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Solar Energy Efficiency limiting factors
8-1
Efficiency limiting factors
8.1
Loss mechanisms in a single solar cell
In a photovoltaic solar cell a number of fundamental losses occur. Moreover, there are a number
of additional losses caused by the device structure used and caused by the fact that the materials
used arent perfect.
8.1.1
The fundamental losses
Photons with an energy h > E g

These photons generate only one electron-hole pair. The excess of energy (h - E g ) is converted
into heat. This mechanism causes an efficiency loss of 33%.
Photons with an energy h < E g
These photons are unable to generate an electron-hole pair. This implies loss of solar energy in
the part of the spectrum with h < E g . This mechanism causes an efficiency loss of 23%.
Fundamental recombination
Also under ideal conditions, a form of recombination takes place in every solar cell. This recombination is responsible for the fact that the open-circuit voltage will always be lower than one
would expect on basis of the electrochemical potentials of the materials on both sides of the junction.
In figure 8.1, the theoretical efficiency is given as a function of the band gap Eg.
35
CdTe
30
CuInGaSe 2
CuInSe 2
a- Si :H:F
GaAs
a-Si :H
Si
Efficiency (%)
25
20
15
T = 300 K
CdS
Ge
10
5
0.5
1.0
1.5
Bandgap Eg (eV)
2.0
2.5
FIG 019_1
Figure 8.1: The theoretical efficiency of a single solar cell as a function of Eg, under Standard Test
Conditions (1000 W/m2, AM 1.5 spectrum and 25 C cell temperature).
This efficiency shows a maximum. This maximum arises because on one hand the open-circuit
voltage increases with increasing band gap Eg whereas on the other hand the photocurrent decreases. This photocurrent decreases because the number of absorbed photons decreases with increasing band gap Eg.
Solar Energy Efficiency limiting factors
8.1.2
8-2
Additional losses
Incomplete absorption of photons with h > E g

In practice it appears difficult to absorb all photons with h > E g really.
Recombination losses
Because the materials used arent perfect, early recombination takes place. This means that minorities are being lost at defects before they are spatially separated from the majorities. Recombination can occur both in the bulk and at interfaces and at the surface. The dominant recombination mechanism depends on the type of solar cell and the nature and quality of the applied materials.
Because of early recombination, incomplete collection of minorities occurs resulting in a reduced
current. Because of this recombination the open-circuit voltage is reduced as well.
Reflection losses
Due to reflection at the front side of the solar cell, part of the incoming sunlight is lost.
Shading losses
In practical solar cell structures, the front side of the solar cell will be shadowed to some extend
by the metallization pattern used to collect the current.
Series resistance
Series resistance losses occur because of the finite conductivity of the materials used in the solar
cell.
Solar Energy Equivalent circuits
7-1
Equivalent circuits: one- and two-diode model
The most elementary equivalent circuit of a solar cell, consisting of a parallel circuit of a current
source and a diode, has already been presented in figure 6.1. In that case the current voltage
characteristic is described by
I = I ph
I s e
qV
kT
[7.1]
In practice, however, series resistance will occur in a solar cell together with a certain amount of
shunt. These are represented in the more extensive equivalent circuit (see figure 7.1) by R s en
R sh respectively.
Rs
I
+
I ph
R sh
V
-
Figure 7.1: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell, one-diode model with series and shunt resistance. Mind the
definitions of voltage and current.
The series resistance is caused by the resistance of the semiconductor material itself, the resistance of the metallization (fingers and busbar) and the contact resistance between the various
materials and especially between the semiconductor materials and the metallization. In general,
shunt resistances are relatively high and are caused by imperfections in the production process.
With series and shunt resistance the current-voltage characteristics is described by:
I = I ph
I s e
q (V + IRs )
kT
V + IRs
1
Rsh
[7.2]
In equation [7.2] a + is present in the term (V + IR s ), because the solar cell has been drawn as a
generator and the belonging definition of current direction and polarity of the voltage are as being depicted in figure 7.1.
A somewhat more detailed model is the two-diode model, see figure 7.2. The second diode represents the recombination occurring in the p-n junction and inhomogenities that might occur in
the solar cell as a whole.
Solar Energy Equivalent circuits
7-2
Rs
I
+
I ph
D1
D2
R sh
V
-
Figure 7.2: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell, two-diode model.
The current-voltage characteristic is now described by:

I = I ph
s)
q (Vn +k IR
q (Vn +kTIRs ) V + IR
s
1 T
I s1 e
1 I s 2 e 2
1
R
sh
[7.3]
Here I s1 and I s2 are the saturation currents of the two diodes respectively and n 1 and n 2 are the
quality factors of the two diodes. In general, n 1 will not deviate much from 1. n 2 = 2 if only recombination occurs in the junction and no other imperfections occur.
Solar Energy Handout Diode
Diode
4.1
Introduction
4-1
If two materials with different electrochemical potentials are put together, then exchange of
charge will occur until the electrochemical potentials on both sides of the interface are equal.
This implies that an equal though opposite space charge will arise on both sides of the interface.
The result of this is a potential barrier at the interface. This barrier prevents further exchange of
carriers, unless an external voltage is being applied.
The energy diagram of such a junction is given in figure 4.1.
N
FIG. 018.1
I3
I1
q1
Ec
Ev
I4
I2
Figure 4.1: The potential barrier at a p-n junction.

Such a structure can be obtained for example by creating a junction between an p-type and an ntype area in a semiconductor. Also other structures are conceivable, like a junction between a
semiconductor and a metal or a junction between a semiconductor and an electrolyte.
Such a structure is called a diode and it will appear that such a structure conducts the current in
one direction (forward direction) very well, whereas in the opposite direction (reverse direction)
very poorly. An expression for the current-voltage characteristic of a diode will be derived in the
next paragraphs.
This will be done for two cases. The first case is a more general case in which it is only of
importance that a barrier came into being because of exchange of carriers. In order to make this
derivation not too theoretical, the p-n junction in a semiconductor will be taken as an example. In
the second case a more dedicated derivation will be given for the same p-n junction. This makes
it possible to give a more explicit expression for the saturation leakage current Is .
4.2
The more general case
Consider the p-n junction of figure 4.1. If

I 1 = the electron flux from the p-region into the n-region
4-2
I 2 = the hole flux from the p-region into the n-region

I 3 = the electron flux from the n-region into the p-region
I 4 = the hole flux from the n-region into the p-region
than the net current I from the p-region into the n-region is
I = -I 1 + I 2 + I 3 I 4
[4.1]
I1 = k1 n p
[4.2]
I 2 = k 2 p p e q1 / kT
[4.3]
I 3 = k 3 nn e q1 / kT
[4.4]
with
I4 = k4 pn
[4.5]
and
q1 = barrier height between n- and p-type region
np
= the electron concentration in the p-type region
pp
= the hole concentration in the p-type region
nn
= the electron concentration in the n-type region
pn
= the hole concentration in the n-type region
In the energy diagram of figure 4.1 the energy of the electrons is given along the vertical axis.
Electrons from the p-type region, having reached the junction by diffusion, can enter the n-type
region unhindered. Electrons from the n-type region have to get over the barrier with barrier q1 .
The chance that this will happen is given by the Boltzmann factor exp (-q 1 /kT). An analogue
argument holds for the holes. One has to keep in mind in this case that the energy of the holes is
plotted downwards along the vertical axis.
In case that there is no external voltage applied, on finds by substitution of [4.2], [4.3], [4.4] and
[4.5] in [4.1]
I = -(k 1 n p + k 4 p n ) + (k 2 p p + k 3 n n ) e q1 / kT
[4.6]
If a forward voltage V is applied then the potential barrier for the majorities is reduced, however,
the diffusion current doesnt change. Therefore [4.6] transforms into
4-3
I = - (k 1 n p + k 4 p n ) + (k 2 p p + k 3 n n ) e q(1-V)/kT
[4.7]
In case of external voltage V=0, I=0 holds. This gives with [4.7]
k 1 n p + k 4 p n = (k 2 p p + k 3 n n ) e -q1/kT
[4.8]
Defining
Is = k1 np + k4 pn
[4.9]
[4.7] transforms into the diode equation
I = I s e
qV
kT
[4.10]
With increasing forward voltage (see figure 4.2), the current increases rapidly. With increasing
reverse voltage the reverse current approaches I s and the current is determined by the diffusion
of minorities in the p- and the n-region respectively.
0
Is
FIG 031.1
Figure 4.2: The current-voltage characteristics of a p-n junction.
4.3
A specific case
4.3.1 Introduction
For a classical p-n junction, as in a crystalline silicon diode, an explicit expression will be
derived for the relation between the current and the applied voltage. This will be done for the
case the diode is in the dark.
The region around the p-n junction is depicted in figure 4.3. Because of difference in
electrochemical potential between the p-type and the n-type region, exchange of charge took
place. Through that in small regions along the interface all acceptors in the p-type region and all
donors in the n-type region were ionized. In this way a space-charge double-layer was formed,
also called depletion layer. In figure 4.3 the formed charge distribution is depicted, together with
the resulting electrical field strength and electrical potential as a function of the position x.
4-4
P-type
+
+
+
N-type
r
(a)
qN D
lp
ln
-qN A
(b)
r
dE
= e
dx
E max
dV
=-E
dx
(c)
Figure 4.3: The space charge , the electrical field strength E and the electrical potential V for
a classical p-n junction.
First an expression will be derived for the so-called diffusion potential, giving the difference
between the (electrochemical) potential in the p- and the n-type region (also see the lowest figure
in figure 4.3). Next the influence is determined of an externally applied voltage across the p-n
junction on the concentration of the minority carriers at the boundaries of the space-charge
double-layer (the depletion region). After that the concentrations of the minority carriers is
determined as a function of the position x in the n- and the p-type region, respectively. Finally,
by means of this, the relation between the current density and the voltage across the p-n junction
is derived.
4.3.2 The diffusion voltage
The hole current density in the depletion layer is given by
J p = -qD p
dp
+ q p pE
dx
[4.11]
In this expression the first term is the diffusion term and the second term the electrical field term.
Under equilibrium conditions J p = 0 and [4.11] transforms into
1 dp p
=
E
p dx D p
[4.12]
with the Einstein relation

D=
kT
[4.13]
4-5
[4.12] becomes
dp qE
=
dx
p kT
[4.14]
Both terms are being integrated now and an integration route is chosen from a point in the p-type
region to a point in the n-type region. Both points need to be located outside the space-charge
double layer. One obtains
p
n dp
p
n qE
kT
[4.15]
dx
or (also see figure 4.4)

pn q
(V -V )
ln 0 =
p p kT p n
0
[4.16]
P-area
N-area
pp
nn
n
pn
np
FIG 032_1
x1
x2
Figure 4.4: Concentration of majorities and minorities as a function of x both in the p- and ntype region.
In the same way we find for the electrons.
np
ln 0
nn
o
q
=
(V -V )
kT p n
[4.17]
From [4.16] and [4.17] follows

p n0
p p0
n p0
nn0
q
( V p - Vn )
= exp
kT
[4.18]
4-6
The diffusion potential is now defined as

Vd = V p - Vn =
kT n p0
ln
q nn0
[4.19]
This diffusion potential gives the shift of the electrochemical potential of the p-type region with
respect to the n-type region because of the exchange of charge.
4.3.3
The effect of an externally applied voltage
If an external voltage V a is applied, then new charge carrier profiles will be formed (also see
figure 4.5). For the steps described in the next paragraphs it is important to know the
concentrations of the minorities at the boundary between the space-charge double-layer and the
neutral regions. After integration from a point in the p-type region to a point in the n-type region,
the points being outside the double-layer, one finds for the minority charge carrier concentration
p 2 at x = x 2 (see figure 4.5)
P-area
N-area
p
pp0
n
nn0
p2
p
n1
pn0
n
np0
FIG 033_1
x1
x2
Figure 4.5: The concentration of the concentrations of the majorities and the minorities, in both the ptype and the n-type region.
qV
p2
= e kT
pp
[4.20]
With V = Vd + Va
[4.21]
[4.20] transforms using [4.18] and [4.19] into

qVd qVa
a
p n0 qV
p2
kT
kT
=e e
=
e kT
pp
p p0
[4.22]
Because changes in the majority concentrations are relatively small, p p p p0 , implying that
[4.22] changes into
p 2 = p n0 e
4-7
qVa
kT
[4.23]
From [4.23] it can be seen that the concentration of the minorities at the boundary of the spacecharge double-layer and the neutral region in the n-type region is strongly dependent on the
applied voltage.
In the same way one finds
n1 = n p0 e
4.3.4
qVa
kT
[4.24]
The concentration profiles on the minority carriers
The hole concentration as a function of the position x will be determined now. This
concentration is described by the diffusion equation (also see paragraph 3.5).
p n - p n0
d 2 pn
Dp
=
dx 2
[4.25]
with [4.23] as a boundary condition.

