of the
following dimensions:
Styling
Durability
Quality
Brand image