Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
7
A
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
fluid system uses one or more fluids to achieve its purpose. The dampers, shock
absorbers, and door closer we saw in Chapter 4 are examples of fluid systems
because they depend on the viscous nature of a fluid to provide damping. A
fluid might be either a liquid or a gas. Part I of this chapter concerns the study of
fluid systems, which can be divided into hydraulics and pneumatics. Hydraulics is
the study of systems in which the fluid is incompressible, that is, its density stays
approximately constant over a range of pressures. Pneumatics is the study of systems in
which the fluid is compressible. Hydraulics and pneumatics share a common modeling
396
7.1
Conservation of Mass
principle: conservation of mass. It will form the basis of all our models of such systems.
Modeling pneumatic systems also requires application of thermodynamics, because the
temperature and density of a gas can change when its pressure changes.
Thus pneumatics provides a bridge to the treatment of thermal systems, which is
the subject of Part II of the chapter. Thermal systems are systems that operate due to
temperature differences. They thus involve the flow and storage of thermal energy, or
heat, and conservation of heat energy forms the basis of our thermal models.
Part III illustrates applications of MATLAB and Simulink to fluid and thermal
systems.
Fluid and thermal systems are more complicated than most electrical and mechanical systems. While, for example, there are formulas available to compute the spring
constant of typical elastic elements, few formulas are available for the coefficients that
will appear in our fluid and thermal models, and the coefficients values often must be
determined experimentally. For this reason, the methods for developing models from
data, covered in Chapter 8 and Appendix C, are most important for modeling fluid and
thermal systems.
397
398
CHAPTER 7
density of air at sea level and near room temperature is approximately 0.0023 slug/ft3 or
1.185 kg/m3 .
Pressure is the force per unit area that is exerted by the fluid. The FPS and SI units
of pressure are lb/ft2 and the Pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ), respectively. Another common
unit is psi (lb/in.2 ). At sea level near room temperature, atmospheric pressure, usually
abbreviated pa , is 14.7 psi (2117 lb/ft2 ) or 1.0133105 Pa. Gage pressure is the pressure
difference between the absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure, and is often abbreviated as psig. For example, 3 psig is 17.7 psi absolute (which is abbreviated as psia).
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that exists in a fluid at rest. It is caused by the
weight of the fluid. For example, the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a column of
fluid of height h is gh. If the atmospheric pressure above the column of liquid is pa ,
then the total pressure at the bottom of the column is gh + pa .
E X A M P L E 7.1.1
Figure 7.1.1 is a representation of a hydraulic brake system. The piston in the master cylinder
moves in response to the foot pedal. The resulting motion of the piston in the slave cylinder
causes the brake pad to be pressed against the brake drum with a force f 3 . Obtain the expression
for the force f 3 with the force f 1 as the input. The force f 1 depends on the force f 4 applied by the
drivers foot. The precise relation between f 1 and f 4 depends on the geometry of the pedal arm.
Solution
The forces are related to the pressures and the piston areas as follows: f 1 = p1 A1 and f 2 = p2 A2 .
Assuming the system is in static equilibrium after the brake pedal has been pushed, we see that
p1 = p2 + gh, where h is the height between points 1 and 2. Thus, if h is small, that is, if
the pressure gh is negligible compared to p2 , then p1 = f 1 /A1 = p2 = f 2 /A2 . The forces are
therefore related as f 2 = f 1 A2 /A1 , and if the area A2 of the slave piston is greater than the area
A1 of the master piston, the force f 2 will be greater than the force f 1 . So we see that this system
serves to amplify the pedal force.
The force f 3 can be obtained from the lever relation f 3 = f 2 L 1 /L 2 , assuming static
equilibrium or negligible lever inertia.
x1
Pivot
f1
Master cylinder p1
A1
f4
A2
f2
p2
L1
x2
Pivot
Slave cylinder
L2
Drum
f3
Brake
pad
Brake
pedal
7.1
Conservation of Mass
399
The tradeoff for force amplification is that the master piston must move a distance greater
than that of the slave piston. We may see this effect by equating the fluid volume displaced by
each piston.
volume = A1 x1 = A2 x2
Thus x2 = x1 A1 /A2 , and so x2 < x1 if A1 < A2 .
E X A M P L E 7.1.2
Problem
Water is pumped as needed at the mass flow rate qmo (t) from the tank shown in Figure 7.1.2a.
