TR 107463

Summary Report of Advanced IR NDE
of Service Water Piping Systems
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R E P O R T
S U M M A R Y
Summary Report of Advanced IR NDE of

Service Water Piping Systems
Reliability of service water piping (SWP) systems is a key consideration for safe and reliable plant operations. Assessing integrity of the
SWP system includes detection and analysis of pipe wall thinning. An
alternative approach to conventional inspection techniques can be
found in the use of active infrared thermography techniques.
INTEREST CATEGORIES
Service water systems
Non-destructive
examination
BACKGROUND Infrared thermography (IR) is well established as a predictive

maintenance tool for evaluation of mechanical, electronic, and electrical components. For these applications, IR is used in a passive measurement mode for
detection of anomalies in the characteristic thermal pattern of the operating
component. SWP typically does not exhibit a characteristic thermal pattern that
is readily analyzed using passive IR measurement techniques. For this application, an active IR technique, thermal injection, was evaluated.
OBJECTIVES To evaluate an active IR technique for detection and evaluation
of wall thinning in SWP as an alternative to time- and labor-intensive conventional inspection techniques.
KEYWORDS
Service water piping
Infrared thermography
Nondestructive evaluation
Erosion-corrosion
APPROACH Active IR techniques have been especially successful for evaluation of composite materials in the aerospace industry. The EPRI NDE Center
enlisted the help of industry expert Stephen M. Shepard, Ph.D., of Thermal
Wave Imaging, Inc., to transfer this technology to the SWP application. SWP
samples, with man-made targets and service-induced damage, were used in the
technique evaluation and development process.
RESULTS Laboratory investigation of the IR thermal injection technique
established target detection capabilities for this method. Additional work concentrated on flash hood modifications to address pipe curvature effects and to
extend the effective imaging field of view. Field deployment of the IR inspection
system identified the need for additional modification of the flash hood to
reduce its profile for inspection in tight access areas and to facilitate transport
through obstacles in the plant.
EPRI PERSPECTIVE The SWP system at electric power generation plants
provides cooling for a variety of safety and nonsafety-related components and
systems. Under accident conditions in a nuclear power plant, the SWP system
provides cooling water to components and systems that are critical to a safe
plant shutdown. Conventional nondestructive inspection techniques are in place
for detection of erosion-corrosion damage in these systems. Other inspection
techniques, such as IR NDE, continue to be evaluated in an effort to more
efficiently evaluate these critical piping systems.
EPRI TR-107463s
Electric Power Research Institute
October 1997
PROJECT
WO 4624
EPRI Project Manager: Paul Zayicek
EPRI NDE Center
Nuclear Power Group
Contractor: Thermal Wave Imaging, Inc.
For further information on EPRI research programs, call EPRI Technical Information Specialists, 415/855-2411.
Summary Report of Advanced IR NDE of

Service Water Piping Systems
TR-107463
Work Order 4624
Final Report
October 1997
Prepared by
Thermal Wave Imaging, Incorporated
18899 W. 12 Mile Road, Lathrup Village, MI 48076
EPRI Nondestructive Evaluation Center
1300 W.T. Harris Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28262
Principal Investigators
Paul Zayicek
Stephen M. Shepard, Ph.D.
Prepared for
Electric Power Research Institute
1300 W.T. Harris Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28262
(P.O. Box 217097, Charlotte, NC 28221)
Project Manager
Paul Zayicek
Nuclear Power Group
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ABSTRACT
The service water piping (SWP) system at electric power plants provides cooling for a
variety of safety and nonsafety-related components and systems. Under accident conditions in a nuclear power plant, the SWP system provides cooling water to components
and systems that are critical to a safe plant shutdown [1]. Reliability of SWP systems is a
key consideration for safe and reliable plant operations. Assessing integrity of the SWP
system includes detection and analysis of pipe wall thinning. Conventional inspection
techniques usually involve the time-intensive process of ultrasonic thickness measurements, based on a grid system, of the entire pipe length. An alternative to this process
may lie in the use of active infrared thermography techniques for detection of thin wall
areas in the pipe.
Infrared thermography (IR) has been widely used by utilities for a variety of predictive
maintenance applications, including evaluation of mechanical, electronic, and electrical
components. These applications use IR in a passive measurement mode, looking for
anomalies in the characteristic thermal pattern of an operating component to determine
its suitability for continued service. Unlike these components, SWP has no faulty electrical connections, misaligned bearings, or other discreet, inherent sources of thermal
energy to be observed. For assessment of SWP, an active IR technique, thermal injection,
can be used. This process involves injection of a controlled amount of thermal energy
into the pipe wall. Anomalies in the resultant thermal pattern, as detected by the IR
system, are then evaluated to determine their origin. Similar IR nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques have been successfully used for evaluation of composite materials in the aerospace industry. Application of these IR NDE techniques for material
evaluation can provide a rapid screening technique for identification of thin wall areas
in SWP. (See Appendix D.)
The EPRI NDE Center participated in a preliminary evaluation of this technology at
Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant. Based on the promising results of the Vermont
Yankee activity, the NDE Center worked with IR applications experts to further investigate detection capabilities of active IR techniques for SWP. (See Appendix A.)
The EPRI NDE Center worked with Thermal Wave Imaging, Inc. (TWI) in an effort to
optimize the IR thermal injection technique for SWP applications. A TWI IR system was
used initially to evaluate a 0.375" thick, flat carbon steel plate and a 12" diameter, Schedule 40 pipe with targets ranging in diameter from 0.0625"0.250" and depths representing approximately 10%90% through-wall loss. Evaluation of the flat plate indicated
that targets with a diameter to depth ratio of > 1 can be reliably detected using the TWI
IR system. A similar evaluation of the 12" diameter pipe was completed to address
iii

Summary Report of Advanced IR NDE of Service Water Piping Systems
curvature effects on detection capabilities. Initial investigation of the pipe mockup

indicated a significant loss of returned thermal energy and, therefore, a significant loss
of detection capability for areas beyond 30 of top dead center. Use of a modified (conformal) flash hood and incorporation of strategically located front surface mirrors
resulted in more uniform thermal energy transfer, improved detection capabilities, and
increased effective inspection area.
As a follow-up to the laboratory investigation, this IR system and thermal injection
technique was applied at an operating nuclear power plant for verification of inspection
techniques and detection capabilities on SWP systems. A summary of the laboratory
activities and the field application are summarized in this report. These activities were
supported by EPRI project WO 3232 in 1996 and WO 4624 in 1997.
It is suggested that any future efforts for this product incorporate lessons learned from the
field trial as well as some additional work for optimization of the IR inspection system.
Reference
1. Electric Utility Service Water System Reliability Improvement. Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, CA, July 1993. TR-101541.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Mr. Bill Fields of Yankee Atomic Electric for support of field trials at Vermont Yankee.
Mr. Neal MacNamara of Southern Nuclear Operating Company for support of field
trials at Farley.
vi
CONTENTS
SECTION
PAGE
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1-1
BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................. 2-1

Depth Resolution ........................................................................................................................... 2-1
Curvature Compensation.............................................................................................................. 2-3
EXPERIMENT ................................................................................................................................. 3-1

Data Acquisition ............................................................................................................................ 3-1
Output Coupling: Pipe Section at Constant Temperature ......................................................... 3-2
Combined Input and Output Coupling: Flash Heating ............................................................... 3-4
Minimization of Input and Output Coupling Effects: Flash Heating with Mirrors ................... 3-6
Defect Depth Sensitivity and Resolution .................................................................................... 3-7
Pipe Cutout Section .................................................................................................................... 3-10
Standard Shroud ................................................................................................................. 3-11
Modified Shroud.................................................................................................................. 3-12
DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................................. 4-1

Detection of Wall Thinning ........................................................................................................... 4-1
Curvature ........................................................................................................................................ 4-3
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 5-1
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... A-1

Evaluation of IR Techniques for Detection of Wall Thinning in Service Water Piping
at Vermont Yankee .............................................................................................................. A-1
APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................... B-1
Summary of Pulsed Thermography Field Demonstration at Farley Nuclear ........................... B-1
Physical Configuration ................................................................................................................. B-1
Operational Issues ................................................................................................................ B-2
Physical Access to Pipes ...................................................................................................... B-2
Pipe Temperature ................................................................................................................. B-2
Surface Preparation .............................................................................................................. B-2
Correlation to UT .................................................................................................................. B-3
Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ B-6
vii
SECTION
PAGE
APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................................... C-1