The solution of the equation is for x >x 2 (minorities in the n-type region)
(p
) (
- p n0 = p 2 - p n0 e
- ( x - x2 ) /L p
[4.26]
[4.27]
with
Lp = Dp
[4.28]
[4.27] gives with [4.23]

a
qV
-( x - x ) / L
p n = p n0 + p n0 e kT - 1 e 2 p
[4.29]
In the same way one finds for < x 1 (minorities in the p-type region)
qVa
n p = n p0 + n p0 e kT - 1 e ( x - x1 ) /Ln
4.3.5
[4.30]
The diode equation
Because the currents start as majority charge carrier currents and it is assumed that no
recombination takes place in the depletion region, the majority current of electrons in the n-type
region has to be equal to the minority current of electrons in the n-type region. Likewise, the
majority current of holes in the p-type region has to be equal to the minority current of holes in
the n-type region.
The total current in the p-region is equal to the sum of the currents of the majorities and the
minority carriers in the p-region and according to the above-mentioned equal to the sum of the
4-8
two minority currents at the boundaries of the depletion region. The current density is now given
by
J = J n p + J p p = J n p + J pn
[4.31]
with
J n p = current density of the electrons in the p-type region

J p p = current density of the holes in the n-type region
J p n = current density of the holes in the n-type region
For the magnitude of the minority charge carrier currents J n p and J p n holds that these are
determined by the gradients in the concentrastion profiles, in other words.
J n p = -qD n
J p n = qD p
dn
dx
dp
dx
[4.32]
x = x1
[4.33]
x = x2
Substitution of [4.32] and [4.33] in [4.31], using [4.29] en [4.30] gives

qD p p n0 qDe n p0
+
J =
L
Ln
p
qVa
e kT - 1
[4.34]
this gives with

J0 =
qD p p n0
Lp
qDe n p0
Ln
a
qV
J = J 0 e kT - 1
[4.35]
[4.36]
By multiplying with the area A of the diode one finds the diode current I
a
qV
I = I 0 e kT - 1
[4.37]
[4.35] shows that the saturation current density J 0 is small if the minority carrier diffusion length
is large.
SOLAR ENERGY LECTURE 1 04/01/2016

MASTER SUSTAINABLE ENERGY - CODE 195740040
ANGELE REINDERS A.H.M.E.REINDERS@UTWENTE.NL
Rises every day!

Free energy for everybody
Every hour we receive as much energy from the sun

as mankind consumes in one year!
Solar Energy - Lecture 1
04/01/2016
CONTENTS
Set-up of course
Introduction to solar photovoltaic energy
Environmental issues
Some economic considerations
<Break>
Solar irradiation
Assignment 1
To do for next week
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
OBJECTIVES:
After this course you
Have acquired detailed knowledge of irradiance, photovoltaic (PV) solar
systems and their basic elements - solar cells - at the level of technology
experts.
Are able to understand the functioning of PV solar systems and PV cells
in the context of applications.
Are able to apply the knowledge acquired in the evaluation of new
developments in research of solar systems and PV cells.
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
COURSE COORDINATOR
Angle Reinders
Experience: PV system monitoring and simulation, PV module design and
product development based on sustainable energy technologies
Associate Professor at Department of Design, Production and Management
Professor Energy-Efficient Design at Delft University of Technology (10 15)
Ph.D. in PV system monitoring and simulation, 1993-1999, Utrecht University
Experimental Physics, Surface Science, OPV, 1993, Utrecht University
You can reach me at a.h.m.e.reinders@utwente.nl
Or in my office in De Horstring: N222, on appointment
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
IMPORTANCE OF BLACKBOARD
Please read the activity overview at Blackboard well, it shows information

about the contents of lectures, the publication dates and submission dates
of assignments as well as educational materials that you must read.
Specific attention for self-directed learning.
For instance you will present about assignment 2, which is a mini-project on
a dedicated solar topic. To be completed by a paper and a powerpoint
presentation.
The course will comprise 7 lectures, 3 other assignments and an exam.
04/01/2016
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
GRADING
The final mark for the course is based on 3 out of 4 assignments and the
examination according to the following format:
Final mark = 0.3 * (Assignments) + 0.7 * (Mark Exam)
Where Mark assignments =
0.5 * Mark Mini-project + 0.25 * Mark Assignment X + 0.25 * Mark Assignment Y
The mark of the exam should be a 5.5 or higher in order to be able to

determine the final mark. If the mark of the exam is less than 5.5, a final
mark can't be determined and a re-exam should be done.
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
BOOK
4 ECTS = 112 study hours

7 meetings comprising 18 hours of lectures and 4 hours for presentations
a written examination, closed book with formula sheet
educational materials: lecture, PVCDrom and information at Blackboard
Coming soon.
Delay due to South Indian Floods by end of 2015
see
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_South_Indian_floods
04/01/2016
WHY SOLAR ENERGY
Electricity is usually generated mainly by burning fossil fuels

Though economically feasible this leads to large environmental impacts
In particular CO2 emissions are the big problem
04/01/2016
10
Sustainable development is development that meets

the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs (Our common future, 1987)
04/01/2016
11
Energy problems
CO2 emission and increased greenhouse effect

Smog and other airborne emissions
Increasing demand for energy
Threat of depletion of fossil fuels
Political instability
04/01/2016
12
Increasing CO2 concentrations

July 2003
Source: NASA/JPL
363
CO2 concentration PPMV
386
04/01/2016
13
Increasing CO2 concentrations

July 2008
Source: NASA/JPL
363
CO2 concentration PPMV
386
04/01/2016
14
All measurements confirm

an increase of temperature,
melting of arctic ice and
glaciers
Future scenarios/simulations
till 2100
Increase of temperature:
~0.4 to ~5.8 oC
Raising sea level:
0.26 to 0.82 meter
Source : IPCC 2014

04/01/2016
15
80 90 % of CO2 emissions due to energy conversions for electricity

generation, transportation, industry, households: human activities
Silicon PV modules
~29 g CO2-eq./kWh
+ 5 g for system
Lifecycle GHG emissions for various energy technologies, NREL, 2014

See for details: http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sustain_lca_results.html
04/01/2016
16
Raw materials (abiotic)
Raw materials (biotic)
Life cycle analysis (LCA)

Raw materials
Material
processing
Emissions to air
Product
manufacture
Energy resources
Distribution
and storage
Emissions to water
Use
Disposal/
Recycling
Solid waste
An LCA covers a compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental
impacts of a product system throughout its lifecycle.
It often covers the following items:
Resource extraction, manufacturing, product use (installation & operation)
Determination primary energy use and GHG emissions
End-of-Life Phase
Critical materials, scarcity and recyclability as reported by a study by Anctil and Fhtenakis
(Progress in Photovoltaics, 2013)
Method is described and standardized by:

ISO, 2006a. 14040 Environmental Management. Life Cycle Assessment. Principles and
Framework. International Organization for Standardization.
04/01/2016
17
ENERGY PAY BACK TIME
Energy Pay Back Time, EPBT, indicates how long it takes before energy
investments are compensated by energy yields by a PV module or system.
EPBT = Ein / Eout
Ein = primary energy requirement
Eout = annual energy yield by a PV module / system
04/01/2016
18
EPBT of silicon PV
South-Europe: 1700 kWh/m2/yr irradiation, Middle-Europe: 1000 kWh/m2/yr.

PR = 0.75 (Alsema et al., 2006)
Lifetime of 35 years
South-Europe: 1700 kWh/m2/yr irradiation.
(Mann et al., Progress in Photovoltaics, 2013)
04/01/2016
19
Fossil fuels are in charge
Global share ~ 81 %
Fossil fuel comprises coal, oil, petroleum, and natural gas products.
IEA Statistics OECD/IEA 2014 (http://www.iea.org/stats/index.asp)
04/01/2016
20
Peak oil theory driver of sustainable energy
before 1900
2000
2100 and beyond
Source: WEO, 2011

04/01/2016
21
04/01/2016
22
PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR ENERGY COULD BE A SOLUTION
PV modules convert solar irradiance into electricity: silent, without

emissions during use, modular, easy integration in the built environment
04/01/2016
23
THERES PLENTY SCENARIOS: POSITIVE ABOUT SOLAR
04/01/2016
24
NOMINAL POWER AND YIELD OF PV MODULES

The nominal power production of PV
modules is given in Wattpeaks, Wp, this is the
power also called yield, P, of a PV module at
standard irradiance, G, of 1000 W/m2
Efficiency is given by:

= (P / (A G)) * 100
For instance, a PV module of 1 m2 with
= 18% at G=1kW/m2 yields P = 180 W/m2
However with its total area of 1,6 m2 its
nominal power Pnom is 288 Wp
P
04/01/2016
25
TOTAL INSTALLED PV CAPACITY IN THE NETHERLANDS
Installed nominal power of photovoltaic systems in the Netherlands
04/01/2016
26
TOTAL INSTALLED CAPACITY WORLD WIDE
Source: report IEA-PVPS T1-27:2015
04/01/2016
27
CONTRIBUTION OF PV TO ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION
04/01/2016
28
REGIONAL PV INSTALLATIONS PER HABITANT
Source: EPIA, Market Outlook, 2014
04/01/2016
29
04/01/2016
30
LEVELIZED COST OF ELECTRICITY (LCOE) OF PV

Levelized cost of electricity for PV as a function of yield vs
Retail price for electricity from the grid in various countries
PV system prices:
4 USD/Wp
3 USD/Wp
2 USD/Wp
1 USD/Wp
LCOE=total lifecycle cost/ total lifecycle energy production

Source: report IEA-PVPS T1-27:2015
04/01/2016
31
LEVELIZED COST OF ELECTRICITY (LCOE)
FOR PV SYSTEMS
LCOE is given in /kWh

When LCOE of PV without subsidies - becomes competitive with retail prices of
conventionally generated electricity we speak of Grid Parity (www.pvparity.eu)
LCOE < production cost of electricity is exceptional for grid-connected PV systems,
but for stand-alone PV systems in remote areas its common business if compared
with diesel generators
04/01/2016
32
BREAK
04/01/2016
33
SOLAR IRRADIATION
SOLAR IRRADIATION
Energy from the sun, radiation, received

by earth: 3870 x 1021 J/yr
This is 9.000 times the human
energy consumption 0,425 x 1021 J/yr
=425 EJ/yr
Earth receives in one hour the total
amount of yearly human energy use!
Surface area of earth:
510 x 106 km2
Surface temperature 6000 K
Energy radiation 380 x 1021 kW Solar energy supplies each day:
5,7 kWh/m2 (average)
Earth receives 170 x 1012 kW
04/01/2016
35
Availability of solar energy
04/01/2016
36
IRRADIANCE AND SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
04/01/2016
37
IRRADIATION
Irradiation is the cumulated irradiance
over a period of time:
Irradiance (W/m2)
(Power)
Irradiation (kWh/m2.period) (Energy)

Netherlands: 1000 kWh/m2 year
Sahara: 2200 kWh/m2 year
04/01/2016
38
SOLAR IRRADIANCE EXPLAINED

Basics of light
Blackbody radiation
Solar radiation in space
Terrestrial solar radiation
Measurements of solar irradiance
Modeling of solar irradiance
Indoor irradiance
See also PVCDrom at http://www.pveducation.org/
Chapter 2: Properties of Sunlight
04/01/2016
39
SOLAR IRRADIANCE is ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
04/01/2016
40
PHOTON ENERGY
E =
Planck-Einstein relation
c
is the wavelength [m], notice that =
8
c is the speed of light (2.99810 m/s)
E =
h is Plancks constant (6.625 10-34 Js)
a commonly used unit of energy is the electron-volt (eV) rather than the joule (J).
An electron volt is the energy required to raise an electron through 1 volt, thus a
photon with an energy of 1 eV = 1.602 10-19 J,
(using q which is the elementary charge of an electron: 1.602 10-19 C)
E =
1,24
()
04/01/2016
41
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Photon flux density ()
number of photons per unit area, per unit time
(# of photons/sec. m2)
Spectral power density P()

incident power of solar radiation per unit area (W/m2)
In this case P is also represented by the symbols H or G
() = ()
04/01/2016
42
SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE
G() is the spectral irradiance, which is P() per unit of wavelength (W/m2/nm)
2,00
ASTM / E-490
ASTM / G173-03
Measured spectrum
G (W/m2/nm)
1,50
1,00
Solar spectra:
ASTM E-490
representing AM0 (black line)
ASTM G173-03
representing AM1.5 (red line)
and a measured spectrum (green line)
Data from
ASTM and University of Twente
(Courtesy of A.Reinders, UT)
0,50
0,00
200
700
1200
(nm)
1700
04/01/2016
43
BLACKBODY RADIATION
The spectral irradiance from a blackbody is given by Planck's radiation law, shown in the
following equation:
where:
is the wavelength of light;
2 2

T is the temperature of the blackbody (K);