Replacement water is pumped from a well at the mass flow rate qmi (t). Determine the water
height h(t), assuming that the tank is cylindrical with a cross section A.
Figure 7.1.2 A water supply tank.
qmi
qmo
h
Distribution
qmi
Well
(a)
qmo
(b)
400
CHAPTER 7
Solution
We model the system as shown in part (b) of the figure. The volume of water in the tank is Ah,
and therefore the mass of water in the tank is Ah, where is the mass density of water. From
conservation of mass, we have
d
( Ah) = qmi (t) qmo (t)
dt
Since and A are constant, we have
A
dh
= qmi (t) qmo (t)
dt
1
A
Piston
rod
Cylinder
Operator
controls
Hydraulic
lines
E X A M P L E 7.1.3
A Hydraulic Cylinder
Problem
Figure 7.1.4a shows a cylinder and piston connected to a load mass m, which slides on a
frictionless surface. Part (b) of the figure shows the piston rod connected to a rack-and-pinion
gear. The pressures p1 and p2 are applied to each side of the piston by two pumps. Assume the
piston rod diameter is small compared to the piston area, so the effective piston area A is the
same on both sides of the piston. Assume also that the piston and rod mass have been lumped
into m and that any friction is negligible. (a) Develop a model of the motion of the displacement
7.1
Pinion
x
m
A
p1
p2
p1
401
5 x
R
R
Conservation of Mass
Rack
p2
(a)
(b)
x of the mass in part (a) of the figure, assuming that p1 and p2 are given functions of time.
Also, obtain the expression for the mass flow rate that must be delivered or absorbed by the two
pumps. (b) Develop a model of the displacement x in part (b) of the figure. The inertia of the
pinion and the load connected to the pinion is I .
Solution
a.
Assuming that p1 > p2 , the net force acting on the piston and mass m is ( p1 p2 )A, and
thus from Newtons law,
m x = ( p1 p2 )A
Because p1 and p2 are given functions of time, we can integrate this equation once to
obtain the velocity:
x(t)
= x(0)
b.
A
m
[ p1 (u) p2 (u)] du
0
1 2 1 2
1
m x + I =
2
2
2
m+
I
R2
x 2
because R = x.
A Mixing Process
Problem
A mixing tank is shown in Figure 7.1.5. Pure water flows into the tank of volume V = 600 m3
at the constant volume rate of 5 m3 /s. A solution with a salt concentration of si kg/m3 flows
into the tank at a constant volume rate of 2 m3 /s. Assume that the solution in the tank is well
mixed so that the salt concentration in the tank is uniform. Assume also that the salt dissolves
completely so that the volume of the mixture remains the same. The salt concentration so kg/m3
in the outflow is the same as the concentration in the tank. The input is the concentration si (t),
E X A M P L E 7.1.4
402
CHAPTER 7
2 m3/s
Solution si
5 m3/s
Water
V 5 600 m3
so
qvo
Mixer
whose value may change during the process, thus changing the value of so . Obtain a dynamic
model of the concentration so .
Solution
Two mass species are conserved here: water mass and salt mass. The tank is always full, so the
mass of water m w in the tank is constant, and thus conservation of water mass gives
dm w
= 5w + 2w w qvo = 0
dt
where w is the mass density of fresh water, and qvo is the volume outflow rate of the mixed
solution. This equation gives qvo = 5 + 2 = 7 m3 /s.
The salt mass in the tank is so V , and conservation of salt mass gives
d
(so V ) = 0(5) + 2si so qvo = 2si 7so
dt
or, with V = 600,
dso
(1)
= 2si 7so
dt
This is the model. The time constant for the mixing process is 600/7 = 85.7 s. Thus, if si is
initially zero and then becomes a nonzero constant value S, the salt concentration in the outflow
will eventually become constant at the value 2S/7 after approximately 4(85.7) = 343 s.
600
7.2
Fluid Capacitance
403
Electrical quantity
Charge, Q
Current, i
Voltage, v
Electrical resistance, R
R = v/i
Electrical capacitance, C
C = Q/v
Electrical inductance, L
L = v/(di/dt)
a junction must equal the total flow out of the junction. This is analogous to Kirchhoffs
current law. Flow through two rigid pipes joined together to make one pipe is an example
where this applies. If, however, the flow is through flexible tubes that can expand and
contract under pressure, then the outflow rate is not the sum of the inflow rates. This
is an example where fluid mass can accumulate within the system and is analogous to
having a capacitor in an electrical circuit.