Inspection System Requirements for IR NDE of Service Water Piping Systems .................... C-1
APPENDIX D ........................................................................................................................................... D-1
Laboratory Investigation of Vermont Yankee Service Water Pipe
APPENDIX E ........................................................................................................................................... E-1
Color Images of Selected Text Figures ....................................................................................... E-1
Section 3 Figures .................................................................................................................. E-1
Appendix A Figure ................................................................................................................ E-5
Appendix B Figures .............................................................................................................. E-6
Appendix C Figure ................................................................................................................ E-9
Appendix D Figures ............................................................................................................ E-10
viii
FIGURES
FIGURE
PAGE
2-1
Schematic Representation of the Pulsed Thermography Process Shown in a

Cross-section of a Solid Target with Slots on the Rear Surface ..................................... 2-2
2-2
Emission of IR Radiation Is Directional .......................................................................... 2-4
2-3
The Image of an Off-axis Target on a Cylinder Appears Distorted When Compared

to a Target on the Optical Axis ....................................................................................... 2-4
2-4
Schematic of a Pulsed Thermography Imaging Head .................................................... 2-5
3-1
Circumferential Section of a Pipe ................................................................................... 3-2
3-2
Effects of Roll-off on a 10.75" Diameter Pipe ................................................................. 3-3
3-3
Line Profile of the Adhesive Paper Targets .................................................................... 3-3
3-4
Line Profile of the 0.75" Adhesive Paper Targets on a Circumferential Section of

10.75" Diameter Pipe ..................................................................................................... 3-5
3-5
Line Profile of Flash Heating Using the Extended-View Shroud, with Gold Front
Surface Mirrors ............................................................................................................... 3-7
3-6
Sketch of the Flat Calibration Sample ............................................................................ 3-8
3-7
Time-Sequenced Image of Flat Calibration Plate ........................................................... 3-9
3-8
Differential Images of Flat Plate Sample Using Gate Summation of 32

Consecutive Images ..................................................................................................... 3-10
3-9
Sketch of the 0.375" Carbon Steel Pipe Cutout Sample ............................................... 3-11
3-10
Differential Image of the Roll-off Region of the Pipe Cutout Sample ........................... 3-12
3-11
Modified Shroud Set-up ............................................................................................... 3-13
3-12
Differential Image of the Roll-off Region of the Pipe Cutout Sample ........................... 3-13
3-13
Extended-view Shroud Set-up ..................................................................................... 3-14
3-14
Differential Image of the Roll-off Region Acquired with the Extended-view Shroud ..... 3-15
A-1a
Bales Scientific Thermal Imaging SystemBales Imaging Head Deployed for

Inspection of Plant Service Water Piping ....................................................................... A-2
ix
FIGURE
PAGE
A-1b
Bales Scientific Thermal Imaging SystemBales Data Acquisition and Control Unit ... A-2
A-2
Inframetrics EchoTherm IR System Inspecting VY Mockup ........................................ A-3
A-3
Thermal Image of Vermont Yankee Mockup .................................................................. A-4
B-1
Typical Field of View of the Demo System ..................................................................... B-1
B-2
IR Images of Selected Regions of Pipe Section 1-61 .................................................... B-4
B-3
Temperature-Time Plot of the 6 Regions of Pipe Section 1-61 Shown in Figure B-1 ..... B-5
B-4
Detailed View of the Temperature-Time Curves Shown in Figure 2 ............................... B-5
C-1
Standard EchoTherm Laboratory System ................................................................... C-2
D-1
Vermont Yankee Service Water Pipe ............................................................................. D-1
D-2
Corroded Section of Pipe and Associated IR Images .................................................... D-2
E3-1
Circumferential Section of a Pipe ................................................................................... E-1
E3-3
Line Profile of the Adhesive Paper Targets .................................................................... E-1
E3-4
Line Profile of the 0.75" Adhesive Paper Targets on a Circumferential Section of

10.75" Diameter Pipe ..................................................................................................... E-2
E3-7
Time-Sequenced Image of Flat Calibration Plate ........................................................... E-3
E3-8
Differential Images of Flat Plate Sample Using Gate Summation of 32

Consecutive Images ....................................................................................................... E-3
E3-9
Sketch of the 0.375" Carbon Steel Pipe Cutout Sample ................................................ E-4
EA-3
Thermal Image of Vermont Yankee Mockup .................................................................. E-5
EB-1
Typical Field of View of the Demo System ..................................................................... E-6
EB-2
IR Images of Selected Regions of Pipe Section 1-61 .................................................... E-7
EB-3
Temperature-Time Plot of the 6 Regions of Pipe Section 1-61 Shown in Figure B-1 ..... E-8
EB-4
Detailed View of the Temperature-Time Curves Shown in Figure B-2 ........................... E-8
EC-1
Standard EchoTherm Laboratory System ................................................................... E-9
ED-1
Vermont Yankee Service Water Pipe ........................................................................... E-10
ED-2
Corroded Section of Pipe and Associated IR Images .................................................. E-10
1
INTRODUCTION
The following study addresses basic issues which are intended to facilitate future implementation of a dedicated pulsed IR thermography system for service water pipe inspection in electrical power plants. Specifically, the goals of the study were to:
Determine the practical depth resolution capabilities of the pulsed thermography
method in carbon steel samples representative of those found in electrical power
plants.
Minimize the effects of pipe curvature on IR detection capabilities in order to increase the angular coverage of pulsed thermography of cylinders.
Both of these efforts were subject to the constraints that a working system could be
implemented, which would be sufficiently portable for use in an electrical power plant,
and that the operation of the system would allow quick movement from one position on
the pipe to the next.
1-1
1-2
2
BACKGROUND
IR thermography, in which the apparent temperature of a surface is monitored remotely
by an IR camera, is widely used in the electrical power industry for predictive maintenance and condition monitoring applications. Since thermography does not require
contact with the target and can image large areas quickly, it is a logical candidate for
NDE of steel service water piping (SWP.)
Recently, active thermography, in which the sample is heated by a controlled source,
has shown considerable promise for NDE of pipelines. In a recent demonstration at
Vermont Yankee, pulsed thermography, which uses flash lamps to heat an area of the
pipe surface within a few milliseconds, was successfully used to identify areas of ~ 50%
wall thinning in Schedule 40 pipe walls.
In this study, a commercial pulsed thermography system (EchoTherm) was used and
modified, as necessary, to determine the feasibility of using this type of system for
service water pipeline inspection. (See Appendix C.) The study focuses on two key
areas:
1. Depth resolution: Although pulsed thermography systems can easily identify severe
wall thinning (for example, > 90%) in steel pipe walls, significantly greater sensitivity is required in order to detect material loss in its early stages (for example, < 50%
wall thinning). An experimental study was conducted to determine the practical
limits for detection of wall thinning, and also to define the relationship between the
lateral dimension of a thin wall region (for example, the diameter) and the minimum
detectable degree of wall thinning.
2. Curvature effects: IR cameras are typically designed to image flat objects in the far
field. In the case of a pipeline, imaging a cylindrical pipe in the near field presents
special problems that can cause misleading or incorrect results. In a pulsed system,
the problem is compounded because the flash does not heat the cylinder uniformly.
The effects of curvature on measurements from a cylindrical pipe were analyzed,
and methods to reduce the effects of curvature were tested on a pipe section.
Depth Resolution
In passive thermography, an IR camera is used to collect IR radiation from the surface of a
target. The resulting image is a map of the sample surface temperature and emissivity,
2-1

Background
which, in most cases, does not reveal useful information about the subsurface condition of
the target. In active thermography, the sample is stimulated with an external heating
event, and the time response of the sample in response to the heating event is analyzed to
provide an image of the surface that represents the subsurface state of the sample. In
pulsed thermography (see Figure 2-1), where the heating event is a short pulse of light,
the image is the result of the interaction between the incident thermal pulse generated at
the surface and a subsurface defect, for example, a sudden change in the thermal properties of the sample, such as a void, an inclusion, or a change in wall thickness.
Figure 2-1
Schematic Representation of the Pulsed Thermography Process Shown in a Crosssection of a Solid Target with Slots on the Rear Surface. (Note: a) Sample surface is
heated by an optical pulse, b) Thermal energy travels into the sample bulk, c) Thermal
energy is obstructed by discontinuities in the sample, causing some energy to be directed back toward the surface, and d) Energy returning to the surface affects the cooling behavior of the surface; result: surfaces above thin wall regions appear hotter than
thicker areas.)
The process through which wall thinning is detected can heuristically be described as
reflection of the thermal pulse from the interior wall surface. There is a finite transit
time associated with the round trip the thermal pulse must make from the outer wall of
the pipe, to the inner wall, and then back to the outer surface. The thermal energy that
returns to the front surface disrupts the cooling behavior of the local surface, so that
after flash heating, a region of surface above a thinned wall area cools at a different rate
than a thicker, undamaged area, which can be used as a reference for calibration. The
time at which the thinned area cooling profile deviates from that of the reference area is
correlated to the thickness of the wall.
2-2