F is the spectral irradiance in Wm-2m-1; and
h,c and k are constants,
a.o. k=1.3806488 10-23J/K
H in W/m2 is the total power density from a blackbody by
H = 4 where is Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 10-8 J/m2s K4
Wiens Law, gives wavelengths at which Fs maximum occurs by
2900
04/01/2016
44
SOLAR RADIATION IN SPACE
The sun is a blackbody radiator at ~6000K , power density H= 63 MW/m2

Multiply by the surface of the sun : total power emitted P = 9.5 x 1025 W
1
2
04/01/2016
45
SOLAR RADIATION IN SPACE
PLANETARY DISTANCES AND RELATED IRRADIANCE
10000
Mercury
9000
8000
7000
6000
(W/m2)
5000
4000
3000
Venus
2000
Earth
1000
Mars
Jupiter Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Distance to sun 109 m
04/01/2016
46
SOLAR RADIATION
Just outside the atmosphere solar irradiation is approx. 1,36 kW/m2
Due to the elliptical orbit of the earth around the sun, the distance between
earth and sun varies, leading to power variations in the order of 3.4%
Depending on the day of the year, n, the extraterrestrial irradiance, H, can be
determined using a formula with the solar constant Hconstant 1.353 kW/m2
= 1 0.033 cos (
360 (2)
)
365
04/01/2016
47
TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION
04/01/2016
48
TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION
While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively

constant, the radiation at the Earth's surface varies widely due to:
atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds and
pollution;
latitude of the location; and
the season of the year and the time of day.
Notice: weather and climate are covered by the factors mentioned above
04/01/2016
49
IRRADIANCE
AT GROUND LEVEL
In the atmosphere irradiance

is affected by:
Scattering
To space and to earth
Absorption
Clouds
Direct beam irradiance
Diffuse irradiance
Reflections (tilted surface)
Global irradiance
04/01/2016
50
AIR MASS: AM
Air Mass represents the path length, L, which irradiance takes through the atmosphere normalized
to the shortest possible path length, L0, which is the zenith path length
1
=
0 cos
AM0 0 path length, spectrum outside atmosphere, zero atmospheres

AM1 spectrum at sea level with the
sun directly overhead at the zenith
AM1.5 1.5 atmosphere thickness,
at an angle of 48.2o
04/01/2016
51
SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE
2,00
ASTM / E-490
ASTM / G173-03
Measured spectrum
G (W/m2/nm)
1,50
1,00
Solar spectra:
ASTM E-490
representing AM0 (black line)
ASTM G173-03
representing AM1.5 (red line)
and a measured spectrum (green line)
Data from
ASTM and University of Twente
(Courtesy of A.Reinders, UT)
0,50
0,00
200
700
1200
(nm)
1700
04/01/2016
52
POSITION OF THE SUN ON EARTH

The sun has a position at the hemisphere indicated by
Elevation of the sun to the horizon is called also called height, altitude
However you can also use the zenith angle (zenith is 0o)
where zenith angle = 90 - elevation.
Azimuth, angle defining the orientation versus North (usually 0o)
clockwise by East
04/01/2016
53
MOTION OF THE SUN (SEEN FROM EARTH)
The angle between the sun and a fixed location on Earth depends on
the particular location (in particular the latitude of the location),
the time of year and the time of day.
in addition, the time at which the sun rises and sets depends on the
longitude of the location.
Therefore, complete modeling of the sun's angle to a fixed position on Earth
requires the latitude, longitude, day of the year, and time of day.
04/01/2016
54
DECLINATION ANGLE
The declination angle, denoted by
, is the angle between the
equator and a line drawn from the
centre of the Earth to the centre of
the sun.
It varies seasonally due to the tilt
of the Earth on its axis of rotation
and the rotation of the Earth
around the sun. See also:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pgq0LThW7QA
The tilt angle of earth is 23.45o,

which is s maximum value.
04/01/2016
55
MAXIMUM ELEVATION ANGLE
An important parameter in the design of photovoltaic systems is the

maximum elevation angle, : the maximum height of the sun in the sky. It
occurs at solar noon and depends on the latitude, , and declination angle
And the day of the year of course.
For locations in the Northern Hemisphere: =90+
And for the Southern Hemisphere: =90+
04/01/2016
56
SUN PATH POLAR PLOT
ELEVATION AND AZIMUTH ON A CERTAIN LOCATION

Example for Rotterdam,
The Netherlands,
=51o 55 00
04/01/2016
58
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
DAYLENGTH
04/01/2016
59
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
IRRADIANCE
Note, the highest solar

radiation at the equator
occurs in the spring and fall
(at the equinoxes).
A summer maximum at the
Northern hemisphere occurs
only at latitudes above 23.5o
04/01/2016
60
MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE

EQUIPMENT
Pyranometer measures global irradiance,

also with shadow band
Pyrheliometer measures beam (direct)
radiation at normal incidence.
Diffuse irradiance is determined by using
the two measurements above or by a
pyranometer with a shadow band
04/01/2016
61
MEASUREMENTS
Weather stations in NL
Global horizontal irradiance
04/01/2016
62
CLOUDS
Cloud cover
Oktas
Type of clouds
04/01/2016
63
MEASUREMENTS
Irradiance Enschede, June 2011
1000
9
8
800
7
6
600
5
4
400
3
2
200
1
0
Irradiance
cloud cover
04/01/2016
64
MEASUREMENTS at UT
AT PV TEST BENCH AT CITADEL
AND AT
PV SYSTEM AT OOST HORST
04/01/2016
65
MEASUREMENTS
Test Meteorological Year = artificial dataset composed of series of

measured horizontal global irradiance reflecting the climatological
situation on a certain location with certain variability.
250
200
De Bilt Netherlands
150
100
Yaounde Cameroon
50
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average
0
04/01/2016
66
MODELING OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE
A result of modeling:
An irradiation diagram for tilted
surfaces the Netherlands
04/01/2016
67
IRRADIANCE MODELING
IRRADIANCE ON INCLINED SURFACES

Irradiance on inclined surfaces can be measured, more common is a
conversion of horizontal global irradiance to a tilted plane
Direct irradiance
conversion by cosine law; Gdt=Gdh cos()
= angle between beam and plane
Diffuse irradiance
Conversion by model
Isotropic (Liu/Jordan)
Anisotropic (Perez)
Perez
04/01/2016
69
CLEARNESS INDEX
Kt = Gh / Goh
Orgill & Hollands correlation
Gh = horizontal global irradiance
Goh = extraterrestrial global irradiance
04/01/2016
70
DETERMINATION OF DIFFUSE IRRADIANCE
Depending on clearness index kt of the sky kt = Gh/Goh

Next, the diffuse fraction of irradiation can be given by Orgill/Hollands
correlation of hourly data.
1.0 0.249 ,
= 1.557 1.84 ,
0.177,
0 0.35
0.35 < 0.75
> 0.75
Gdh = horizontal diffuse irradiance

Hourly min: 17,7 % irradiance is diffuse

Diffuse share is nearly 30 60 % of total yearly irradiation
04/01/2016
71
IRRADIANCE MODELING
LIU & JORDAN MODEL
Assumption: uniformly distributed irradiance

Conversion from irradiance at a horizontal Gh to tilted surface Gt by
direct
diffuse
ground-reflected
angle between beam and normal of tilted plane

z angle between beam and normal of horizontal plane
tilt angle of plane
reflection factor
04/01/2016
72
IRRADIANCE PREDICTION
Complex combination of
Geographic data
Ground measurements radiation
Satellite data (radiation, clouds)
Interpolation + modeling
04/01/2016
73
TO DO FOR NEXT WEEK
Subscribe at Blackboard!
Create teams of 2 students for assignment 1 about solar irradiance and
simulation of PV systems
Read:
Powerpoint presentation of this lecture (see Blackboard)
PVCDROM at http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/
Chapter 2: Properties of Sunlight
Submit: Assignment 1 together with other student before Feb 18, 23:59h
Think: yet about a topic for assignment 2, the mini-project in duos
04/01/2016
75

CONTENTS
SOLAR ENERGY LECTURE 2
Remaining topics on solar irradiance from Lecture 1

PV modules
IV curves
PV systems
Grid-connected PV Inverters
Stand-alone PV Energy storage
Hybrid PV
Building integrated PV (BIPV), Product integrated PV (PIPV)
Sizing and simulation
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
REMAINING TOPIC LECTURE 1:

MODELING OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE
A result of modeling:
An irradiation diagram for tilted
surfaces the Netherlands
2/7/2016
WHY MODELING OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE?

All measurements of irradiance,
are: Global horizontal irradiance
Modeling is necessary to convert
horizontal measurements to
values for irradiance on arbitrarily
oriented planes (with PV modules)
Gh=
Gbh + Gdh + Grh
?
Gt =
Gbt + Gdt + Grt
2/7/2016
CLEARNESS INDEX
Clearness index Kt is used to determine
The diffuse part of the global horizontal
Irradiance:
Orgill & Hollands correlation
Kt = Gh / Goh
Goh = extraterrestrial global irradiance
0 < Kt < 1 (in theory)
2/7/2016
DETERMINATION OF DIFFUSE IRRADIANCE
The diffuse (horizontal) fraction Gdh of global horizontal irradiation can be

given by the Orgill/Hollands correlation of hourly irradiance data, depending
on clearness index kt of the sky
1.0 0.249 ,
= 1.557 1.84 ,
0.177,
0 0.35
0.35 < 0.75
> 0.75
Gdh = horizontal diffuse irradiance

Hourly mininimum: 17,7 % irradiance is diffuse

Depending on location: diffuse share is nearly 30 60 % of total yearly
irradiation
2/7/2016
IRRADIANCE CONVERSION TO A TILTED PLANE
Irradiance on inclined surfaces (tilted plane) can be measured, more

common is a conversion of horizontal global irradiance to a tilted plane
1. Direct irradiance conversion
conversion by cosine law; Gbt=Gbh cos()
= angle between beam and plane
2. Diffuse irradiance conversion
Conversion by a model
Isotropic (Liu/Jordan)
Anisotropic (Perez)
Perez
2/7/2016
DIFFUSE IRRADIANCE CONVERSION: LIU JORDAN MODEL

Assumption: uniformly distributed irradiance
Conversion from irradiance at a horizontal Gh to tilted surface Gt by:
Gh
Gt
direct
diffuse
ground-reflected
angle between beam and normal of tilted plane

z angle between beam and normal of horizontal plane
tilt angle of plane (Please notice that Gdh originates from the Orgill Hollands model)
reflection factor
2/7/2016
IRRADIANCE MODELING
Now you have been informed about two modeling approaches for
hourly horizontal irradiance measurements to hourly tilted irradiance.
However there exist several tenths of this sort approaches in practice.
Not only for hourly time series, but also for daily data and longer time scales.
Further it is possible to use synthetic data, like Test Meteorological Years,
instead of measured data, ensuring climatologically representative data.
Or one can use satellite data, though the modeling will be more complex, the
applicability will be more diverse (solar forecasting, agriculture, health etc)
2/7/2016
TEST METEOROLOGAL YEAR
Test Meteorological Year = artificial dataset composed of series of

measured horizontal global irradiance reflecting the climatological
situation on a certain location with certain variability.
250
200
De Bilt Netherlands
150
100
Yaounde Cameroon
50
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average
0
2/7/2016
IRRADIANCE FORECASTING: predicting irradiance in the future

Complex combination of
Satellite data (radiation, clouds)
Interpolation + modeling, using also
Ground measurements radiation
Geographic data
2/7/2016
INDOOR IRRADIANCE
Specific spectral distribution
Solar irradiance + artificial light
Transmission windows
Decrease of intensity of light
Low power from G=0 to 50 W/m2
Indoor solar powered products
2/7/2016
PV MODULES
PV MODULES ARRAYS - SYSTEMS
2/7/2016
PV module: a product with a life time of 20 years or longer

PV modules main functions are:
- to prevent mechanical damage to PV solar cells
- to connect PV solar cells to provide higher power
- to prevent water or water vapour from corroding the electrical contacts
PV modules need to withstand:
Exposure to UV light, measured by IEC tests
Humidity and water, measured by IEC tests
Temperature cycling, measured by IEC tests
Wind load, measured by surface pressure - N/m2 a X km/h
Mechanical impact, measured by resistance - mm at km/h
2/7/2016
Different types of PV modules

have one thing in common.. glass sheets.
Thin film PV modules
2/7/2016
Rigid versus flexible PV modules

Flexible thin film PV modules
2/7/2016
Rigid glass laminate PV module: > 85% of the market
Aluminum frame
Front sheet glass
Encapsulant
Backsheet
Encapsulant
2/7/2016
MATERIALS IN A SILICON PV MODULE
Front sheet materials: Low-iron glass ensures good transmission of light