The compatibility law is analogous to Kirchhoffs voltage law, which states that the
sum of signed voltage differences around a closed loop must be zero. It is an expression
of conservation of energy. The compatibility law states that the sum of signed pressure
differences around a closed loop must be zero.
Resistance
p1
ps
Manually
adjusted valve
Actuated
valve
p2
ps 5 p2 2 p1
qs
Ideal pressure
source
Ideal flow
source
Pump
404
CHAPTER 7
s3
s2
s1
qm
Dp
curves depend on the pump speed, labeled s1 , s2 , and so on in the figure. To determine
the operating condition of the pump for a given speed, we need another relation between
qm and p. This relation depends on the load connected to the pump outlet. We will
see how such a relation is obtained in Example 7.4.8 in Section 7.4.
m
C
1
mr
pr
7.2
Fluid Capacitance
405
E X A M P L E 7.2.1
Problem
Consider the tank shown in Figure 7.2.4. Assume that the sides are vertical so that the crosssectional area A is constant. This is the case, for example, with a cylindrical tank whose horizontal
cross section is circular, or with a tank having vertical sides and a rectangular horizontal cross
section. Derive the expression for the tanks capacitance.
Solution
Because the tanks sides are vertical, the liquid height h is related to m, the liquid mass in the
tank, by m = Ah. The total pressure at the bottom of the tank is gh + pa , but the pressure due
only to the stored fluid mass is p = gh. We can therefore express the pressure as a function of
the mass m stored in the tank as p = mg/A.
Thus,
m=
pA
g
dm
A
=
dp
g
Figure 7.2.4 Capacitance of a
storage tank.
pa
h
(a)
(b)
When the container does not have vertical sides, such as the one shown in Figure 7.2.5, the cross-sectional area A is a function of the liquid height h, and the relations
between m and h and between p and m are nonlinear. In such cases, there is no single
value for the containers capacitance. The fluid mass stored in the container is
h
A(x)d x,
m = V =
0
which gives
dm
= A
dh
Figure 7.2.5 A storage tank
of arbitrary shape.
h
qmi
qmo
406
CHAPTER 7
(7.2.2)
but
dm d p
dp
dm
=
=C
dt
d p dt
dt
Thus
C
dm
dp
=
= qmi qmo
dt
dt
(7.2.3)
Also
dm dh
dh
dm
=
= A
dt
dh dt
dt
So
A
dh
= qmi qmo
dt
(7.2.4)
Equations (7.2.2), (7.2.3), and (7.2.4) are alternative, but equivalent, hydraulic
models of a container of fluid. They suggest that either pressure p, mass m, or height h
can be chosen as the models variable. These variables are all indicators of the systems
potential energy, and as such any one can be chosen as a state variable. If the containers
cross-sectional area is constant, then V = Ah and thus the liquid volume V can also
be used as the model variable.
E X A M P L E 7.2.2
(a) Derive the capacitance of the V-shaped trough shown in Figure 7.2.6a. (b) Use the capacitance
to derive the dynamic models for the bottom pressure p and the height h. The mass inflow rate
is qmi (t), and there is no outflow.
Solution
a.
From part (b) of the figure, D = 2h tan , and the vertical cross-sectional area of the liquid
is h D/2. Thus the fluid mass is given by
m = V =
A
h
D
h
2
2
L
(a)
(b)
1
hD
2
L = ( L tan )h 2
7.3
m = ( L tan )
p
g
dm
=
dp
2L tan
g 2
2
=
L tan
g 2
2L tan
g 2
p
Fluid Resistance
407
p2
p
dp
= qmi
dt
which is a nonlinear equation because of the product p p . We can obtain the model for the
height by substituting h = p/g. The result is
(2 L tan )h
dh
= qmi
dt
Rr
1
p
pr
qm
qmr
q^m
408
CHAPTER 7
Referring to Figure 7.3.1, we define a new set of variables p and qm , called deviation
variables, that represent small but finite changes in p and q m from their reference values
pr and qmr . From Figure 7.3.1, we see that
p = p p r
(7.3.3)
qm = q m q mr
(7.3.4)
and thus
1
p
(7.3.9)
qm =
2 Bpr
When only the curve of p versus q m is available, we can obtain a linearized model by
graphically computing the slope S of the tangent line that passes through the reference
point ( p r , q mr ). The equivalent, linearized resistance Rr is the slope S.