Background
In practice, there are several factors that complicate thickness measurement based on
pulsed thermography. Although the process is conceptually similar to pulse-echo ultrasound, the thermal pulse is highly dispersive, so that the response from the inner wall
surface becomes more severely attenuated and broadened as increasingly thick material
is measured. This is primarily a function of the lateral diffusion of the thermal pulse,
which also causes the spatial resolution capability of the thermal thickness measurement to be degraded with increasing thickness. In general, the minimum resolvable
defect size at a given depth is on the order of the depth of the defect; that is, the diameter to depth ratio should be greater than one, although an exception will be presented
later in this report.
Additional complications occur related to the surface condition of the sample. Since the
thermal pulse is generated by light energy, it is important that the target surface absorb
a significant portion of the incident light if relatively thick material is to be measured.
Thus, a pipe with a highly (optically) reflective surface does not lend itself to thermal
inspection without further surface preparation. On the other hand, IR detection of the
small deviations in surface temperature due to returning thermal energy from the back
wall require that the surface be an effective IR emitter. It is important that both the
input coupling of light and the output coupling of IR energy be considered when performing active thermography.
Curvature Compensation
Ideally, an IR camera would image 180 of the circumference of a pipe. However, this is
not the case because off-axis regions are imaged inaccurately or not at all. Since the
camera sees the surface of off-axis areas at an oblique angle, the IR image of a cylindrical pipe at a uniform temperature will incorrectly show the off-axis regions to be cooler
than the center axis of the pipe. There are two components to this angular dependence:
2-3

Background
Figure 2-2
Emission of IR Radiation Is Directional.
1. Emission of IR radiation is strongest in the direction perpendicular to the emitting
surface (for example, along the surface normal). Consequently, off-axis regions
radiate only a small portion of their energy in the direction of the IR camera. (See
Figure 2-2.)
2. The apparent area of an off-axis region appears smaller because of the oblique viewing angle (see Figure 2-3). This is purely geometric and not specific to IR radiation,
as it also occurs for visible light. This apparent reduction of surface area, from the
reference frame of the camera, gives rise to geometric distortion of off-axis regions of
the image.
Acos
n
Figure 2-3
The Image of an Off-axis Target on a Cylinder Appears Distorted When Compared to a
Target on the Optical Axis.
2-4

Background
This apparent roll-off of the pipe surface temperature with angle can lead to misinterpretation of IR image data. Experienced thermographers typically ignore data beyond
30 of the pipe axis. Although it is possible to correct images for roll-off to some degree using post-processing software, the low signal levels which typically occur off-axis,
and the fact that fewer pixels are imaged in off-axis regions, limits the benefits of the
post-processing approach to primarily cosmetic retouching of the image.
For pulsed thermography, the situation is further complicated because the cylindrical
geometry of the pipe affects not only how effectively the IR camera detects the apparent
surface temperature, as described above, but also the coupling of the energy from the
flash into the metal. The degree to which optical energy from the flash lamps is absorbed
by the pipe surface will influence the maximum depth at which a defect can be observed.
In general, shroud/reflector units for pulsed thermography are designed to contain
light from the flash lamps and direct the light onto the sample in a uniform spatial
distribution. Typically, the flash lamps are housed in parabolic reflectors optimally
defocused to provide uniform illumination at the exit plane of the shroud (see Figure
2-4). The walls of the shroud are also diffuse reflectors in order to redirect stray light
from the flash lamps back onto the sample. Although this type of illumination can be
used to image cylindrical targets, only the central 5060 of the pipe can be imaged
accurately.
IR Camera
Reflector
Flash Lamp
Uniform
Light
Figure 2-4
Schematic of a Pulsed Thermography Imaging Head.
(Note: The flashtubes are housed in parabolic reflectors and are defocused to provide a
uniform distribution at the exit plane.)
2-5
2-6
3
EXPERIMENT
A series of experiments were conducted on both cylindrical and planar steel targets. The
ultimate goal of these experiments was to demonstrate a pulsed thermography system
that would provide increased angular coverage of a cylindrical pipe and also allow
reliable detection of 50% or less wall thinning. Prior to constructing this system, separate experiments were set up to independently study the effects of light input and IR
output coupling and the detectability of wall thinning as a function of area for both flat
and curved samples. A dedicated shroud/reflector unit was specifically designed and
constructed as a test bed for these experiments. A standard commercial (EchoTherm)
shroud was used as a basis for comparison.
Data Acquisition
For all experiments, data were acquired using commercial IR focal plane array cameras
(Amber Radiance and Inframetrics ThermaCAM) and the EchoTherm system for
IR NDE, which includes two 6.4 kilojoules (kJ) flash lamps (flash duration ~ 5 millisecond
[msec]). The EchoTherm system controls the operation of the flash lamps, and accepts
continuous 12-bit digital data from the IR camera. Once the data has been acquired, it can
be viewed continuously or in a gated-image format, where each image is the sum of
N consecutive images. The image gates, which represent the relative surface temperature
at a given time increment after flash heating, can be viewed individually or differentially.
The experimental extended-view shroud was designed to uniformly distribute the light
energy from the flash lamps over the curved surface of the pipe, and to minimize apparent temperature roll-off using gold front surface mirrors mounted to the forward interior walls of the shroud. Gold was selected as the mirror coating because of its extremely high IR reflectivity (~ 99%). The function of the mirrors was not only to increase
energy input to the off-axis areas of the pipe, but to allow these areas to be imaged
indirectly using the virtual image in the mirror. The design of the experimental unit
required that the approximate diameter of the pipe to be inspected is known in advance. However, the reflector was designed with a modular snout rather than straight
walls, so that different snouts could be interchanged for different pipe diameters.
3-1

Experiment
Output Coupling: Pipe Section at Constant Temperature

A set of experiments was designed to study the effect of geometry on apparent temperature measurement of cylindrical pipes. In the first of these studies, a 10.75" outside
diameter (OD) pipe was prepared so that it could be imaged at a constant elevated
temperature (signal to noise is very poor in steel pipes at room temperature, regardless
of surface preparation). The sample was wrapped with heat tape and allowed to stabilize at 40C for 30 minutes (see Figure 3-1).
Figure 3-1
Circumferential Section of a Pipe. (Left) Passive IR image of a 2" circumferential section
of a 10.75" diameter pipe. (Note: Although the pipe has been brought to a uniform
temperature of 40C using electrical heating tape, the temperature appears hottest at the
center and increasingly cooler off axis.) (Right) Profile of a line through the circumferential section shows the temperature roll-off in detail. See color version in Appendix E.
Circular markers were placed at 1" intervals on a circumferential section of the pipe to
provide position markers. Since the objective of these experiments was to study geometric effects only, the pipe was cleaned, sanded, and painted flat black to minimize any
effects due to the surface or subsurface state of the pipe. No attempt was made to image
subsurface features.
Figure 3-1 shows the apparent temperature profile of a semi-cylindrical section of the
pipe held at a constant temperature of 40C to be approximately sinusoidal, in both
image and single-line format (right). The imaged area of the pipe has been sanded and
painted flat black to minimize variations due to emissivity or surface texture. In the
image result (left), the red region at the center indicates a higher apparent temperature,
while the yellow and green areas suggest cooler temperatures. The ears at the edges
of the line profile are reflections in the gold mirrors. Since the temperature has been
held constant and the pipe has been allowed to reach thermal equilibrium, the observed
temperature variation is determined to be a function of the curved geometry of the pipe.
Further quantification of this result was obtained by placing 0.75" diameter circular
position markers at 1" intervals around the circumference of the sample. Again, the pipe
section was imaged at a constant temperature of 40C, as shown in Figures 3-2 and 3-3.
3-2

Experiment
Optical
Axis
A cos
Figure 3-2
Effects of Roll-off on a 10.75" Diameter Pipe. (Left) Passive IR image of 0.75" adhesive
paper targets on a circumferential section of a 10.75" diameter pipe held at 40 demonstrates the geometric contribution to roll-off, independent of material properties. (Right)
The apparent area of a target with actual Area A decreases in proportion to the angular
deviation from the surface normal, which serves as the optical axis.
250
200
AA
150
100
50
mirror
B B
mirror
-53.5
-49.22
-44.94
-40.66
-36.38
-32.1
-27.82
-23.54
-19.26
-14.98
-10.7
-6.42
-2.14
2.14
6.42
10.7
14.98
19.26
23.54
27.82
32.1
36.38
40.66
44.94
49.22
53.5
202.57
202.57
201.55
200.50
198.34
192.65
185.44
178.13
174.53
173.35
173.35
173.35
171.03
164.45
156.19
150.55
148 76
Figure 3-3
Line Profile of the Adhesive Paper Targets. (Note: A slight amplitude gain can be observed in the mirror images (A, B) of far off-axis points (A, B).)
See color version in Appendix E.
3-3