Encapsulant materials: Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) flows at intermediate
temperatures, encapsulating the cells.
Also polyvinyl butyral (PVB) for thin film PV
Rear sheet materials:Tedlar forms an impenetrable back layer
Frame: Aluminum frame provides rigidity
Electrical connection: Junction box provides electrical connections.
2/7/2016
MANUFACTURING OF PV MODULES
T=150 oC
2/7/2016
Conventional crystalline silicon PV modules

Finishing
- Framing
- Junction box
- Cabling and wiring
AC-module
- A PV module with a mini-inverter
2/7/2016
Break
2/7/2016
OTHER APPROACHES TO PV MODULE DESIGNS
Back contacted PV cells > i.e. no front

contacts, high packing density of solar
cells in a PV module possible
See figure from ECN:
Bifacial PV cells > PV module requires a

transparent rear sheet.
Semi transparent PV modules > low
packing density of PV cells
2/7/2016
NEW PV MODULE DEVELOPMENTS

White PV modules,CSEM
Luminescent PV modules, UT, TU/e
2/7/2016
Thin film PV modules

Used with various thin film cell technologies
Advantages:
- Light weight, rollable
- Energy payback time reduced
- Less environmental impact
Disadvantages:
- Lower PV module efficiencies
- Expensive
- Passing of IEC tests more difficult
2/7/2016
PV modules: specifications
First silicon PV modules: 36 cells in series -> 17-18 Volt at STC, to be able
to charge a lead-sulpheric acid battery.
Nowadays 250 Wp modules, 60 cells in series, 30-55 Volt, 6 10 A, these
PV modules are fit for grid connection
Information on data sheet of PV modules
Peak power - Wp
Open circuit voltage - Voc
Short circuit current - Isc
Voltage at maximum power - Vmp
Current at maximum power - Imp
Temperature coefficient
2/7/2016
Efficiency of PV modules measured at STC

Peak power and STC: Standard Test Conditions
Peak power:
Power delivered at Standard Test Conditions

at maximum power point (watt peak, Wp)
Standard Test Conditions, standardized by IEC

Irradiance
: 1000 W/m2
Spectrum
: AM 1.5
Cell temperature
: 25 C
2/7/2016
AIR MASS
AM0 and AM1.5 solar spectrum, http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/standards
Optical air mass,
angle from zenith
2500
Intensity (W/m2m)
Irradiance in space (AM 0)
AM 1 => 0
AM 0 => 0 (ET)
AM 1,5 => 48.2o
2000
Solar constant = 1,353 W/m2
1500
1000
AM =
Irradiance on earth (AM 1.5)
500
Visible
UV
0
0.25
area
0.5
1
(cos )
IR
1.0
Wavelength (m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
FIG. 015.2
2/7/2016
IV-curve of a PV module
I
Open circuit voltage
I =0
Pmp or Pmpp
V = Voc
Short circuit current
V =0
Power
P = I V
I = Isc
I sc
I mp
Maximum power point Pmp = Vmp Imp

Fill factor
FF =
Vmp I mp
Voc Isc
Vmp
Voc
Pmp = FF Voc Isc
2/7/2016
The IV-curve of a PV module
can be described by the
1-diode model, this is a
simplification of the more
accurate 2-diode model
I ph
Rs
I
+
R sh
Iph = photo-generated current

Is= saturation current
V = voltage
T = temperature
k = Boltzmanns constant
Rs = series resistance
Rsh= shunt resistance
I = I ph
q (V +kTI Rs )
V + I Rs
Is e
1
Rsh
2/7/2016
All curves at Tc= 25oC
except for one
2/7/2016
POWER / ENERGY LOSSES IN PV MODULES
- Solar cell mismatch losses

In series: I1 < I2 : Itotal = I1
In parallel: lowest V determines Vtot
- Shading
- Hot spots
2/7/2016
Partial shading: effect on IV-curves
2/7/2016
Characterizing performance of PV modules

Efficiency
EA
=
dc
100%
H i ,u A
where,
EA is the power produced by a PV module (W)
A the area of a PV module (m2)
Hi,u the irradiance falling on a PV module (W/m2)
2/7/2016
Irradiance dependency of PV modules efficiency

Efficiency vs. irradiance for different PV technologies
Lab efficiencies 2015 silicon PV, FhG-ISE, 2015
Randall, J.F. and J. Jacot, 2003
2/7/2016
PV modules: temperature coefficients

Temperature coefficients of current, voltage and power (silicon PV):
(Isc) typical values between +0.03%/K and +0.1%/K
(Voc) typical values between -0.33%/K and -0.40%/K
(Pmpp) typical values between -0.40%/K and -0.50%/K.
This effect causes PV modules power to slightly drop on hot days
Pmpp, 25 = Pmpp (1 ( /100) (Tm (oC) 25 ))
Pmpp, 25= temperature-corrected power in max. power point (if it were 25oC)
Pmpp = real power in max. power point
Tm = module temperature
2/7/2016
Thermal behavior of PV modules

Because of temperature coefficients of current, voltage and power its
important to know the thermal behavior of PV modules:
Heat gain due to:
Suns irradiance + Electrical operating
point of PV module + Packing PV cells
Heat loss due to:
Convention + Conduction + Radiation
2/7/2016
NOMINAL OPERATING CELL TEMPERATURE
The Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) is defined as the

temperature reached by open circuited cells in a module under the
conditions as listed below:
1.Irradiance on cell surface = 800 W/m2
2.Air Temperature Tair = 20C
3.Wind Velocity = 1 m/s
4.Mounting = open back side.
Expression for the cell temperature Tcell :

Tcell= Tair+ S (NOCT-20) / 80
S is the irradiance in mW/cm2
2/7/2016
OTHER TEMPERATURE MODELS
For PV in the built environment

= +
The Ross model:
where, Tm= Module temperature (C), Ta= ambient temperature (C), Gm =

irradiance in the module plane (W/m2) and k = 0.013 0.037 Cm2/W for
resp. free-standing and PV modules well-integrated in a roof.
The Skoplaki model:
= +
0.32
8.91 + 2.0
(3)
where vf is the wind speed and the mounting coefficient

= kmounted /kfreestanding
2/7/2016
PV module testing and testing standards
Performance testing > power production, thermal behavior, durability

Reliability testing > durability, life time guarantees, bankability
PV module certification > to allow a PV module on the market and to test a
factory on regular moments for quality controls of manufacturing process
Organizations for standardization: ASTM, IEEE, IEC (national org.: f.i. NEN)
Test labs: TV, Sandia, NREL, ECN (partially) etc
2/7/2016
POWER & YIELDS > PERFORMANCE TESTING
Performance testing is also called characterization of a PV module

Most important standard: IEC 61215: Crystalline silicon terrestrial PV
modules, design qualification, and type approval
This standard covers many other standards related to execution of tests
Results:
Electrical performance: among others IV-curves under STC, under thermal
cycling, under wet conditions
Mechanical performance: under impact and after several tests
2/7/2016
STANDARD TEST FACILITIES
Class A solar flash simulator > IV-curves

Climate chambers: thermal cold, wet cycles; humidity tests, etc.
Hail launcher
Tools for mechanical tests
Measuring equipment: temperature, etc.
Salt fog chamber
UV test chamber
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
IEC 61215 OUTLINE
2/7/2016
FIELD FAILURES OF PV MODULES > RELIABILITY TESTING
Broken interconnects and broken cells

Corrosion
Delamination and/or loss of elastomeric properties of encapsulant
Encapsulant discoloration
Solder bond failures
Broken glass
Hot Spots
Ground faults
Junction box and module connection failures
Bypass Diode failures
Open circuiting leading to arcing
(Wohlgemuth, NREL, 2012)
2/7/2016
(Wohlgemuth, NREL, 2012)

2/7/2016
IEC Standards: Reliability

Collection of PV modules (and their failures) from the field and testing by
IEC-61730-1 Photovoltaic module safety qualification: Requirements for construction
IEC-61730-1 Photovoltaic module safety qualification: Requirements for testing
IEC-61215 Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic modules Design qualification and
type approval
Etc..
Etc.
Etc.
IEC-1701 Salt Mist Corrosion Testing of PV Modules
IEC-1721 Susceptibility of a Module to Accidental Impact Damage (Resistance to Impact
Test)
2/7/2016
Break
2/7/2016
PV SYSTEMS
PV systems
Grid-connected PV Inverters
Stand-alone PV Energy storage
Hybrid PV
BIPV, PIPV
Components Balance of System
Performance indicators for PV systems
Sizing and simulation
2/7/2016
Scheme for a PV system configuration

PV
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Grid-connected PV
0.2 kW to megawatts AC
2/7/2016

PV
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Grid-connected PV
with auxiliary back-up
AC
2/7/2016

PV
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Stand alone PV I
~ 1 - 5 kilowatts
AC
2/7/2016

PV
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Stand alone PV II
AC
50 watt to 1 kW at a max.
2/7/2016

PV
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Diesel
Utility Grid
genset
Battery
BMS
DC
Hybrid PV system
up to 10s of kWs
AC
2/7/2016
PV SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY
VLS: Very Large System

BIPV: Building Integrated PV
BAPV: Building Added PV
PIPV: Product Integrated PV
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
Building integrated PV, Netherlands
2/7/2016
PV in the built environment: Nieuwland
2/7/2016
GRID CONNECTED PV IN SMART CITIES
HEERHUGOWAARD 2013
2/7/2016
PV Sound barriers
2/7/2016
VLS: Very Large Systems
2/7/2016
BIPV: PV facades
2/7/2016
BIPV: Architectural integration
2/7/2016
Applications : Building Integrated PV

Costs of building integrated BIPV seem to be reasonable
Even cost competitive in 2015 and certainly more interesting in 2016
2016
2/7/2016
BAPV: on top of the Reichstag
2/7/2016
Applications : stand alone PV
Street lighting system, Indonesia
2/7/2016
Applications : stand alone PV

Autonomous PV: costs of PV system cheaper than grid extension in remote
areas
Prijs van een kWh ($)
5 km
1 km net
10 km
20 km
LCOE PV-high
Elektriciteit uit zonlicht
LCOE PV-low
0
1
10
Dagelijkse behoefte aan elektriciteit (kWh)
100
Daily electricity demand (kWh)
2/7/2016
Applications : autonomous PV
Telecommunication
Remote areas
2/7/2016
Applications : stand alone PV, with sun tracking
Tracking system in Cambodia

2/7/2016
CATEGORIES OF PIPV
(1) Consumer products

(2) Lighting products
(3) Business-to-business applications
(4) Recreational products
(5) Vehicles and transportation
(6) Arts
2/7/2016
Product-integrated PV: almost commercially viable application

PV powered boats
2/7/2016
PV systems: components
PV modules
BOS: Balance of System
MPP trackers
Inverters, most of the time DC/AC
Energy storage, usually batteries
Battery management systems (BMS)
Other power electronics, cabling, diodes etc
Sun tracking systems
Racks and other mounting systems for PV arrays
Cabinets for inverters
Monitoring equipment, if necessary
2/7/2016
MPP TRACKERS
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid-connected inverters,

solar battery chargers and similar devices use to get the maximum possible power
from one or more photovoltaic modules.
Usually the tracker itself is integrated in the electronics of the inverter, unless in
innovative applications f.i. solar powered boats or so-called smart PV modules, they
have a separate MPP tracker between PV and battery.
Different algorithms based on the shape of an IV curve. Most common: Perturb and
Observe. The controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the array and
measures power; if the power increases, further adjustments in that direction are tried
until power no longer increases.
In general: sensitive for non-optimal peaks due to shading
2/7/2016
Inverters (DC/AC)
Applied in grid-connected systems to convert DC power from PV arry to AC power that can be fed in the grid
Most inverters have an integrated MPP tracker (see previous slide)
Power electronics: MOSFETs or Thyristor (large inverter)
Differently configured PV systems
with DC-coupling box (2-5 kWp PV array)
with string-inverters (1 to 2 strings)
assembled from AC-modules, and AC-coupling box
Requirements PV inverters:
Electromagnetic compatibility: EMC, not sending undesired signals and immune against external disturbances
Provision against island operation: automatic switch off
2/7/2016
Inverters DC/AC
Example of inverter efficiency curve, SMA Sunny Boy

Does this inverter have a good performance???
Also for inverters: standardization, by f.i. European inverter efficiency
2/7/2016
ENERGY STORAGE
Different means for energy storage available, however for PV applications
lead-acid batteries are still the most dominant form of energy storage,
because of low costs and matureness of technology (Sorensen, 2015)
2/7/2016
Batteries
Important battery properties
The capacity: the amount of charge energy (Wh) or charge (Ah) which
can be withdrawn from a fully charged battery
The energy storage efficiency: the ratio between the amount of energy
that can be withdrawn from a charged battery and the energy needed to
charge it.
Notice: batteries lower discharge limit depth of discharge- is usually
above 40% of a fully charged batteries state of charge (see next slide)
The cyclic service of the battery: the number of times that a battery can
be discharged to a specified depth of discharge (until it gets worn out)
2/7/2016
Batteries
State of charge: SOC
SOC = (Crated Cdischarged)/Crated
SOC = Cremaining/Crated
2/7/2016
Batteries
Different materials ->

different cell voltages
Lead acid batteries
Nickelcadmium batteries
NiMH batteries
Lithium-ion batteries
2/7/2016
Perez,
1993
2/7/2016
Perez,
1993
2/7/2016
NiCd
NiMH
Li-ion
Lead-acid
Gravimetric Energy Density (Wh/kg)
45-80
60-120
110-160
30-50
Internal Resistance in m
(includes peripheral circuits)
100-200
6V pack
200-300
6V pack
<100-250
7.2V pack
Less than 100