The resistance symbol shown in Figure 7.3.2 represents all types of fluid resistance,
whether linear or not. Although the symbol looks like a valve, it can represent fluid
resistance due to other causes, such as pipe wall friction and orifices.
7.3
qm
p1
R1
R2
p2
qm
qm
p3
p1
Fluid Resistance
p3
R 5 R1 1 R2
(a)
R1 qm1
qm
qm
R
qm
1 51 11
R
R1 R2
R2 qm2
qm 5 qm1 1 qm 2
(b)
As with electrical resistances, linear fluid resistance elements obey the series and
parallel combination rules. These are illustrated in Figure 7.3.2. Series fluid resistances
carry the same flow rate; parallel fluid resistances have the same pressure difference
across them.
p
R
(7.3.10)
or equivalently
p
(7.3.11)
R
The laminar resistance for a level pipe of diameter D and length L is given by the
Hagen-Poiseuille formula
qm =
R=
128L
D 4
(7.3.12)
where is the fluid viscosity. The viscosity is a measure of the stickiness of the fluid.
Thus molasses has a higher value of than that of water.
Not all pipe flow is laminar. A useful criterion for predicting the existence of
laminar flow is the Reynolds number Ne , the ratio of the fluids inertial forces to the
viscosity forces. For a circular pipe,
Ne =
v D
409
(7.3.13)
410
CHAPTER 7
where v = qv /( D 2 /4), the average fluid velocity. For Ne > 2300 the flow is often
turbulent, while for Ne < 2300 laminar flow usually exists. The precise value of Ne
above which the flow becomes turbulent depends on, for example, the flow conditions
at the pipe inlet. However, the criterion is useful as a rule of thumb.
The resistance formula (7.3.12) applies only if the so-called entrance length L e ,
which is the distance from the pipe entrance beyond which the velocity profile no
longer changes with increasing distance, is much less than 0.06D Ne . Because laminar
flow can be expected only if Ne < 2300, L e might be as long as 138 pipe diameters.
Of course, for small Reynolds numbers, L e is shorter. The smaller L e is relative to the
pipe length, the more reliable will be our resistance calculations.
PE 5 mgh, KE 5 0
h
2
PE 5 0, KE 5 m v
2
Ao
7.4
411
Thus the theoretical value of the exponent (0.5) is close to the value obtained in the
bottle experiment.
Equation (7.3.14) depends on the orifice area being small enough so that the pressure variation over the orifice area is negligible compared to the average pressure at
the orifice. For a liquid-level system with a circular orifice, this implies that the liquid
height above the orifice must be large compared to the orifice diameter.
The orifice relation (7.3.14) can be rearranged in the form of (7.3.7).
p
(7.3.15)
q m = Cd Ao 2 p =
Ro
where the orifice resistance is defined as
Ro =
1
2Cd2 A2o
(7.3.16)
The cylindrical tank shown in Figure 7.4.1 has a circular bottom area A. The volume inflow rate
from the flow source is q vi (t), a given function of time. The orifice in the side wall has an area
Ao and discharges to atmospheric pressure pa . Develop a model of h, the deviation of the liquid
height from a reference equilibrium value h r , assuming that h 1 > L.
E X A M P L E 7.4.1
412
CHAPTER 7
q^vi
pa
h
h1
hr
h^
Solution
If the inflow rate q vi is held constant at the rate qvir , the liquid level eventually becomes constant
at the height h r . Using the orifice flow relation (7.3.14), this height can be found from
qvir = Cd Ao
2(gh r )
or
1
hr =
2g
qvir
C d Ao
2
dh
= q vi Cd Ao 2 p
dt
(1)
dh
= q vi Cd Ao 2g 2 (h + h r )
dt
dh
= q vi Cd Ao 2g(h + h r )
dt
or, because h = h + h r ,
A
d h
= q vi Cd Ao
dt
2g h
(2)
Note that the height L does not appear in the model because the liquid below the orifice does
not affect the pressure at the orifice.
7.4
413
Linearizing a Model
E X A M P L E 7.4.2
Problem
Consider the liquid-level system with an orifice, treated in Example 7.4.1. The model is given
by equation (2) of that example.
d h
= q vi q vo = q vi Cd Ao 2g h
dt
Consider the case where A = 2 ft2 and Cd Ao 2g = 6. Estimate the systems time constant for
two cases: (i) the inflow rate is held constant at q vi = 12 ft3 /sec and (ii) the inflow rate is held
constant at q vi = 24 ft3 /sec.