Experiment
Examination of the line profile that intersects the circular targets reveals several important results:
Although the diameters of all of the targets are 0.75", the apparent diameters of the
targets appear to shrink as the position moves further from the pipe longitudinal
axis. Consequently, a 0.75" diameter defect would appear to be considerably smaller
if it were located off-axis. Although this apparent shrinkage does not significantly
affect the diameter of targets within approximately 30 of the pipe axis, the targets
undergo considerable horizontal distortion (the image along the pipe axis is not
affected) outside this interval.
Examination of the line profile data show that the roll-off in the amplitude of the
targets is proportional to the square of the cosine of the deviation of the position of
the target from the surface normal.
The use of the gold mirrors at the periphery of the field of view provides a small
degree of gain for extreme off-axis targets. This gain is observed both in terms of
amplitude and apparent width of the target, as seen for points A, A and B, B in the
line profile below. On both sides of the pipe, the mirror images (A and B) appear
wider and have higher amplitudes than the real images (A and B). This effect occurs
because the virtual images that are observed in the mirror represent smaller angles,
and consequently less loss and distortion than the real images that are observed
directly by the camera. The gain condition occurs as long as the angle represented
in the virtual image is less than that of the real image.
Combined Input and Output Coupling: Flash Heating
The same setup described in the previous section was used to study the effects of flash
heating on the apparent temperature of the pipe. However, gold reflectors were not
used, in order to replicate a typical pulse thermography setup. Once again, the pipe was
brought to equilibrium at 40C. The pipe was then flash- heated using 5 msec pulses
from two 8" flash lamps, each powered by a 6.4 kJ power supply.
The results are shown in the line profile in Figure 3-4. The temperature response of the
pipe is much more sharply peaked near the center axis of the pipe, and the roll-off with
angle is steeper than the constant heating case presented previously. In the figure, the
data has been fit (using the least-squares method) to the fourth power of the cosine of
the deviation of the position of the target from the surface normal.
3-4

Experiment
250
200
150
100
50
-53.5
-49.22
-44.94
-40.66
-36.38
-32.1
-27.82
-23.54
-19.26
-14.98
-10.7
-6.42
-2.14
2.14
6.42
10.7
14.98
19.26
23.54
27.82
32.1
36.38
40.66
44.94
49.22
53.5
angle
Figure 3-4
Line Profile of the 0.75" Adhesive Paper Targets on a Circumferential Section of 10.75"
Diameter Pipe. (Note: The solid violet line shows a least-squares fit of the data to the
cosine of the deviation of the position of the target from the surface normal.)
The observed result is the cumulative effect of the output coupling effect described in
the previous section, and the fact that input coupling of the optical energy from the
flash lamps to the pipe is dependent on the incident angle of the optical energy. For a
partially (optically) absorbing material, absorption is approximately proportional to the
square of the cosine of deviation of the incident angle from the pipe surface normal. In
other words, the dependence of absorption of incident energy on angle is essentially the
same as the dependence of output signal strength on viewing angle. The cumulative
effect for actively heated samples is that the net apparent power output is the product
of the input and output contributions. That is,
I out = I in A cos2 ( ) B cos2 ( )
(Eq. 3-1)
where:
A coefficient of optical absorption
B coefficient of IR emissivity
angle between incident ray and surface normal
angle between surface normal and camera location
3-5

Experiment
For the actual situation, that is, linear flashtubes in parabolic reflectors, it is reasonable
to assume that incident beam is essentially a plane wave emanating from the rear of the
shroud reflector unit. Also, the imaging optics of commercial IR cameras collect radiation effectively over a wide solid angle, so the optical axis can be assumed to be the
same for every point on the front surface of the pipe. Thus, the situation can be approximated as
I out = I in ABcos 4 ( )
(Eq. 3-2)
Comparison of this model with the result shown in Figure 3-5 below shows good agreement and demonstrates why the roll-off for off-axis areas is much more pronounced for
flash heating than it is for the passive case.
Minimization of Input and Output Coupling Effects: Flash Heating with Mirrors
The modified shroud with 2 flash lamps was used to image the roll-off sample with
gold mirrors in place. The purpose of the mirrors was twofold:
1. The mirrors were placed to redirect stray light from the flash lamps back onto the
pipe. In particular, light was redirected onto the far off-axis regions of the pipe,
where direct absorption of light was minimal.
2. The mirrors also provided an alternate viewing path for the camera through which
off-axis regions could be imaged (see Figure 3-5). Although the image viewed in the
mirror is virtual, for far off-axis regions it is at a much less steep angle (with respect
to the local surface normal) than the image viewed directly by the camera. In cases
where the virtual angle is more favorable than the direct view, an additional benefit
accrues in that the virtual view sees more pixels on the region of interest than the
direct view, reducing lateral geometric distortion.
3-6

Experiment
mirror
mirror
Figure 3-5
Line Profile of Flash Heating Using the Extended-View Shroud, with Gold Front Surface Mirrors. (Note: The result shows a less severe roll-off than seen previously in the
passive and active heating cases, without mirrors.)
Defect Depth Sensitivity and Resolution
For service water pipe inspection, reliable detection of significant wall thinning is essential. Several carbon steel samples were built to model this situation, using both flat
plates and pipe segments. Two samples were constructed to test the dependence of
detection of wall thinning on the diameter to depth (D/d) ratio of thin regions.
A set of flat bottom holes was machined into the back side of a 0.375" thick, 6" x 6" flat
carbon steel plate (see Figure 3-6). The hole diameters and depths were chosen to provide a range of D/d ratios, so that a minimum resolvable defect size could be established. The flat samples were evaluated with a standard pulsed thermography setup (no
mirrors were used). A setup using 4 lamps was tested; however, the size of the 4-lamp
unit was considerably larger and more cumbersome than the 2-lamp unit. Although the
4-lamp system was able to image deeper holes more effectively, the 2-lamp unit was
used for these experiments because it was a more realistic implementation for use in a
power plant.
3-7

Experiment
D/d =
1.5
1.0
E
A
55.6%
B
33.3%
66.7%
50.0%
77.8%
33.3%
K
66.7%
H
88.9%
11.1%
J
0.5
0.75
L
83.3%
M
55.6% 33.3%
N
77.8% 66.7%
Figure 3-6
Sketch of the Flat Calibration Sample. (Note: Back drilled holes are arranged in rows by
diameter (from top to bottom: 1/4", 3/16", 1/8", and 1/16") and in columns by diameter
to depth ratio.)
The degree of wall thinning in the flat plate sample ranged from 11%89%. To optimize
detection and minimize surface irregularities, the plate surface was either spray-painted
flat black with a washable paint, or a peelable black paint was applied with a brush. In
either case, the paint dried quickly, and the samples were ready to be imaged within 5
minutes of paint application.
Of the 14 holes drilled, 11 (79%) were detected with the 2-lamp system. All of the holes
with D/d = 1.5 and 1.0 were detected, as were 3 of the 4 holes with D/d = 0.75. None of
the holes with D/d = 0. 5 were detectable. The smallest amount of wall thinning detected with 2 lamps was 33% (holes E and J), with a D/d = 1.0 and 0.75, respectively,
although hole J is relatively faint.
In the flat plate experiment, no attempt was made to direct all of the energy from the
flash lamps onto the sample; in other words, much of the light from the flash lamps was
wasted because it missed the sample entirely. The area of the shroud opening is 120
sq. in., while the sample area is 36", so less than 1/3 of the flash energy was actually
delivered to the sample. Since there is a definite improvement in depth resolution with
increasing flash power, the 2-lamp system could be improved by simply confining the
light to the area being imaged.
In viewing the images, a fixed pattern of bright pixels can be seen. These are the result
of defective pixels in the camera focal plane. Bad pixels are quite common in IR focal
plane array cameras, and under normal circumstances they are not noticed. However,
the cameras exhibit some degree of nonlinear behavior in response to the flash, during
which time the bad pixels are evident. In Figure 3-7, an image representing a mask of
the bad pixels only is presented for comparison with later images.
Also shown in Figure 3-7, the flat bottom holes appear in a time sequence, where deeper
holes (more severe wall thinning) appear earlier and less severe holes appear later. For
3-8