12V pack
Cycle Life (to 80% of initial capacity)
1500
300-500
300-500
200-300
Service Life
5 years +
3-4 years
2-3 years
5 years +
Fast Charge Time
1-2h
2-4h
-4h
8-16h
Self-discharge / month (room temp.)
20%
30%
5-10%
5%
Cell Voltage (nominal)
1.2V
1.2V
3.7V
2V
20C
1C
5C
0.5C or lower
2-5C
1C or lower
5C
0.2C
Operating Temp. (discharge only)
-40 to 60C
-20 to 60C
-20 to 60C
-20 to 60C
Maintenance Requirement
30-60 days
60-90 days
6 months
6 months
Typical Battery Cost (US$)
$50 (7.2V)
$60 (7.2V)
$100 (7.2V)
$25 (6V)
Cost per Cycle (US$)
$0.04
$0.12
$0.14
$0.10
Load Current
peak
best result
2/7/2016
SUN TRACKING
A sun tracker is device that orients PV modules towards the sun with the
objective to minimize the angle of incidence between the incoming beams of
irradiance and the PV modules.
Also sun tracking is a requirement in Concentrating PV (CPV). Therefore we
will come back to this topic in lecture 6.
Two approaches:
Single axis tracking, horizontal, vertical (East to West) and tilted
Dual axis tracking, full tracking of sun in all directions
Issues with wind loads, wear of drives, costs
By lack of good references to tracking, please read http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker
2/7/2016
Performance of grid-connected PV systems

Performance can be related to
Energy performance of PV systems
Reliability of PV systems
Objectives in case of energy performance:
Checking forecasted energy yields
Determination of available irradiation
Determination of components efficiencies
Gaining detailed insight in the functioning of a system
Overall objective: improving future PV systems!!!
2/7/2016
Final yield
Besides the system efficiency the following normalized index can be
determined
Final yield Yf = Euse,PV,day Po (kWh/kWp)
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Performance ratio
The performance ration follows from the final yield and the reference yield
Reference yield Yr = day GI dt GSTC
Final yield Yf = Euse,PV,day Po
Performance ratio PR = Yf Yr (%)
Nowadays PV systems can reach a PR of 90%!
2/7/2016
Performance grid-connected PV
2/7/2016
SIZING AND SIMULATION
Because we would like to predict the performance of PV systems

Because we would select components that suit the situation of use
Advantage of simulation vs. back-of-the-envelop calculations:
Computers can easily deal with the stochastic character of intermittent
energy sources such as solar and wind energy
Multi-disciplinary aspects (energy generation and storage, costs, loss-ofload probability) lead to complex systems > and very complex
calculations
A simulation program embeds a lot of expert knowledge that you can
easily apply in a short time without being an expert (yet)
2/7/2016
SIMULATION TOOLS
Both grid-connected and stand alone PV

PVGIS (free and easy to use)
HOMER (must be purchased and easy to use)
And many more!
Grid-connected PV systems only (and in Dutch)
o zonnecalculator.nl
o zonneatlas.nl
o zonnekaart.nl
2/7/2016
PVGIS
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/
Easy to handle
Can be used to calculate daily irradiance profiles, monthly irradiance,
electricity generation of different grid-connected PV systems
Produces data and graphs
Meteorological data for Europe, Africa and Asia
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Homer
http://homerenergy.com/
Easy to handle
Can be used to simulate small energy systems with solar PV, wind
turbines, batteries, fuel cells electrolyzers, both stand alone and
connected to the grid
Produces data and graphs
Optimization of system components with respect to customizable
variables: meteo data or costs or total power etc.
Possibility to input measured meteo data
This is THE standard simulation environment for professional RET experts
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Homer produces time series of system performance during one year
2/7/2016
TO DO FOR NEXT WEEK
To read:
These lecture slides
Chapter 7 of PVeducation: Modules and Arrays
See: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/introduction
FYI, to give you an overview: report IEA-PVPS T1-27:2015 (on Blackboard)
To prepare:
Assignment 1, submission on February 18th, 2016
Assignment 2, this assignment is a mini-project which has to be executed in
couples. Submit topic on February 15th, 2016, presentation on March 16th
2/7/2016
ASSIGNMENT 2
MINI PROJECT
Create couples and read assignment 2.

Select a topic in the field of solar energy
Send me an email (a.h.m.e.reinders@utwente.nl) with student names
and the selected topic before Monday February 15th 23:59h..
Analyse this topic and report your findings in a paper of max. 8 pages A4
Preferably use reviewed information sources, i.e. books, papers from
journals (use Scopus, Science Direct, or Google Scholar).
2/7/2016
ASSIGNMENT 2
MINI PROJECT
On March 16th, you will present your results by a PowerPoint presentation

of about 10 minutes. Therefore your presentation is discussed in the
group.
Please also submit your assignment on March 16th at the end of the day,
while mentioning your names and student ID on the first page of paper,
and your powerpoint presentation (both documents must be submitted)
2/7/2016

CRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS - 1
CONTENTS
Functioning of solar cells

IV curves
Production
Cell design
To do for next week
18/02/16
Principle of operation of crystalline solar cells (c-Si)
Sunlight1
Contact grid
AR-coating
0,3 mm
2 3
6
Electron
current
P-typeregion
Back contact
N-type region
Junction
Fig. 001_5
18/02/16
Principle of operation
Sunlight (photons) 1
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
18/02/16
IRRADIANCE: AVAILABLE SPECTRUM, AM1.5

AM0 and AM1.5 solar spectrum, http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/standards
Optical air mass,
angle from zenith
2500
Intensity (W/m2m)
AM 1 => 0
AM 0 => 0 (ET)
AM 1,5 => 48.2o
2000
1500
1000
AM =
500
Visible
UV
0
0.25
area
0.5
1
(cos )
IR
1.0
Wavelength (m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
FIG. 015.2
18/02/16
The corpuscular particle character of light
Photons are quasi particles, quanta, packages of energy

E = photon energy
E = h =
h = Plancks constant
hc
= frequency of the light
= velocity of light
= wavelength of the light
= =
18/02/16
The unit electron volt
V = 1 volt
q = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb and V = 1 volt

E = q x V = 1.6 x 10-19 x 1 =
= 1.6 x 10-19 joule = 1 electron volt = 1 eV
18/02/16
Spectrum in relation to energy content photons
Visible area
Ultra violet
Infra red
3.18 eV
violet
1.61 eV
blue
0.39
green yellow orange
red
0.77
FIG 047.2
Wavelength (m)
h(eV) x (m) = 1.24

Green light: = 0.55 x 10-6m, =5.45 x 1014 s-1, E=2.25 eV
18/02/16
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
18/02/16
Absorption of light (1): general

Lamberts law
I
I(x ) = I ( x = 0 ) e x
() : absorption coefficient
0
dp =
0
( )
dp = characteristic penetration depth, given by

( )
1
I (x = 0)
( )
= I ( x = 0 ) e
= I ( x = 0 ) e 1 =
I x = dp =
( )
e
18/02/16
10
Absorption of light (2) in crystalline silicon

Wavelength (m)
Absorption coefficient
(cm-1)
1.24
0.62
0.41 0.35
5
10
4
10
= absorption coefficient, and

dp = penetration depth in crystalline silicon
Infrared
300K
= 1.05 m
3
10
2
10
= 10 cm-1
dp=
1
= 1000 m
= 105 cm-1
dp=
1
= 0.1 m
Violet
= 0.41 m
10
1
-1
10
1.0
FIG 048.1
1.5 2.0 2.3 2.5 3.5

Photon energy (eV)
18/02/16
11
Absorption of light (3) : x-Si

N
Sunlight
Red light
Blue light
1 m
100 m
LIB-1465
18/02/16
12
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
Depends on the material and on the wavelength of light
The absorption coefficient, , in a variety of semiconductor materials at 300K (cm-1)

18/02/16
13
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
18/02/16
14
GENERATION RATE G
Generation rate at AM 1.5

Silicon solar cell
The intensity of light I at any point in a PV

device can be calculated according to the
equation: = 0
Where
is the absorption coefficient typically in cm-1;

x is the distance into the material at which the light intensity is being calculated;
and
I0 is the light intensity (irradiance) at the top surface.
The generation rate G is the number of electron-hole pairs generated.

At any point in a PV device can be calculated using:
= 0
where N0 = photon flux at the surface (photons/unit-area/sec.)

18/02/16
15
IV-curves (1)
Iph
IV-curve photo-generated current: Iph

V
V1
IV-curve diode
V
V1
Superposition -> IV-curve solar cell: I
Id(V1 )
I
I (V1 )
V1
Iph
V
14/02/13
16
IDEAL DIODE EQUATION
SHOCKLEY EQUATION
= exp
where:
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
IS = "dark saturation current",
diode leakage current density in absence of light;
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode;
q = absolute value of electron charge;
n = diode ideality factor (n ~ 1)
k = Boltzmann's constant; and
T = absolute temperature (K).
14/02/13
17
Solar cell equivalent circuit

Ideal case: single diode model
I
+
I ph
Id
V
qV
I = I ph I s e kT 1
18/02/16
18
Single diode model with series and shunt resistance
Rs
I
+
I ph
R sh
Rs = Series resistance
Rsh = Shunt resistance
V
-
I = I ph
q (V +kTI Rs )
V + I Rs
Is e
1
Rsh
18/02/16
19
SERIES AND SHUNT RESISTANCES
Series resistance accounts for resistances by

metal grid
contacts
base and emitter sheet
Shunt
imperfections on device surface
leakage currents across the edge of the cell
18/02/16
20
Solar cell equivalent circuit:

Two diode model
Rs
I
+
I ph
D1
D2
Rsh
V
-
I Rs )
I Rs )
V +IR
q (Vn+ kT
q (Vn+kT
s
1
2
I = I ph I s1 e
1
1 I s 2 e
Rsh
18/02/16
21
SILICON PV MANUFACTURING
1954, D. Chapin, C. Fuller and G. Pearson at Bell Laboratories used

Silicon as semiconductor material to make the first practical solid-state
solar cell for power generation.
Silicon is the second most abundant element (about 28.2% by weight)
present in the earth crust. And the most studied element after Oxygen
PV industry has grown using technologies and manufacturing processes
from the semiconductor industry and benefiting from low-cost silicon
feedstock supplied as reject by the semiconductor industry.
In 2015, crystalline Silicon PV still represents more than 90% of the
entire global PV market.
Since 2004 larger PV industry (in weight) than semiconductor industry
18/02/16
22
FIRST 5 STEPS TOWARDS SILICON SUBSTRATES

1. Reduction of sand to obtain metallurgical-grade silicon
2. Purification
3. Production of purified silicon feedstock
4. Growth of silicon ingots, either mono-crystalline or multi-crystalline
5. Slicing of silicon ingots into wafers
18/02/16
23
FEEDSTOCK PRODUCTION
Quartz sand
SiO2
Reduction with carbon C
SiO2 + C Si + SiO + CO
Si with 98% purity, metallurgical grade silicon
Metallurgical grade Si
Conversion to SiHCl3
Fractional distillation of SiHCl3
Deposition as polysilicon rod
Zone refining
Electronic
grade Si feedstock
Semiconductor
industry
Siemens process
At least 99.9999% (6N) purity for
solar-grade silicon: SoG-Si
waste
Waste
9N purity for electronicCrystalline

grade
silicon:silicon
EGS
solar industry
Fig. 002_6
18/02/16
24
1. PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL-GRADE SILICON
High-purity silica (SiO2) or quartzite is mixed with charcoal, wood chips and
coal. The carbon reduces the silica to form silicon:
2 +
1900
+ 2
+ +
1900
2 + 2
1900
3 + 2
This process happens at 1900 oC and requires therefore a large amount of

energy, about 13kWh/kg (!).
Silicon is liquid at this temperature and is drained at the bottom of the
furnace. The purity of metallurgical-grade silicon is typically around 98%.
18/02/16
25
2. PURIFICATION OF SILICON
The second step consists in purifying the MG Silicon