A
Solution
d h
= q vi q vo = q vi 6 h
dt
(1)
When the inflow rate is held constant at the value q vir , the liquid height h reaches an equilibrium
value h r that can be found from the preceding equation by setting h = h r and d h/dt
equal to
2
zero. This gives 36h r = qvir .
The two cases of interest to us are (i) h r = (12)2
/36 = 4 ft and (ii) h r = (24)2 /36 = 16 ft.
Figure 7.4.2 is a plot of the outflow flow rate q vo = 6 h through the orifice as a function of the
The two points corresponding to h = 4 and h = 16 are indicated on the plot.
height h.
In Figure 7.4.2 two straight lines are shown, each passing through one of the points of
interest (h = 4 and h = 16) and having a slope equal to the slope of the curve at that point. The
general equation for these lines is
q vo
d q vo
= 6 h = 6 hr +
(h h r ) = 6 h r + 3h r1/2 (h h r )
d h r
30
3
6 h^ < 24 1 4 (h^ 2 16)
25
20
3
6 h^ < 12 1 2 (h^ 2 4)
6 h^ 15
10
0
0
12
h^
16
20
24
414
CHAPTER 7
and is the same as a Taylor series expansion truncated after the first order term. Noting that
h r = h r , this equation becomes
q vo = 6
h r + 3h r1/2 (h h r )
(2)
q vo = 6
h r + (3h r1/2 )h
The time constant of the linearized model (3) is 2 h r /3, and is 4/3 sec. for h r = 4 and
8/3 sec. for h r = 16. Thus, for Case (i), if the input flow rate is changed slightly from its
equilibrium value of 12, the liquid height will take about 4(4/3), or 16/3, sec to reach its new
height. For Case (ii), if the input flow rate is changed slightly from its value of 24, the liquid
height will take about 4(8/3), or 32/3, seconds to reach its new height.
Note that the models time constant depends on the particular equilibrium solution
chosen
for the linearization. Because the straight line is an approximation to the q vo = 6 h curve, we
cannot use the linearized models to make predictions about the systems behavior far from the
equilibrium point. However, despite this limitation, a linearized model is useful for designing
a flow control system to keep the height near some desired value. If the control system works
properly, the height will stay near the equilibrium value, and the linearized model will be accurate.
2
E X A M P L E 7.4.3
The cylindrical tank shown in Figure 7.4.3 has a bottom area A. The total mass inflow rate from
the flow source is q mi (t), a given function of time. The total mass outflow rate q mo is not given
and must be determined. The outlet resistance R is the linearized resistance about the reference
condition (h r , qmir ). Develop a model of h, the deviation of the liquid height from the constant
reference height h r , where h = h r + h.
Figure 7.4.3 A liquid-level
system with a flow source.
q^mi
pa
h^
pa
q^mo
7.4
415
Solution
The total mass in the tank is m = Ah = A(h + h r ) and from conservation of mass
d[ A(h + h r )]
dh
dm
=
= A
= q mi q mo
dt
dt
dt
because , h r , and A are constants. Expressing q mi and q mo in terms of the deviation variables
qmi and qmo , we have
A
dh
= (qmi + qmir ) (qmo + qmor ) = (qmir qmor ) + (qmi qmo )
dt
Because the reference height h r is a constant, the outflow rate at equilibrium must equal the
inflow rate. Thus qmir qmor = 0, and the model becomes
A
dh
= qmi qmo
dt
(1)
1
1
[(gh + pa ) pa ] = gh
R
R
dh
1
= qmi gh
dt
R
1
dv
= is v
dt
R
The input current i s is analogous to the inflow rate qmi , the voltage v across the capacitor
is analogous to the fluid pressure gh, and the electrical capacitance C is analogous to
the fluid capacitance A/g. It is a matter of personal opinion as to whether such analogies
help to understand the dynamics of fluid systems, and you should decide for yourself.