Experiment
example, the earliest resolved holes are C, D, and H, with material loss of 77.8%, 88.9%,
and 83.3%, respectively. Next, holes B, G, and L are resolved. Both B and G have 66.7%
material loss, although G, initially appears fainter because it has a lower D/d ratio.
Hole L has 77.8 % material loss, but it is on the threshold of detectability because it has a
D/d ratio = 0.75.
D/d =
1.5
1.0
E
A
55.6%
B
33.3%
66.7%
50.0%
77.8%
33.3%
K
66.7%
H
88.9%
11.1%
J
0.5
0.75
L
83.3%
M
55.6% 33.3%
N
77.8% 66.7%
Figure 3-7
Time-Sequenced Image of Flat Calibration Plate. a) Binary mask showing dead pixels in
the focal plane, which appear in images taken immediately after flash heating, b-e) Time
sequence showing progressively deeper flat bottom holes (Note: The gate width for
these images was 2 consecutive frames.), and f) Sketch of plate sample. (Note: Holes
detected in this sequence have been shaded.) See color version in Appendix E.
In the previous experiment, each image shown is actually the difference between sums
of 2 consecutive video frames at the indicated times. The effect of the summation is to
increase the signal to noise by the square root of the number of frames summed. For
shallow holes, whose effect is observed at very short times after the flash, the relatively
narrow gate (that is, number of frames summed) provides a high degree of temporal
precision, so that the onset of individual holes can be resolved. However, the effect of
deeper holes is observed at the surface at later times, when the temperature has fallen to
near ambient levels and where the response of the camera is less favorable. To image
3-9

Experiment
these deeper holes, it is advisable to use substantially wider gates. In Figure 3-8, the
same plate is imaged with the same camera, but with 32-frame summation. Clearly, the
wider gating scheme allows deeper holes to be imaged at the expense of the shallower
holes. Specifically, holes E and J, which each have 33% material loss and D/d = 1.0 and
0.75, respectively, are seen with the wider gating that could not be seen in the earlier
image. Also, hole K, with 55.6% material loss and D/d = 0.75 can be seen with the wider
gate scheme. However, holes D and H, which appeared in early post-flash images when
the narrow gates were used in Figure 3-7 are not seen with the wider gating scheme.
66.7% 11.1%
88.9%
83.3%
N
L
H
D
33.3% 33.3%
66.7%
77.8%
M
K
55.6%
G
50.0%
J
77.8%
B
55.6%
33.3%
I
C
66.7%
Figure 3-8
Differential Images of Flat Plate Sample Using Gate Summation of 32 Consecutive
Images. (Note: Holes E, J, and K33%, 33%, and 55% material loss, respectivelyare
seen. The identical image is displayed at right with a color map that allows these holes
to be viewed more clearly.) See color version in Appendix E.
Pipe Cutout Section
The ability to detect wall thinning on a cylindrical pipe with various D/d ratios was
tested on a 12" diameter carbon steel pipe cutout with nominal wall thickness of 0.375"
(see Figure 3-9). One section was designed to provide a range of D/d values across the
circumference of the cutout. In this section, the diameter of all of the holes was 0.25",
and the depths of the holes were varied to provide 3 rows of holes with D/d = 1.5, 1.0,
and 0.75, respectively. A separate section was designed to test the effects of roll-off for
different shroud configurations. In this section, all holes were approximately 50% deep.
3-10

Experiment
D/d Region
region 22
D/d
(Diameter in Inches)
0.5 0.375 0.25 (dia. in inches)
0.5 0.375 0.25
Roll-Off
Region
Roll-off1
region 1
12.875
12.875"
Figure 3-9
Sketch of the 0.375" Carbon Steel Pipe Cutout Sample. (Note: a) Back drilled flat-bottomed holes, b) Holes on 2" centers, c) Holes in each row are identical, and d) All holes
at 50% wall thickness. See color version in Appendix E.
The cutout was tested with 3 different shroud configurations, each designed to provide
different degrees of angular coverage with some tradeoff in portability. For comparison,
each shroud housed the same 2 linear flashtubes. Results from each of the configurations are described below.
Standard Shroud
The standard shroud that is used in the commercial EchoTherm system was used to test
the system. The flashtubes are placed at the back of the unit and are defocused to provide the highest degree of uniformity of the exit plane of the shroud. The opening
aperture is approximately 10" (w) x 12" (h) x 16" (d). The unit is designed for near planar
targets, although it has been used for pipe applications.
The results on the roll-off section with the standard shroud clearly show the holes in a
central area spanning approximately 54 (see Figure 3-10). However, the row of holes at
the bottom of the image appears weak and distorted, as does the row of holes at the
very top.
3-11

Experiment
Figure 3-10
Differential Image of the Roll-off Region of the Pipe Cutout Sample. (Note: Holes outside the 54 central region appear weak and geometrically distorted.)
Modified Shroud
The small size of the standard EchoTherm shroud makes it very attractive for field
applications. A modified version of the standard shroud was developed to provide
better input coupling of light to the pipe, although no attempt was made in this design
to improve output coupling of IR radiation to the camera. The input coupling scheme
was quite simple; the walls of the standard shroud were extended to conform to the
shape of a 12" pipe, and the inner surface of the extensions was lined with a reflective
foil (see Figures 3-11 and 3-12).
3-12

Experiment
Figure 3-11
Modified Shroud Set-up.(Left) Sketch of the modified shroud.
(Right) The modified shroud is used to image the pipe half-section.
Figure 3-12
Differential Image of the Roll-off Region of the Pipe Cutout Sample. (Note: The viewing
region has been extended to 72.)
An extended-view shroud was designed to provide increased light input to the target
and also to allow far off-axis regions to be imaged indirectly using gold surface front
surface mirrors (see Figure 3-13). The unit was tested with 2 lamps only to allow direct
comparison with the other two shroud configurations. In the results shown in
3-13

Experiment
Figure 3-14, all three rows of 50% depth holes are visible across the circumference of the
pipe. The D/d ratios of the rows are 2.66, 2.0, and 1.33, respectively. The contrast of
holes with the smallest diameter (0.25", D/d = 1.33) is relatively poor. The spacing of
the holes across the circumference is approximately 18, so that holes spanning 72 can
be seen without distortion. However, an additional 36 can be seen in the mirrors with
higher gain and less distortion than the directly viewed image, so that an effective field
of 108 can be imaged. In fact, a set of holes can be seen in the lower mirror, which can
barely be seen in the directly viewed image; a second set of holes, which appear flattened in the direct image, also appear without distortion in the lower mirror.
Figure 3-13
Extended-view Shroud Set-up. (Left) Sketch of the extended-view shroud. (Note: The
gold front surface mirrors are positioned at the periphery of the camera field of view to
provide increased input coupling to the off-axis regions of the pipe and also to allow
those regions to be imaged.) (Right) The extended-view shroud is used to image a pipe
half-section.
3-14

Experiment
Figure 3-14
Differential Image of the Roll-off Region Acquired with the Extended-view Shroud.
(Note: The direct field of view is approximately 72. However, additional features can
be imaged in the gold mirrors at the top and bottom of the image.)
Based on these results, the minimum size of a detectable region of wall thinning in a
0.375" pipe can be estimated. If the D/d = 2 row is used as the detectable minimum and
the faint D/d = 1.33 row is ignored, then the minimum detectable diameter for 50% wall
thinning will be 0.375". This result is generalized as
Minimum Detectable Diameter
Minimum Detectable D/d x Remaining Wall

Thickness
However, resolution of relatively small amounts of wall thinning (< 30%) are difficult to
detect because the signal is more highly attenuated as it travels the longer distance to
the back wall. Consequently, higher input power may be required to resolve smaller
amounts of thinning. The use of 4 lamps rather than 2 would improve the resolution
capability of the system and would also reduce the minimum detectable D/d to a value
lower than 2.
3-15
3-16
4
DISCUSSION
The experiments performed in this study provide several useful guidelines and directions for future implementation of pulsed thermography for IR measurement of wall
thinning in steel pipes. Decisions based on the alternatives presented regarding implementation will ultimately have to be made, not only on the basis of performance but
also considering cost, size, portability, ease-of-use, and the true requirements for minimum detectable wall thinning. In this section, the implications of the experiments on
implementation in terms of both depth resolution and imaging of curved surfaces will
be discussed.
Detection of Wall Thinning
The data presented in the preceding figures has not been subjected to any spatial image
processing, but it has been presented in a gray-scale format. Color has only been used
when features in the low end of the image dynamic range are difficult to see in gray
scale. However, the use of temporal image processing has been used to great advantage,
in that the images represent both summation of gates of consecutive images to improve
signal to noise, and then subtraction of gates, to remove background clutter. Analysis of
the image sequence shown in Figure 3-7 demonstrates the time dependence of the
imaging process. In the sequence, holes where the most material has been removed
(holes D and H, with 88.9% and 83.3% material removed, respectively) appear early in
the sequence and then vanish in the later images. Progressively deeper holes appear
later in the sequence. This fact can be use to empirically calibrate the process using a
reference sample. For example, the times at which holes of known depth first appear in
the reference sample can be tabulated, and those values can be used to estimate the
depth of features in an actual target of identical composition. This approach to depth
measurement should be based on first arrival time and not signal amplitude, or the time
at which peak amplitude occurs, as these measurements may depend on the size of the
feature as well as depth, leading to misleading measurements. The relationship between
depth of the signal source and first arrival time of a signal associated with a feature at a
given depth underscore the importance of analyzing the entire post-flash image sequence because a single image at a particular time can miss either deeper or shallow
features that appear before or after the selected time. On the other hand, with real-time
viewing of the sequence (common practice in preventative maintenance) the ability to
discriminate between deep and shallow features is reduced significantly, and transient
4-1