Common technique: a distillation process of trichlorosilane SiHCl3
Starting from MGS, the trichlorosilane is formed according to
+ 3
300
3 + 2 +
Trichlorosilane (a liquid at room temperature) is purified by fractional

distillation.
18/02/16
26
3. PRODUCTION OF SOC-SILICON
The production of solar-grade silicon (SoG-Si) consists of reducing the

purified trichlorosilane with hydrogen in a chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
process at around 1150C, the silicon depositing on pure silicon rods (20
cm diameter) electrically heated serving as nucleation surface for the
deposition process according to the reaction:
23 + 32
1150
2 + 6
This process, known as the Siemens process, is the best known technique
for producing silicon feedstock for PV application.
18/02/16
27
Cross-sections of solar cell technologies

This lecture
Remaining lectures
Cheap
substrate
Thin film
PV
FIG 054.1
Single crystalline silicon

solar cells
Multicrystalline silicon
solar cells
Thin-film solar cell

- Crystalline film silicon
- Amorphous silicon
- Cadmium telluride
- Copper indium diselenide
- III-V compound
- Organic solar cells
18/02/16
28
SOLAR CELL PRODUCTION
Input material is solar-grade silicon feedstock

For mono-crystalline silicon
Czochraski (Cz) process > resulting in an ingot which can be further
processed in 2015: ingot diameter: ~ 200mm, ingot length: ~ 2 m, ~200 kg
Multi-crystalline ingots can be produced by melting pure silicon in a crubicle

in an oven. This is cheaper, because of simpler process and larger load
than in the case of Cz process: ingot size: 1 x 1 x 0.35 m, ~800 kg
At present therefore the largest share of the market consists of multicrystalline PV cells and modules.
18/02/16
29
SINGLE CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS:

CZOCHRALSKI GROWTH PROCESS
Seed crystal
Originally developed for space applications,

still in use for terrestrial applications
Puller at 1,1 mm/minute (60 hours in total
for the production of one ingot)
Silicon rod
Molten silicon
At high temperature of 1425 oC: very high

energy consumption: 40 to 100 kWh/kg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AMgQ1HdElM
Fig. 003_2
18/02/16
30
Multi-crystalline silicon production
0.1 mm/min to 0.4 mm/min

TH
Liquid
Solid
Liquid-solid
transition
TL
Fig. 004-2
18/02/16
31
MULTI-CRYSTALLINE SILICON
18/02/16
32
GRAINS IN CRYSTALLINE SILICON CELLS
Descriptor
Symbol
Grain Size
Common
Growth
Techniques
Mono crystalline
or single crystal
sc-Si
>10cm
Czochralski (CZ)
float zone (FZ)
Multicrystalline
mc-Si
1mm-10cm
Cast, sheet,
ribbon
Polycrystalline
pc-Si
1m-1mm
Chemical-vapour
deposition
Microcrystalline
c-Si
<1m
Plasma
deposition
18/02/16
33
Multi-crystalline silicon sawing
18/02/16
34
Sawing of wafers
Wire sawing process:
Wafer thinkness ~ 180 m
Kerf loss of ~200 m
Sawing takes about
6 to 8 hours for
156 x 156 mm cells
Wire
Silicon block
Fig. 005_2
18/02/16
35
SQUARED-OFF CZ INGOT
18/02/16
36
Multi-crystalline silicon solar cell production

Wafer
Removal of sawing
P
damage by etching
Formation of N-layer
by phosphorus diffusion
ARC
Deposition of anti-
reflection coating
ARC
Metallisation by
screen printing
FIG 060.1
18/02/16
37
MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELL
80-ies
Solar cells in course of time

present
18/02/16
38
SOLAR CELL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Maximise efficiency, given a certain set of constraints

Cost vs. efficiency
increasing the amount of light collected by the cell that is turned into
carriers;
increasing the collection of light-generated carriers;
extracting the current from the cell without resistive losses.
18/02/16
39
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
Photons incident on the surface of a solar cells will be either:

Reflected,
Absorbed, or
Transmitted.
18/02/16
40
MINIMIZING OPTICAL LOSSES
Minimise top contact > reducing self-shading

Anti-reflection coatings > prevent reflection of incoming irradiance
Increase optical path length by:
- Thicker solar cell > leading to increased probability of absorption
- Surface texturing
- Reflective rear surface of cell
(straight or Lambertian)
18/02/16
41
CELL DESIGN ASPECTS (1)
FRONT METALLISATION, PATTERN DESIGN
Front metallization is meant as an electrical

Finger and busbar resistivity
contact for the solar cell to be able to withdraw
width
current/power while letting irradiance enter
the front surface of the solar cell.
height
R
R
R
busbar
finger
sheet n-layer
contact
Contact resistance between

fingers and n-layer
Resistance of the solar cells
bulk and n-layer
Also: self-shading by front
metallisation
bulk
18/02/16
42
BURIED CONTACT CELL
high efficiency commercial solar cell

Shading losses 10%, reduced to 2 to 3% by buried contact
18/02/16
43
BACK CONTACT SOLAR CELLS

Regular cell
Back contact cell
Figure from IMEC
Figure from ECN
EVA and glass sheet
Schematics of back-contact solar cell structures.

(a) MWT. 2008 WIP Munich. (b) EWT 2008 IEEE.
All figures reproduced with permission.
18/02/16
44
SURFACE TEXTURE
Light trapping by total internal reflection is increased by textured surfaces

Snells law:
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
Critical angle:
c = arcsin (n2/n1)
occurs only if
n1 > n2
(a)
(b)
FIG 056.2
Scanning electron microscope

photograph of a textured silicon surface.
Image Courtesy, UNSW.
n1 > n2
18/02/16
45
SURFACE TEXTURE
Inverted pyramids
Scanning electron microscope photograph of a textured

silicon surface. Image Courtesy, UNSW.
18/02/16
46
ANTI-REFLECTION COATING: ARC
Bare silicon has a high surface reflection of over 30%. An ARC reduces reflection
by destructive interference of light.
35
Bare silicon
30
Antireflection
coating
nARC, d
FIG 057.2
Silicon
n2
n ARC d =
0
4
n ARC = n0 n 2
Guidelines for
refractive indices:
nair=1.0001
nglass=1.46
nsilicon=3.44
Reflection (%)
Air or glass
n0
25
Silicon
In air
Under glass
20
15
n = 2.3
With
AR
n = 1.9
10
n = 2.3
5
0
FIG 058.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
Wavelength (m)
18/02/16
1.1
47
Cell design aspects (4)

BSF and BSR
n-layer
BSF: Back Surface Field

BSR: Back Surface Reflector
p-substrate
- electron
photon
p +-layer
BSF
Back
contact
BSR
18/02/16
Fig 008_2
48
Characterisation of solar cells: Flash test (1)
Light source
Fig. 001.7
18/02/16
49
Spectral response measurement (2)
Chopper
Narrow band
filter
Solar
cell
Light source
Bias light
source
PSD
FIG 061.1
18/02/16
50
Spectral response of multi-crystalline silicon solar cell
0.9
0.8
EQE (A/W)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
300
400
500
600
700
800
(nm)
900
1000
1100
1200
FIG 023.2
18/02/16
51
TO DO FOR NEXT LECTURE
To read:
These lecture slides and information mentioned at Blackboard
To prepare:
Assignment 3 to be submitted at March 14th, 2016 on Blackboard.
18/02/16
52

CRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS - 2
CONTENTS
Semiconductors
PN junction
Diode equation (general case)
To do for next week
22/02/16
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
22/02/16
CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
=1/
From: Sze, Semiconductor devices
22/02/16
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Materials from group IV
Column/
Period
Combination of III and V
Mg Al
Si
Zn Ga Ge As Se
Cd
Hg
III V compounds /alloys

Combination of II and VI
II VI compounds / alloys or
chalcogenides
II
III
IV
VI
In
Sn Sb Te
Pb
A semiconductor can be either of a single element, such as Si or Ge, a compound,

such as GaAs, InP or CdTe, or an alloy, such as SixGe(1-x) or AlxGa(1-x)As, where x
is the fraction of the particular element and ranges from 0 to 1.
22/02/16
SEMICONDUCTOR SILICON
Silicon is a semiconductor with a diamond structure

Si atoms are surrounded by 4 others
Covalent bonds, by shared electron pairs
Free electrons (e- charge) result from (partially) broken bonds
Leaving a hole behind (e+ charge)
+14
2 e8 e-
4 e-
Schematic representation
of an isolated Si atom with
3 energy levels / shells / for
electrons Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
SEMICONDUCTOR SILICON
Covalent bonds: Two atoms share a single electron

Thermal excitation electron moves from valence band to conduction
band (this happens both in the dark and under exposure of light)
Free electrons cause conduction in the conduction band
Holes cause conduction in the valence band
-
Energy band diagram of a semi conductor

at zero Kelvin and at 300 Kelvin
22/02/16
BAND GAP
Minimum energy required to excite an electron

From the lower energy level, valance band (EV)
To an energy level at which an electron can be considered free,
conduction band (EC)
The band gap (Eg) is the gap in energy between the bound state and the
free state
Eg depends on the semiconductor material
Si
Eg ~1,14 eV
Forbidden gap
Ge Eg ~ 0,67 eV
GaAs Eg~ 1,42 eV
22/02/16
CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
22/02/16
PHOTON ENERGY COMPARED TO BAND GAP
Eph < Eg
Photons with energy Eph less than the band gap energy Eg
interact only weakly with the semiconductor, passing through
it as if it were transparent.
Eph = Eg
have just enough energy to create an electron hole pair and

are efficiently absorbed.
Eph > Eg
Photons with energy much greater than the band gap are
strongly absorbed. However, for photovoltaic applications, the
photon energy greater than the band gap is wasted as
electrons quickly thermalize back down to the conduction
band edges.
In silicon, because Eg ~1,14 eV only photons with a wavelength smaller

than 1.1 m have chance to be absorbed.
22/02/16
10
EPH > EG IN CRYSTALLINE SILICON
2500
Intensity (W/m2m)
2000
1500
1000
500
Visible
UV
0
0.25
area
0.5
IR
1.0
Wavelength (m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
FIG. 015.2
18/02/16
11
INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION
Semiconductor material without impurities is called intrinsic material

The concentration of the free carriers (electron-hole pairs) is called the
intrinsic carrier concentration, ni
At 300 K the generally accepted value for the intrinsic carrier
concentration of silicon is ni, ~1010 cm-3
22/02/16
12
INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION
The exact value of the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon has been
extensively studied.
At 300 K the generally accepted value for the intrinsic carrier concentration
of silicon, ni, is 9.65 x 109 cm-3 ,given by Altermatt.
A formula for the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon as a function of
temperature is given by Misiakos:
ni(T)=5.29 1019 x (T/300)2.54 x e(6726/T)
Notice that solar cells are usually measured at 25 C where the intrinsic
carrier concentration is 8.3 x 109 cm-3.
22/02/16
13
DOPING
Shift the balance of electrons and holes in a silicon crystal lattice by "doping" it with
other atoms which have different numbers of valence e Doping creates N-type material (negatively charged material) when semiconductor
materials from group IV are doped with group V atoms. P-type materials (positively
charged) are created when semiconductor materials from group IV are doped with
group III atoms.
Column/
Period
II
III
IV
VI
Mg
Al
Si
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hg - Lecture 4
Solar Energy
Pb
22/02/16
14
Semiconductors N-type crystalline silicon (e.g. phosphorus doped)
N-type silicon
CB
DONORS
VB
T=0K
- - - - - + + + + +
T=300K
CB
IONISED
DONORS
VB
At room temperature (300 K)

almost all donors ionised
Concentration of electrons
almost equal to the
concentration of donors
Thermal excitations continue
Electrons are majority carriers
Holes are minority carriers
22/02/16
15
Semiconductors P-type crystalline silicon (e.g boron doped)
P-type silicon
CB
ACCEPTORS
VB
T=0K
CB
- - - - - IONISED
ACCEPTORS
+ + + + + +
T=300K
VB
At room temperature (300 K)

almost all acceptors ionised
Concentration of holes in
valence band is almost equal
to the concentration of
acceptors
Thermal excitations continue
Holes are majority carriers
Electrons are minority carriers
22/02/16
16
EQUILIBRIUM CARRIER CONCENTRATION
At equilibrium, the product of the majority and minority carrier concentration is a

constant, and this is mathematically expressed by the Law of Mass Action.
0 0 = 2
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration and n0 and p0 are the electron and hole equilibrium
carrier concentrations
The concentrations of the majority carriers and , and the concentrations of the
minority carriers and , are given by:
N-type material: = , =
P-type material: = , =
where ND is the concentration of donor atoms and NA of acceptor atoms
22/02/16
17
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
22/02/16
18
PN-junction (1) (in the dark)

P-Si
N-Si
P-Si
N-Si
+
+
+
+
+
Diffusion of mobile charge carriers

across the interface
Build up of space charge
Build up of electrostatic field
(0.5 V/1m=5000 V/cm)
Prevents further exchange of carriers
P-Si
N-Si
0.5V
CB
1m
VB
22/02/16
20
PN-junction (2) (in the dark)