Always keep in mind, however, that we should not get too dependent on analogies for
developing models, because they might not always properly represent the underlying
physics of the original system.
is
416
CHAPTER 7
E X A M P L E 7.4.4
The tank shown in cross section in Figure 7.4.5 has a bottom area A. A pressure source
p s = ps (t) + psr is connected through a resistance to the bottom of the tank, where ps (t)
is a given function of time. The resistances R1 and R2 are linearized resistances about the reference condition ( psr , h r ). Develop a model of h, the deviation of the liquid height from the
constant reference height h r , where h = h r + h.
pa
h^
pa
p^s
A
R1
pa
R2
Solution
The total mass in the tank is m = Ah = A(h + h r ), and from conservation of mass
d[ A(h + h r )]
dh
dm
=
= A
= q mi q mo
dt
dt
dt
or
dh
A
= (qmi + qmir ) (qmo + qmor ) = (qmi qmo ) + (qmir qmor )
dt
Because at the reference equilibrium, the outflow rate equals the inflow rate, qmir qmor = 0,
and we have
dh
A
= qmi qmo
(1)
dt
This is a linearized model that is valid for small changes around the equilibrium state.
Because the outlet resistance has been linearized,
1
gh
qmo =
[(gh + pa ) pa ] =
R2
R2
Similarly for the mass inflow rate, we have
1
1
qmi =
[( ps + pa ) (gh + pa )] =
( ps gh)
R1
R1
Substituting into equation (1) gives
gh
1
R1 + R2
1
dh
( ps gh)
=
ps g
h
=
A
dt
R1
R2
R1
R1 R2
This can be rearranged as
R1 R2 A dh
R2
+h =
ps
g(R1 + R2 ) dt
g(R1 + R2 )
The coefficient of dh/dt gives the time constant, which is = R1 R2 A/g(R1 + R2 ).
When a fluid system contains more than one capacitance, you should apply the conservation of mass principle to each capacitance, and then use the appropriate resistance
relations to couple the resulting equations. To do this you must assume that some pressures or liquid heights are greater than others and assign the positive-flow directions
accordingly. If you are consistent, the mathematics will handle the reversals of flow
direction automatically.
7.4
417
E X A M P L E 7.4.5
Problem
The cylindrical tanks shown in Figure 7.4.6a have bottom areas A1 and A2 . The total mass
inflow rate from the flow source is q mi (t), a given function of time. The resistances are linearized
resistances about the reference condition h 1r , h 2r , qmir . (a) Develop a model of the liquid heights
h 1 and h 2 . (b) Suppose the resistances are equal: R1 = R2 = R, and the areas are A1 = A and
A2 = 3A. Obtain the transfer function H1 (s)/Q mi (s). (c) Use the transfer function to solve for
the steady-state response for h 1 if the inflow rate qmi is a unit-step function, and estimate how
long it will take to reach steady state. Is it possible for liquid heights to oscillate in the step
response?
Solution
a.
dh 1
= q1m
dt
g
(h 1 h 2 )
R1
q^mi
h^1
h^2
A1
A2
R1
R2
(a)
v1
R1
i1
v2
i2
C1
R2
C2
(b)
is
418
CHAPTER 7
g
dh 1
= (h 1 h 2 )
dt
R1
(1)
dh 2
= qmi + q1m qmo
dt
Because the resistances are linearized, we have
A2
A2
b.
dh 2
g
g
= qmi +
(h 1 h 2 )
h2
dt
R1
R2
(2)
qmi
qmi
+ B(h 1 h 2 ) Bh 2 =
+ Bh 1 2Bh 2
A
A
Apply the Laplace transform of each equation, assuming zero initial conditions, and
collect terms to obtain
(s + B)H1 (s) B H2 (s) = 0
B H1 (s) + (3s + 2B)H2 (s) =
1
Q mi (s)
A
(3)
(4)
Solve equation (3) for H2 (s), substitute the expression into equation (4), and solve for
H1 (s) to obtain
R B 2 /g
H1 (s)
(5)
= 2
Q mi (s)
3s + 5Bs + B 2
c.
The characteristic equation is 3s 2 + 5Bs + B 2 = 0 and has the two real roots
5 13
B = 1.43B, 0.232B
s=
6
Thus the system is stable, and there will be a constant steady-state response to a step input.
The step response cannot oscillate because both roots are real. The steady-state height can
be obtained by applying the final value theorem to equation (5) with Q mi (s) = 1/s.
h 1ss = lim s H1 (s) = lim s
s0
s0
3s 2
R B 2 /g
R
1
=
+ 5Bs + B 2 s
g
1
0.699
=
1.43B
B
2 =
1
4.32
=
0.232B
B