Discussion
features (corresponding to the most severe material loss), such as holes D and H in
Figure 3-7, are likely to be missed because of their transient behavior.
It is important to note the effect of varying the degree of summation on the ability to
detect deeper defects. In Figure 3-7, each image of the flat plate sample is the sum of 2
consecutive images. In the earlier images in the time sequence, holes C, D, and H, which
have the thinnest walls, appear with a high degree of contrast. However, the deepest
hole that can be seen in the later images is hole F (50% material loss), which is much less
distinct in both shape and contrast. In Figure 3-8, the same plate is shown with 16-frame
summation at a later time. Holes E and J, which each have 33% material loss and D/d =
1.0 and 0.75, respectively, and hole K, with 55.6% material loss and D/d = 0.75, can be
seen in the image, although the contrast is poor. In order to detect both deep and shallow defects, it is not only necessary to acquire images at the appropriate times after
flash heating, but the degree of summation applied to the images should be proportional to the time elapsed after the flash. If the goal is to resolve differences between
regions of severe wall thinning (for example, > 80%), summation is usually not required
to discriminate between the times at which each region appears. In fact, summation
may actually interfere with the ability to discriminate between regions of similar thickness. However, because the amplitudes that correspond to thicker regions become
progressively smaller, summation becomes necessary to resolve such regions. Since the
deeper regions become blurred, both spatially and temporally, the ability to discriminate between small changes in thickness becomes less acute with depth.
The results obtained confirmed the general criteria for diameter to depth ratio (D/d),
that is, D/d ~ 1.0. However, it was possible to image defects with smaller D/d parameters through the use of summation, as shown in Figure 3-8, where hole K, with 55.6%
material loss and D/d = 0.75, was imaged. It should be noted that the hole diameters
and depths selected for the flat plate experiment were quite conservative, for example,
the largest hole diameter was 0.25". If the minimum allowed flaw diameter in 0.375"
wall were increased to 0.5", material loss of 25% would result in D/d = 1.78, which
should be easily detectable with the 2-lamp system. For even larger regions of wall
thinning, the detectability would increase proportionally. However, it is important to
realize that the flat bottom hole is only an approximation of actual pipe wall thinning in
terms of size, shape, and boundary conditions.
The previous discussion of minimum detectable diameter, summation, and diameter to
depth ratio is closely related to the issue of the appropriate number of flash lamps
which should be used to heat the pipe. The decision to use more flash energy to heat the
pipes significantly affects the portability of the system because the size of the enclosure
must be increased and more power supplies and cabling will be required. The use of
more energy makes detection of smaller amounts of wall thinning easier and requires
less effort (that is, summation; image processing) to extract the signal. In the experiments presented here, 2 flash lamps were used to detect a minimum of 33% wall thinning in the flat sample. However, in these particular images, the thinned regions are the
differential sums of 32 consecutive frames, and the contrast with the background is low.
Although the contrast would improve considerably as more lamps were added (they
4-2

Discussion
must be added in pairs to preserve uniformity), the benefits of the added capability
must be weighed against the loss in portability of the system.
If the goal of using the system is to detect small regions with relatively small amounts
of material loss (for example, D/d < 1), it may be necessary to use 4, or more, flash
lamps. However, for reasonable diameter and depth requirements, 2 lamps can be used
with appropriate summation and differential imaging, as demonstrated in the results. It
should be possible to extend the capabilities of the 2-lamp system even further through
the use of additional spatial image processing and also by decreasing the field of view
of the illumination, thus increasing the energy density and the flux that impinges on the
target area.
Curvature
In the experiments, a shroud-reflector was constructed to extend the effective field of
view for imaging a 12" diameter cylindrical pipe. The use of the extended-view shroud
provided the following results:
The effective field of view was extended from approximately 57108.
The spatial distortion in extreme off-axis regions could be reduced when these
regions were viewed in the shroud mirrors rather than directly.
The indirect viewing of the extreme off-axis regions also provided some amplitude
gain, compared to the directly viewed image.
The results obtained demonstrate that it is definitely possible to extend the effective
viewing angle considerably. However, there are some important tradeoffs which must
be considered:
The extended-view shroud was at least twice the size of the standard commercial
shroud.
A 2-lamp version of the shroud did not match the performance of the 2-lamp standard shroud.
The improvements in off-axis amplitude gain and spatial distortion removal occurred only at the extreme periphery of the image.
It should be possible to alleviate these apparent disadvantages to some degree using
more sophisticated optical design techniques and curved, rather than plane mirrors.
Also, it is not surprising that the 2-lamp performance of the extended view shroud on a
pipe did not match the performance of the standard shroud on a flat sample because the
actual energy flux into the curved surface is significantly lower. [It is the sample surface
area, not the shroud opening area that factors into the calculation of energy flux.] However, in its present form, the extended-view shroud is far less portable than the standard
commercial unit.
A modified version of the standard unit was also tested as a possible compromise
between performance and portability. This version provided increased light input to the
4-3

Discussion
peripheral regions through the use of a hood that was attached to the standard shroud.
However, the modified unit did not attempt to provide indirect imaging of the periphery. Experiments with this unit showed that a 72 of view could be imaged with minimal distortion. Signal amplitude using this unit was considerably higher than that of
the extended view shroud. (See Appendix B for field applications.)
4-4
5
CONCLUSION
The experimental studies have demonstrated that the ability to resolve wall thinning at
levels below 50% in 12" cylindrical pipes can be extended significantly beyond the
capability of the standard commercial unit. However, these improvements occur at the
expense of some degree of system portabilityan important issue in the field environment. The ultimate balance between sensitivity and portability will occur after extensive
field testing of each type of system. However, additional improvements in both areas
may be possible with more effective design of the shroud, off-axis reflectors, and with
the use of more sensitive, higher-resolution IR cameras.
5-1
5-2
APPENDIX A
Evaluation of IR Techniques for Detection of Wall Thinning in Service Water

Piping at Vermont Yankee
The EPRI NDE Center staff supported Vermont Yankee (VY) in an investigation of
alternative methods to ultrasonic wall thickness measurement for the assessment of
their service water piping (SWP) system. In November 1995, staff from VY, Yankee
Atomic, EPRI, ThermTech Services, Inc., and Inframetrics, Inc., participated in an evaluation of infrared thermography for assessment of SWP. Fabricated pipe samples and
selected areas of the VY service water system were used for demonstration of the IR
techniques.
VY conducted a short-term evaluation of IR as a qualitative method for screening suspect SWP erosion areas. Three Schedule 40 pipe mockups, 4", 8", and 12" diameter were
fabricated by VY for initial assessment of IR capabilities. The mockups are representative of the VY service water system. Included in the mockups are fabrication anomalies
in the pipe weld areas and additional targets in the pipe with varying through-wall
extent of approximately 10%70%. As-built drawings of each mockup document
target type, dimensions, and location.
VY invited an IR inspection services company and an IR equipment vendor to participate in the inspection of the mockups. ThermTech used a Bales Scientific Thermal
Imaging System for data acquisition and processing. Thermal injection equipment was
also required to facilitate a temperature change in the pipe wall and provide an opportunity for detection of anomalies. ThermTech used resistance heaters placed on the
outside diameter (OD) of the pipe to effect thermal injection. The surface temperature of
the pipe was increased approximately 20C for this operation. The heaters provided an
inspection area approximately 8" long axially and 360 circumferentially along the pipe.
The imager could effectively assess approximately 60 of circumferential area at a time.
Multiple moves of the imager or strategic placement of a front surface mirror is necessary for complete coverage of the pipe. ThermTech was able to detect all of the targets
in the VY mockups using this inspection procedure.
ThermTech used this same technique for qualitative assessment of several areas of the
SWP in the plant. The data collected by ThermTech is being analyzed and will be corroborated by ultrasonic measurement and visual inspection during the next scheduled
outage. (See Figure A-1.)
A-1

Appendix A
Figure A-1a
Bales Scientific Thermal Imaging SystemBales Imaging Head Deployed for Inspection
of Plant Service Water Piping .
Figure A-1b
Bales Scientific Thermal Imaging SystemBales Data Acquisition and Control Unit.
A-2