Zero bias (Vexternal=0)
P-Si
Diffusion of electrons (minorities) from P-
N-Si
Si to N-Si
Diffusion of holes (majorities from N-Si to
0.5V
P-Si
CB
Thermo-ionic emissions of electrons from

N-Si (majorities) to P-Si
Thermo-ionic emissions of holes from P-
VB
1m
Si (majorities) to N-Si
At Vexternal= 0, balance between these two
currents
22/02/16
21
PN JUNCTION
Built-in potential
0 =
P-type
N-type
Ecp
qV0
EF
Ecn
Evp
Slope proportional to electric field
1m
Evn
22/02/16
22
EFFECT OF BIAS VOLTAGE
22/02/16
23
IDEAL DIODE EQUATION
SHOCKLEY EQUATION
= 0 exp
where:
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
I0 = "dark saturation current",
that is the diode leakage current density in the absence of light;
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode (V)
q = absolute value of electron charge, 1.602 10-19 C
k = Boltzmanns constant = 1,38 10-23 J/K
T = absolute temperature (K)
Notice that:
I0 increases as T increases; and
I0 decreases as material quality increases
VT is the thermal voltage ~25.85 mV at 300K
Figure by Wikimedia Commons
22/02/16
24
IV-curves of a solar cell

Iph
IV-curve photo-generated current: Iph

V
V1
IV-curve diode
V
V1
Superposition -> IV-curve solar cell: I
Id(V1 )
I
I (V1 )
V1
Iph
V
22/02/16
25
PN junction: principle of operation (1)

Energy band diagram of PN-junction
P
3
Diffusion
4
CB
Eg
3
Generation
Separation
VB
22/02/16
26
RECOMBINATION
Eventually, electrons lose energy and fall back to the valence band, recombining
with a hole: this is recombination.
There are three types of bulk recombination, see next slide for examples
1. Shockley-Read-Hall (through defects, which happens typically in PV cells)
2. Auger (three carriers, dominates in silicon solar cells)
3. Radiative (dominating recombination effect in LEDs)
Also, surface recombination happens at the surface of a cell by dangling bonds
In low level injected material (where the number of minority carriers is less than the
doping) the lifetime of charge carriers is related to the recombination rate by:
is the minority carrier lifetime, n is the excess minority carriers concentration and
=
R is the recombination rate, notice there exist two lifetimes: namely n and p
22/02/16
27
RECOMBINATION
22/02/16
28
DIFFUSION
L, the "minority carrier diffusion length," is the average distance a carrier

can move from point of generation until it recombines (we have Ln and Lp)
Semiconductor materials that are heavily doped have greater bulk
recombination rates (SRH and Auger) and have for that reason shorter
diffusion lengths:
=
D is the diffusivity in (m/s) and is the lifetime in (s)
Typical values L = ~ 100 m, D= ~ 30 m/s and = ~ 3 s
22/02/16
29
MOBILITY
The electron mobility, n, characterizes how quickly an electron can move

through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field E.
(In the case of holes we speak of hole mobility: p)
The current density J (A/m2) will be then: J= n q n E = E
Where n is the concentration of electrons, q the elementary charge, is the
electrical conductivity, = n q n
Typical values for electron mobility for Si at room temperature (300 K) is
1400 cm2/ (Vs) and the hole mobility is around 450 cm2/ (Vs).
22/02/16
30
DERIVIATION OF DIODE EQUATION
1. General case
2. Specific case
22/02/16
31
Diode equation, general case, diode in the dark (1)
I = I1 + I2 + I3 I4
[ 4.1 ]
I1 = k1n p
[ 4.2 ]
I2 = k 2 ppe q1 / kT
[ 4.3 ]
I3 = k 3 nn e q1 /kT
[ 4.4 ]
I4 = k 4 pn
[ 4.5 ]
FIG. 018.1
q1
Ec
I1
I4
Ev
I3
I2
I = - ( k1n p + k 4 pn )+ ( k 2 pp + k 3 nn ) e -q1 /kT [ 4.6 ]

22/02/16
32
Diode equation, general case, diode in the dark (2)

I = - ( k1n p + k 4 pn )+ ( k 2 pp + k 3 nn ) e -q (1 -V )kT
[ 4.7 ]
k1np + k4 pp = ( k2 pp + k3 nn ) e-q1 /kT
[ 4.8 ]
Is = k1np + k4 pp
[ 4.9 ]
qV
kT
I = Is e 1
[ 4.10 ]
With external voltage V = 0 : I = 0

I
Is
FIG 031.1
22/02/16
33
Diode equation, specific case (1)

Diffusion potential
P-area
N-area
J p = -qDp
pp0
nn 0
n
p n0
x1
x2
[ 4.11 ]
1 dp p
=
E
p dx D p
[ 4.12 ]
kT
[ 4.13 ]
D=
np 0
FIG 032_2
dp
+ qp pE
dx
n dp
p
pn0
ln
pp
0
n qE
kT
dx
q
=
(V -V )
kT p n
[ 4.15 ]
[ 4.16 ]
22/02/16
34

Diffusion potential
pn0
pp0
n p0
nn0
q
( Vp - Vn )
= exp
kT
kT n p0
Vd = Vp - Vn =
ln
q nn0
[ 4.18 ]
[ 4.19 ]
22/02/16
35

P-area
N-area
pp0
qV
p2
= e kT
pp
[ 4.20 ]
nn 0
with
p2
n1
p
p n0
n
np 0
FIG 033_2
x1
x2
Effect of applied voltage
V = Vd + Va
qVd qVa
qVa
p
p2
n
= e kT e kT = 0 e kT
pp
pp0
[ 4.21 ]
[ 4.22 ]
pp pp0
p2 = pn0 e
n1 = n p0 e
qVa
kT
qVa
kT
[ 4.23 ]
[ 4.24 ]
22/02/16
36
Diffusion equation
d 2 pn pn - pn0
Dp
=
dx 2
(p
) (
[ 4.25 ]
n - pn0 = p2 - pn0 e
Minority carrier profiles
- ( x - x 2 ) /Lp
[ 4.27 ]
Lp = Dp
[ 4.28 ]
a
qV
- ( x-x2 ) /Lp
kT
pn=pn0 +pn0 e -1 e
[ 4.29 ]
a
qV
( x-x1 ) /Ln
kT
n p=np0 +np0 e -1 e
[ 4.30 ]
22/02/16
37

J = J n p + J p p = J n p + J pn
[ 4.31 ]
dn
dx
[ 4.32 ]
J n p = -qDn
dp
J p n = qD p
dx
x = x1
[ 4.33 ]
x = x2
qDp pn0 qDe n p0

J=
+
L
Ln
p
qDp pn0 qDe n p0

J0 =
+
Lp
Ln
a
qV
kT
J = J0 e - 1
a
qV
e kT - 1
[ 4.34 ]
[ 4.35 ]
[ 4.36 ]
22/02/16
38
OTHER WAY TO DESCRIBE JUNCTION CURRENT
The junction current can be described by:

= 2
exp
I0
I0 is the reversed saturation current
22/02/16
39
Shockley-Queisser Limit
1.
Smaller band gaps give

higher short circuit current
2.
Larger band gaps give

higher open-circuit voltage
3.
For the given solar spectrum,

an optimum band gap exists
22/02/16
40
Fundamental loss mechanisms (1)

conventional single-junction solar cell
Forbidden gap
Eg
h > Eg
33%
h < Eg
23%
Voc / Eg limited
12%
Theoretical efficiency ( Eg = 1.34 eV) 32%
22/02/16
41
Efficiency versus band gap
35
CdTe
Efficiency (%)
30
CuInGaSe2
CuInSe2
Si
25
a-Si:H:F
GaAs
a-Si:H
20
15
T = 300 K
CdS
Ge
10
5
0.5
1.0
1.5
Band gap Eg (eV)
2.0
2.5
FIG 019_2
22/02/16
42
TO DO FOR NEXT LECTURE
To read:
These lecture slides
The following handouts at Blackboard:
- Efficiency limiting factors
- SolarEnergy_Diode
To do:
Work on assignment 2 or 3
Excercises shown on next slide
22/02/16
43
EXERCISES
1. Read: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/design/anti-reflection-coatings
What is the ARC thickness for nARC=2.1 and = 600 nm?
Fill this thickness in the interactive graph of reflection vs wavelength.
What do you see? Could you explain what happens if you increase the
thickness of the ARC to 155 nm?
2. Read: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/design/light-trapping
Use the light trapping calculator on this webpage to determine the
proportion of reflected and transmitted light at an air silicon surface for
incidence angles of 0 to 90 degrees, and the other way around for a siliconair surface, for incidence angles of 0 to 90 degrees. Make graphs.
Explain your observations.
22/02/16
44

THIN FILM PV TECHNOLOGIES
CONTENTS
Energy band diagram (repetition)

Thin-film silicon PV technology
CIGS PV technology
Thin-film CdTe PV technology
Lecture 5 Solar Energy
Energy Band Diagram

Zero bias (Vexternal=0)
Diffusion of electrons (minorities) from
P-Si to N-Si (I1)

Diffusion of holes (majorities from N-Si
FIG. 018.1
to P-Si (I4)
I1
Thermo-ionic emissions of electrons
q1
from N-Si (majorities) to P-Si (I3)
Ec
Thermo-ionic emissions of holes from PSi (majorities) to N-Si (I2)
I4
Ev
I3
I2
Homojunction: same semiconductior

materials at both sides of PN-junction
i.e. band gap is similar over the whole cell
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAMS
minority electrons
p++
Energy band diagram for a homojunction with back surface field, i.e.
heavily doped p+ area
A practical application of a back surface

field is shown in the PERL cell above,
PERL means Passivated Emitter Rear
Locally (UNSW, M. Green) containing
also heavily doped n+ areas and other
interesting features such as an ARC and
inverted pyramids to increase STC
efficiency up to 25%.
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAMS
Energy band diagram for a heterojunction solar cell such as HIT cells.
Heterojunctions have different semiconductor materials at both sides of
the PN-junction.That means that the
band gap is different for the n-type
and the p-type area of the cell.
Structure of a HIT cell which means:

heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer.
Developed by Sanyo, now Panasonic,
yielding more than 25% efficiency.
This cell combines crystalline silicon with
amorphous silicon with different doping.
THIN-FILM PV TECHNOLOGIES
1. Thin-film silicon PV technology

2. CIGS PV technology
3. Thin-film CdTe PV technology
Videos accessible through the following link:
https://www.edx.org/course/solar-energy-delftx-et3034x

ORGANIC PV, MULTI-JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS, CONCENTRATING PV

AND SPACE APPLICATIONS
ANGELE REINDERS A.H.M.E.REINDERS@UTWENTE.NL
CONTENTS
Organic PV
Multi-junction solar cells
Concentrating PV systems
Space applications
Solar Energy - Lecture 6 31-03-2016
Photovoltaic cells, efficiency

30-03-2016
EFFICIENCY OF PV TECHNOLOGIES
A good source for reliable
up to date efficiency values
is the Solar Cell Efficiency
Table which is published
twice a year in the journal
Progress in Photovoltaics, see:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/pip.2728/full
Actually the Best Research Cell
Efficiencies Chart by NREL is using
(partially) the values reported in PiP
SunShot Vision Study February 2012
ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS
Dye sensitized solar cells : max = 11,9%

Polymer solar cells: organic cells : max = 11,5%
Hybrid versions, tandem, dyes, quantum dots : max = 10,6 % - 12,6%
Perovskites : max = 22,1%
DYE SENSITISED SOLAR CELLS
1972:
chlorophyl
sensitized zinc oxide (ZnO)
electrode
Nowadays:
Graetzel cell with
ruthenium complexes on TiO2
Sony
DYE SENSITISED TiO2 SOLAR CELL OPERATION

PRINCIPLE
e-
M. Grtzel, Nature, 1991, 353, 737
Efficiencies:
11,9% for < 1 cm2 cell
~7% for 120 cm2 module
MATERIALS IN DSSC
Nanocrystalline TiO2, (10-30 nm)
Ruthenium(II) + organic ligands
High surface roughness
Carboxylic acid surface groups

PROTOTYPES OF INDOOR MODULES ON GLASS/PLASTIC
PROTOTYPES OF INDOOR MODULES ON GLASS/PLASTIC
RECENT DSSC MODULES FOR BUILDING INTEGRATION

2013-2014: Transparent, colored solar panels have been installed
on the west faade of EPFLs SwissTech Convention Center
PROBLEMS STILL TO BE SOLVED
In general: a low efficiency (~13,8% is the theoretical conversion limit)

Low stability ( /3 redox couple is corrosive and dissolves many
commonly used sealants and metal interconnects)
Low scalability
POLYMER SOLAR CELLS
Based on conjugated polymers
DISCOVERY OF CONDUCTIVE POLYMER IN 1977
CONDUCTIVITY OF TRANS-POLYACETYLENE INCREASES 7 ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE

UPON OXIDATION WITH IODINE
SEMICONDUCTING POLYMERS
ADVANTAGES
Combination electronic properties of semiconductor materials, ease of

processing and mechanical flexibility.
Environmentally safe, flexible, lightweight, inexpensive
Properties can be controlled by choice of side groups
Ink-jet printing and other easy, customizable production processes
ETHENE (ETHYLENE)
C2H4
POLYMERIZATION OF ETHENE TO POLYETHENE
POLYMERIZATION OF ACETYLENE TO POLYACETYLENE
Conjugated polymer
means that the polymer
has single and double bonds
Doping by oxidation (removing electrons) or reduction (adding e-)

ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES SOLID STATE MATERIALS
SEMICONDUCTING POLYMERS
Inorganic
semiconductor
Organic
Semiconductor
i.e. conjugated
polymers
MOLECULAR ORBITALS
Organics consisting of alternating single and double bonds
In -conjugated polymers the -orbitals provide discrete energy levels
BANG GAPS OF SELECTED CONJUGATED POLYMERS
ELECTRICAL-OPTICAL PROPERTIES
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
VERY IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC

SEMICONDUCTORS AND INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS
POLYMER SEMICONDUCTORS
= x nanoseconds
POLYMER LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE
POLYMER SOLAR CELLS
POLYMER SOLAR CELL

A plastic solar cell contains two active components the electron
donor and electron acceptor
PRINCIPLE OF A MOLECULAR/POLYMER DOUBLE LAYER

P/N CELL
DONOR AND ACCEPTOR MOLECULES
ONE PROBLEM REMAINS
The lifetime of an exiton is limited: ~10-10 10-8 s

The diffusion of an exiton is rather slow: 100 m/s
The exiton diffusion length is small: 10 nm
Excitons created far away from the donor/acceptor interface will never reach
that interface
The active layer is very thin: 2 x 10 nm
How to absorb all light in a 20 nm thick film?
As a result organic double layer p/n cell rarely have efficiencies above 1%
ORGANIC DOUBLE LAYER P/N CELL IS LIMITED BY THE

EXCITON DIFFUSION LENGTH
THE SOLUTION: BULK-HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS
A.J. Heeger et al., Science 1992, 258, 1474

A.J. Heeger et al., Science 1995, 270, 1789
LAYERS OF PLASTIC SOLAR CELL
EFFICIENT METHANO[70]FULLERENE/MDMO-PPV BULK

HETEROJUNCTION PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
Wienk et al.,Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2003, 42, 3371 3375

PRINTABLE SOLAR CELLS
Siemens
ONGOING DEVELOPMENTS OPV
New R2R manufacturing processes

Organic tandem cells, Heliatek
Heliafilm introduced on March 3rd, 2015
~10 % efficiency, 2014

Uni of North Carolina
Hong Kong UST
ONGOING DEVELOPMENTS OPV
Production processes:
1. spray coating,
2. slot-die coating,
3. inkjet printing,
4. screen printing
5. rotary screen printing
First polychrome PV module with dessin by DisaSolar
Because of diversity in
production there is a freedom
of design of OPV modules
PEROVSKITE SOLAR CELLS
New development with promising efficiencies > 21%, see figure below
with X= I-, Br-, Cl
Perovskites are structured like the mineral calcium titanium oxide
(CaTiO3)
Stability issues under
exposure to oxygen
Voc =~ 1,1 V
See also this article by Chen, Johston and Snaith (2013)

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/nature12509.html
MULTIJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS
III V MATERIALS
III-V compound semiconductors made from Period III and V atoms
Crystalline structure similar to Si (i.e. diamond structure)
Therefore restricted energy levels for conduction band and valence band
Ideal diffusion, absorption, and mobility properties
GaAs has for instance a band gap of Eg = 1.42 eV
Column
Period
II
III
IV
VI
Mg
Al
Si
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hg
Pb
III V compounds have a tuneable band gap
Because of variation of Eg with composition of III-V compounds, the material is

interesting for tandem and multiple junction solar cells
MADE BY MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY : MBE
MULTI-JUNCTION APPROACH
Single junctions
multijunction
What would be the best

order of cells 1, 2 and 3?
Single junctions
Single junctions
Multi-junction
TRIPLE-JUNCTION SOLAR CELL
TYPICAL STRUCTURE
III V MULTI-JUNCTION CELLS
Lattice matched systems (crystalline structure is continued at the

interface)
Monolithic cells
AlGaAs/GaAs tandem cell (theoretical 34%, AM1.5)
InGaP/GaAs tandem cell 1.9eV/1.43eV (theoretical 34%, AM1.5)
(27%, AM0 for space applications)
2.0eV/1.43aV/1.05eV/0.66eV 4J cell (theoretical 42.3%, AM0)
Lattice mismatched systems (more defects recombination)
Monolithic cells
Mechanically stacked cells
III V MULTI-JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS
APPLICATION ISSUES
Expensive ~35 100 $/Wp

High cost applications
Concentrator systems
Space satellites, robotics
Developments of lift-off technique to re-use substrates (like Ge) of III-V solar
cells seems promising to reduce the costs and to create thin film III-V cells.
GaAs cell efficiency versus or Eg
GaAs cells highest efficiency

single junction cells.
Maximum at 1.1 m ~ 1.1eV
Efficiency can be improved through
concentration of sunlight in the order
of 30 up to 1000 suns
Wavelength (m)
CONCENTRATING PV
PATHWAYS TO 50% EFFICIENCY
FROM 40 TO 50 %
EXAMPLE 1: UPRIGHT MM 3J SOLAR CELL (C4MJ)
FROM 40 TO 50 %
EXAMPLE 2: UPRIGHT MM 4J SOLAR CELL
MEASURED QE OF 4J CELL
TANDEM CELL MODELING
Current matching at AM1.5, 500 suns
THERMAL EFFECTS OF SOLAR CELLS
The open circuit voltage of solar cells depends on the cell temperature
Silicon cells: Voc = 0.6 Volt, Eg = 1.2 eV dV/dT = 2.1 mV/K

GaAs cells: Voc = 1 Volt, Eg = 1.42 eV
dV/dT = 1.4 mV/K
The temperature of a solar cell under illumination depends on its specific

thermal resistance rth and the irradiance G.
= +
THERMAL EFFECTS OF CONCENTRATING PV
CONCENTRATOR CELLS
Maximum efficiency:
= /
CONCENTRATING PV SYSTEMS
CONCENTRATING PV
CONCENTRATING PV
CPV
Direct sun light

Reducing cost on expensive solar cells
High Concentrating PV at 300 to 1,200 kW/m2 = 300 to 1200 Suns
Low Concentrating PV at < 100 kW/m2
STANDARD SOLAR SPECTRA
CONCENTRATED PV
CONCENTRATING PV (CPV)
Cell + Optics
Module + Electronics
Tracking system
http://www.soitec.com/en/technologies/concentrix/components/
CONCENTRATING PV (CPV)
CONCENTRATION OF SUNLIGHT
Different approaches towards concentration of light, for CPV, concentration in one focus point is
the standard (i.e. little attention to linear concentration): Fresnel Lenses, Dish Mirror, Waveguide
Concentrating optics, Azur, 2014
Optics depend strongly on type of concentration, see for detailed formulas:

The Power from the Sun http://www.powerfromthesun.net/Book/chapter08/chapter08.html
REFRACTORS AND REFLECTORS
SECONDARY OPTICAL ELEMENTS
SUN TRACKING SYSTEMS
Single vs. dual axis tracking in various forms, see

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker for a complete overview
Requirements:
Robust enough to withstand
high wind speeds)
Accurate tracking of the sun for

optimum electricity generation
Simple maintenance of
gear and motor
SUN TRACKING ALGORITHM

K. K. Chong , C.W. Wong, International Journal of
Energy Engineering, 2011
BUT WHO ACTUALLY REALLY NEEDS A TRACKER?
CONCENTRATOR SOLAR CELL
THERMAL ASPECTS
Heat sink necessary to keep temperature of solar cells reasonable

@100 suns T=Tamb + 48 C with heat sink temperature drop of 1015 C
EXAMPLES OF CPV: AMONIX
EXAMPLES OF CPV: SOLAR SYSTEMS
EXAMPLES OF CPV: DISH CONCENTRATOR
CASE 1: SOITEC CONCENTRIX TECHNOLOGY
SOITEC CONCENTRIX
SOITEC CONCENTRIX
CASE 2: SOLAR SYSTEMS
SOLAR SYSTEMS: DENSE ARRAY ACTIVE COOLING
SOLAR SYSTEMS
SOLAR SYSTEMS: CPV ECONOMICS
SOLAR SYSTEMS
CPV EFFICIENCY
SOLAR RESOURCE POTENTIAL EU AND AFRICA
SOLAR RESOURCE POTENTIAL USA
SPACE APPLICATIONS
PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSIONS IN SPACE
Satellites vs. mission to Mars
ENERGY IN SPACE
PV systems for life times of several 10th of years, to reduce weight

For instance instead, a 5kW TV broadcast satellite will need15,000
tonnes alkaline batteries during a lifetime of 10 years
Nuclear generators for missions without a time limit in dark zones of space
For instance, long duration mission deep space probes (Voyager)
PV SYSTEMS IN SATELLITES
Usually consisting of an autonomous PV
system with III-V cells with a lithium battery
~1.000km
~35.000km
NASA
RELEVANT ASPECTS FOR SOLAR CELLS IN SPACE
Harsh environment: Micrometeorites high-energy neutrons, charged particles

> Radiation hardness
Thermal behavior dominated by radiation > solar constant 1353 - 1367 W/m2
Cover glass tuning
Space debris (a lot!)
Stand-alone operation for 10 years; PV array, batteries and BOS
Therefore testing is very important;
Must withstand conditions of launch: low frequency vibrations
Volume limited during launch > later deployment in space
Weight constraints: every kilogram implies 1,5 kg of fuel
SOLAR CELLS
Mono-crystalline silicon
GaAs or other III V solar cells
Interest in thin film cells (CIGS) for future applications
Nearly ideally matched to the AM0 spectrum
Situation during launch creates many vibrations
Deployment of solar panels in space
Astronaut repairs a damaged ISS

solar panel
TO DO
To read:
Powerpoint presentation of this lecture
Article organic solar cells
Submit: Assignment 4
Try out: the sample exam
Please notice that the study materials to be examed are all shown in the
activity overview of this course.

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Solar Energy Efficiency limiting factors

Efficiency limiting factors

The fundamental losses

Photons with an energy h > E g

Solar Energy Efficiency limiting factors

Incomplete absorption of photons with h > E g

Solar Energy Equivalent circuits

Equivalent circuits: one- and two-diode model

Solar Energy Equivalent circuits

Figure 7.2: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell, two-diode model.

The current-voltage characteristic is now described by:

Solar Energy Handout Diode

Figure 4.1: The potential barrier at a p-n junction.

The more general case

Consider the p-n junction of figure 4.1. If

Solar Energy Handout Diode

I 2 = the hole flux from the p-region into the n-region

= the electron concentration in the p-type region

= the hole concentration in the p-type region

= the electron concentration in the n-type region

= the hole concentration in the n-type region

Solar Energy Handout Diode

[4.7] transforms into the diode equation

Figure 4.2: The current-voltage characteristics of a p-n junction.

Solar Energy Handout Diode

with the Einstein relation

Solar Energy Handout Diode

or (also see figure 4.4)

From [4.16] and [4.17] follows

Solar Energy Handout Diode

The diffusion potential is now defined as

The effect of an externally applied voltage

[4.20] transforms using [4.18] and [4.19] into

Solar Energy Handout Diode

The concentration profiles on the minority carriers

with [4.23] as a boundary condition.

[4.27] gives with [4.23]

The diode equation

Solar Energy Handout Diode

J n p = current density of the electrons in the p-type region

Substitution of [4.32] and [4.33] in [4.31], using [4.29] en [4.30] gives

this gives with

SOLAR ENERGY LECTURE 1 04/01/2016

ANGELE REINDERS A.H.M.E.REINDERS@UTWENTE.NL

Rises every day!

Every hour we receive as much energy from the sun

Solar Energy - Lecture 1

SOLAR ENERGY LECTURE 1 05/02/2015

Solar Energy - Lecture 1

Solar Energy - Lecture 1

Please read the activity overview at Blackboard well, it shows information

Solar Energy - Lecture 1

Solar Energy - Lecture 1

The mark of the exam should be a 5.5 or higher in order to be able to

4 ECTS = 112 study hours

Solar Energy - Lecture 1

WHY SOLAR ENERGY

Electricity is usually generated mainly by burning fossil fuels

Solar Energy - Lecture 1

Sustainable development is development that meets

CO2 emission and increased greenhouse effect

Solar Energy - Lecture 1