Appendix A
Inframetrics, manufacturer of IR systems, also participated in the inspection of the

mockups. An Inframetrics EchoTherm thermal wave imaging system was used for this
activity (Figure A-2). This system uses noncontact, computer-controlled, high-energy,
xenon flash lamps for thermal injection of a localized area. Like the Bales system, the
Inframetrics system would require repositioning to inspect the complete circumference.
The Inframetrics system was able to detect targets in the mockups representing 40% or
more wall loss. Due to scheduling constraints, the Inframetrics system was not deployed in the plant.
Figure A-2
Inframetrics EchoTherm IR System Inspecting VY Mockup.
Both of these IR systems had a successful first outing for inspection of SWP. Preliminary
observations would indicate that the Bales system, using contact resistance heaters,
might be capable of detecting a smaller target than the Inframetrics system. However,
the resistance heaters require installation at each inspection point and a large portable
power supply in close proximity. This proved to be a time-intensive task. The
Inframetrics system xenon flash lamps are fixtured to the portable IR camera, and the
lamp power supply is cart-mounted with the computer. Attached is a representative IR
image of a 40% wall loss condition detected by the EchoTherm system (Figure A-3). [It
should be noted that VY painted the mockups and the selected areas of the plant system
to provide a uniform inspection surface. The mockups and the selected areas of the
plant system were uninsulated.]
A-3
Figure A-3
Thermal Image of Vermont Yankee Mockup.
Appendix A
A-4

Appendix A
Both ThermTech and Inframetrics acknowledged that further technique development and
equipment reconfiguration are necessary to optimize their systems for this application.
VY plans to continue their support for further investigation and development of the
techniques demonstrated on the pipe mockups and the selected areas of the VY service
water system.
More detailed information about the respective IR systems used in this activity is available from Tom Reilly at ThermTech Services, Inc., 201/661-1748 and Tom Scanlon at
Inframetrics, Inc., 508/670-5555.
A-5
A-6
APPENDIX B
Summary of Pulsed Thermography Field Demonstration at Farley Nuclear

A field demonstration of a pulsed thermography system was conducted at the Farley
Nuclear Power Plant in Dothan, Alabama. The purpose of the demonstration was to
evaluate the pulsed technique in a field situation, both in terms of its measurement
capability and operational ease-of-use and practicality. The demonstration was conducted by Dr. Steven Shepard of Thermal Wave Imaging, Inc., and Paul Zayicek of the
EPRI NDE Center. Overall, the opportunity to assess the measurement capabilities of
the system was limited due to several operational issues that hampered the demonstration. These issues will be discussed in greater detail below.
Physical Configuration
The system used for the demonstration consisted of an EchoTherm pulsed IR NDE
system with an Inframetrics ThermaCAM camera with wide-angle lens (32 field of
view/FOV). The EchoTherm system included a computer with dedicated acquisition
hardware and analysis software, control electronics, flash power supplies, and an imaging head with 2 linear xenon flash tubes. For the demo, the computer, power supplies,
and electronics were mounted on a portable cart, and the imaging head and camera
were mounted on a tripod. At a particular inspection site, the cart typically remained
stationary and the imaging head was moved along the pipe. The inspection area for the
demo system was approximately 8" 8", as shown in Figure B-1.
Figure B-1
Typical Field of View of the Demo System. (Note: The grid squares are each 2" x 2".
B-1

Appendix B
Operational Issues
Physical Access to Pipes

The imaging head used for laboratory evaluations of the pulsed IR technique was also
used for the field demonstration. The size of the imaging head created a problem, in
that it was not possible to reach several of the pipes that were scheduled for inspection.
This difficulty was anticipated but not addressed in the initial phase of technology
evaluation. Many pipes were remotely located and/or in close proximity to other structure. The size of the inspection head (25" x 12" x 10", including camera) made it impossible to reach these areas. Similarly, elevated pipes could not be readily accessed with
the demo system, as configured. Further reduction in the size of the imaging head will
be required if a pulsed thermography system is to be used on a wide range of pipes in
the power plant. Also, several of the pipes that presented access problems were quite
far from aisles, where electrical power for the equipment was available. The demo
system umbilical cable, which extends from the cart to the imaging head, would have to
be extended to at least 25 ft. to be useful in these situations.
Pipe Temperature
Some of the pipes that were to be inspected were significantly cooler than the ambient
temperature in the facility. As a result, the IR images of these pipes acquired with the
ThermaCAM displayed poor signal-to-noise qualities (the optimum detection range for
the platinum silicide (PtSi) detector in the ThermaCAM begins slightly above room
temperature). A second camera (Amber Radiance) with an indium antimonide (InSb)
detector, more appropriate for imaging room temperature objects, was intended for use
in this situation. Unfortunately, the Amber camera could not be used because the appropriate cables were not provided by the manufacturer. However, if pipes at temperatures below ~ 30C are to be examined, the IR camera should be optimized for use in
this range.
Surface Preparation
Several of the areas available for inspection were left unpainted. These bare metal pipes
could not be imaged because their reflective surfaces lacked the optical absorption (for
xenon flash energy) and the IR emissivity required for pulsed thermography. Ideally, a
thin coat of flat black paint (washable or peelable) should be applied prior to inspection.
The institutional (flat) green and red primer paints used on some pipes at Farley appeared to provide sufficient absorption and emissivity.
B-2

Appendix B
Correlation to UT
As part of the field exercise, we attempted to correlate IR results with previously acquired ultrasonic data. The ultrasonic data indicated no erosion areas in the selected
pipe segments that were below ambient temperature, and none were found with the IR
technique. UT data were not readily available for the pipes that had been painted and
were at, or above, ambient temperature. Initial IR inspection of these segments revealed
no discernible areas of erosion. A decision was made to collect an IR data set as calibration information for performing quantitative wall thickness using the IR technique.
Point UT and thermal data were acquired for several sites on the inner and outer radii
of pipe section 1-61, a 10" diameter pipe with surface temperature significantly higher
than ambient (estimated temperature ~ 90100F). The UT data were acquired immediately after the IR images using a handheld digital thickness instrument.
Quantitative IR data were acquired over a 2 sq. in. region in each selected area of pipe
section 1-61. In order to minimize noise and acquire the most representative reading,
amplitude data from the IR camera were acquired from 1,352 pixels distributed about
the area. In Figure B-2, the 8 square colored boxes in each image represent 13 x 13 pixel
regions where data were acquired for seven seconds after flash heating. Figure B-4
provides a detailed view of the time-temperature curves for this data. The data from
these regions were averaged and plotted as a function of time, as shown in Figure B-3.
B-3

Appendix B
0.342
0.365
0.345
0.365
0.400
0.400
Figure B-2
IR Images of Selected Regions of Pipe Section 1-61.
B-4

Appendix B
Figure B-3
Temperature-Time Plot of the 6 Regions of Pipe Section 1-61 Shown in Figure B-1.
(Note: Each trace is the average of 8, 13 x 13 pixel regions.)
Figure B-4
Detailed View of the Temperature-Time Curves Shown in Figure 2.
The plot in Figure B-3 shows the apparent IR temperature vs. time behavior for 6 of the
areas which were imaged and also measured with the UT probe. A discontinuous jump
in the data appear repeatedly at approximately 3.4 seconds after flash heating. This
anomaly can be attributed to the power requirements of the IR system because the
recharging of the flash power supplies automatically begins approximately 3 seconds
after the flash occurs. Since the current draw of the flash power supplies is relatively
B-5

Appendix B
high (~ 20 amperes/A) when they recharge after a flash discharge, the current supplied
to the computer, camera, and control electronics may by temporarily reduced. In general, a separate power source for the flash power supplies is recommended in order to
keep them isolated from other electronic equipment. Unfortunately, access to nearby
power sources at Farley was limited, so the power supplies and other equipment were
run off the same line. For future field applications of this type of equipment, if multiple
electrical power sources are not available, an uninterruptible power supply should be
used to protect the camera, computer, and electronics from flash-induced brownouts. It
might also be possible to delay the flash recharge sequence so as not to interfere with
data processing.
In each of the areas indicated in the images in Figure B-2, several readings were made
with the UT probe. The average of these readings is indicated in each image. Maskingtape markers were also used as position indicators. Ideally, the data from the IR temperature-time curves would be plotted as an analytic model and would be scaled using
the UT data as a calibration reference. However, the signal contrast during the predicted time interval (0.8 sec.2.0 sec.) when information about the wall thickness can be
extracted from the surface temperature is poor. As a result, quantitative information
cannot be obtained from this data set.
The results shown in Figure B-2 are dominated by the surface artifacts of the pipe. At
later times after the flash, when subsurface features (or interaction with the back wall)
should be evident, the images display extremely low contrast. The images also confirm
that the pipe surface finish is not uniform, and that numerous surface hot spots are
included in the sampling area. Although it is possible to image this type of surface
(painted, but with surface nonuniformities), it is complicated by the combination of low
camera sensitivity and high steady state temperature of the pipe. In this situation, the
transient temperature excursion induced in the pipe by the flash will be relatively
insignificant compared to the high steady state temperature of the pipe. Use of a higher
sensitivity camera (InSb) should mitigate this problem.
Recommendations
Although the quantitative aspects of the field demonstration were inconclusive, several
important operational issues emerged that will provide useful information for future
attempts to implement pulsed thermographic methods. These issues are intended to
serve as a checklist for future efforts:
1. Paint pipes with a flat finish and mark with grids prior to inspection.
2. Integrate into the system an IR camera with an Indium Antimonide (InSb) detector
for improved sensitivity on low temperature pipe.
3. Modify the thermographic hood to reduce its profile for inspection in tight access
areas and also to facilitate transport while climbing.
4. Increase flash energy density for improved inspection reliability.
B-6

Appendix B
5. Modify electronics for flash power supplies to eliminate system low voltage situations.
6. Control the system remotely from the inspection head for single inspector operation.
7. Determine the highest possible inspection rate (ft/hr) for 100% coverage of a given
diameter pipe.
B-7
B-8
APPENDIX C
Inspection System Requirements for IR NDE of Service Water Piping Systems

Many utilities possess high-quality infrared thermography systems that are configured
primarily for predictive maintenance activities. These systems provide excellent thermal
images, quantitative temperature information, and on-board data storage and analysis
capabilities that are more than adequate for the majority of utility applications. Generally, these systems are not specifically configured for IR NDE applications. The laboratory and field data presented in this report was collected with a dedicated IR NDE
system built by Thermal Wave Imaging of Lathrup Village, Michigan. The basic system
is commercially available as the EchoTherm system. The initial work for advanced IR
NDE of SWP systems was completed using a standard EchoTherm system. As the
investigation progressed, several different focal plane array cameras, incorporating
platinum silicide (PtSi) and indium antimonide (InSb) detectors, were experimented
with for this application. Additionally, the flash lamp assembly housing was modified
to improve flash energy coupling efficiency on the curved pipe surface. These modifications are described in Section 3 of this report text.
The EchoTherm system, as configured for this project, was comprised of several major,
integrated subsystems 1:
PCI Image Acquisition System - Provides real-time image acquisition from digital IR
cameras, using the PCI bus. The PC has a Pentium processor, 128 MB RAM, 2.0 GB
HDD, and 1024 x 768 LCD SVGA display.
EchoTherm Software - Provides Windows-based acquisition, processing, and
analysis of 16-bit digital images. Capabilities include summation, subtraction, and
differentiation of image sequences, dynamic histogram analysis, 3-D color perspective plotting, automatic image thresholding and scaling, image annotation and
archiving, temperature-time analysis, image statistics, and calibrated spatial measurement.
Intelligent System Controller - Microprocessor-based unit for control of communications between the IR camera, PC, and flash lamp power supply. The controller
preprocesses data from the IR camera to allow variable frame rate image capture,
flash synchronization, and interchangeability between IR cameras.
Balcar Flash Lamp Power Supply - Two power supplies, each with an output of
6.4 kJ and a 5 msec pulse duration, provide energy for the flash lamps used in the
flash hood assembly.
C-1

Appendix C
Flash Lamp Hood Assembly - This assembly was modified for inspection of SWP.
The assembly houses two 8" linear xenon flashtubes in parabolic reflectors with UV
cutoff filters and is optimized for uniform illumination of the target surface. Safety
indicators show charge level of each lamp. The IR camera also mounts to this assembly with a bracket. Brackets are available to accommodate several different IR camera models.
Sequential Power Controller - Allows operation of several power supplies from a
single 110/220V source by charging them sequentially. Communicates with the
Intelligent System Controller for synchronized triggering of flash lamps.
IR Camera - Several different focal plane array cameras were used during this
project, including units from FLIR, Inframetrics, and Amber.
Figure C-1
Standard EchoTherm Laboratory System.
EchoTherm Specification Sheet, Thermal Wave Imaging, Lathrup Village, Michigan.
C-2
APPENDIX D
Laboratory Investigation of Vermont Yankee Service Water Pipe
In addition to the initial IR NDE technique feasibility work that was conducted at Vermont Yankee. VY provided additional support to this activity by supplying a section of
8" diameter, Schedule 40, carbon steel, service water piping that had been removed
from service. The pipe section had suffered through-wall corrosion in a localized area
(leaker). This sample proved to be valuable for verification of the IR NDE inspection
technique for service-induced damage in an environment with excessive tubercle
buildup on the inside wall of the pipe. The tubercles can be described as conical or
rounded nodules of corrosion products and entrapped debris that cover the inside
surface of the pipe. Previous work had not addressed the possible effects of the tubercles on the induced thermal wave energy. Inspection of the removed-from-service
pipe section indicated that the presence of tubercles had little or no effect on the inspection process.
Figure D-1 shows the removed-from-service pipe section. Figure D-2 illustrates the
tubercle buildup on the inside wall of the pipe and the related ultrasonic grid measurements. The images in the lower portion are time-sequenced frames of infrared data of
the outside surface of the pipe. The bright spot that is prominent during the 0.161 sec.
4.00 sec. time frame, is indicative of the localized thin wall condition.
Figure D-1
Vermont Yankee Service Water Pipe.
D-1

Appendix D
EPRI Schedule 40 Cutout: Region 3 @ 99.26 Hz
Large Valve
Opening
Small Valve
Opening
Valves
Large Scale
Accumulation
UT Measurements
on 2" grid.
Markers
0.010 sec
0.070 sec
0.161 sec
0.333 sec
0.887 sec
Figure D-2
Corroded Section of Pipe and Associated IR Images.
D-2
4.000 sec
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Summary Report of Advanced IR NDE

of Service Water Piping Systems

Summary Report of Advanced IR NDE of

BACKGROUND Infrared thermography (IR) is well established as a predictive

Electric Power Research Institute

Summary Report of Advanced IR NDE of

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

curvature effects on detection capabilities. Initial investigation of the pipe mockup

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1-1

BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................. 2-1

EXPERIMENT ................................................................................................................................. 3-1

DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................................. 4-1

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 5-1

APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... A-1

EPRI Licensed Material

APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................................... C-1

EPRI Licensed Material

Schematic Representation of the Pulsed Thermography Process Shown in a

Emission of IR Radiation Is Directional .......................................................................... 2-4

The Image of an Off-axis Target on a Cylinder Appears Distorted When Compared

Schematic of a Pulsed Thermography Imaging Head .................................................... 2-5

Circumferential Section of a Pipe ................................................................................... 3-2

Effects of Roll-off on a 10.75" Diameter Pipe ................................................................. 3-3

Line Profile of the Adhesive Paper Targets .................................................................... 3-3

Line Profile of the 0.75" Adhesive Paper Targets on a Circumferential Section of

Sketch of the Flat Calibration Sample ............................................................................ 3-8

Time-Sequenced Image of Flat Calibration Plate ........................................................... 3-9

Differential Images of Flat Plate Sample Using Gate Summation of 32

Modified Shroud Set-up ............................................................................................... 3-13

Extended-view Shroud Set-up ..................................................................................... 3-14

Bales Scientific Thermal Imaging SystemBales Imaging Head Deployed for

EPRI Licensed Material

Inframetrics EchoTherm IR System Inspecting VY Mockup ........................................ A-3

Thermal Image of Vermont Yankee Mockup .................................................................. A-4

Typical Field of View of the Demo System ..................................................................... B-1

IR Images of Selected Regions of Pipe Section 1-61 .................................................... B-4

Detailed View of the Temperature-Time Curves Shown in Figure 2 ............................... B-5

Standard EchoTherm Laboratory System ................................................................... C-2

Vermont Yankee Service Water Pipe ............................................................................. D-1

Corroded Section of Pipe and Associated IR Images .................................................... D-2

Circumferential Section of a Pipe ................................................................................... E-1

Line Profile of the Adhesive Paper Targets .................................................................... E-1

Line Profile of the 0.75" Adhesive Paper Targets on a Circumferential Section of

Time-Sequenced Image of Flat Calibration Plate ........................................................... E-3

Differential Images of Flat Plate Sample Using Gate Summation of 32

Thermal Image of Vermont Yankee Mockup .................................................................. E-5

Typical Field of View of the Demo System ..................................................................... E-6

IR Images of Selected Regions of Pipe Section 1-61 .................................................... E-7

Standard EchoTherm Laboratory System ................................................................... E-9

Vermont Yankee Service Water Pipe ........................................................................... E-10

Corroded Section of Pipe and Associated IR Images .................................................. E-10

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EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

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