'.

: i{*: ffi

H0# tnn
Mass Transfer
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the part of thermodynamics. lt is the movement of heat from one thing to another'by means
of radiation, convection or conduction. All forms of heat transfer may occur in some systems at the same
time.

Heat
Heat is the amount of thermal energy that is transferred between
two objects due to a temperature difference. Heat transfer takes
place in three modes-

1.
2.
3.

Mechanism of Heat
Transfer by Conduction

Conduction

The process ofheat conduction has been defined as the transfer

ofheat energy through the substances without any appreciable

Convection

motion of the molecules from high temperature region to lower

Radiation

1. Conduction
When heat transfer takes place due to vibration of molecules,
it is known as conduction. Conduction can take place in solid,
liquid and gas.

2. Convection
Convection occurs due to bulk motion or appreciable motion
ofmolecules. It does not occur in solids because solids cannot
diffuse into each other.

temperature region.

This rnode of heat transfer by conduction is accomplished via

the following two mechanisnXi:o
(l) Due to lattice vibrations
(2) Due to transport of free electrons

(1) Due to Lattice Vibrations

r
'
o

The molecules of a substance continuously vibrate about

same mean position. These vibrations are known as lattice

vibrations.

3. Radiation

We know that the Kinetic Energy (KE) of the molecules in

case of liquids and gases is due to their randomtranslational,
rotational and vibrational motions. While the solids only

Thermal radiation can be defined as transfer of heat energy

due to electromagnetic waves without requiring any medium.

vibrate in their lattice. The temperature of the substance

corresponds to its kinetic energy 1.e., higher is the average

410 * #e"rc Tw{**r:, Mechanical

Engineering

kinetic energy of molecules, higher will be the temperature

dT

ofthe substance.
The molecules of solid materials while vibrating, they
collide with each other and the molecules with higher
kinetic energy, transfer some part of its energy by
impacting adjacent molecules with lower kinetic energy.
This type of energy transfer will continuously take place
through substance as long as there exists a temperatue

temperature gradient in the direction of heat

dx =

gradient. Therefore,' the rate of heat transfer due to lattice

vibration depends upon the rate of collision between the

molecules'.

@ Due to Transport of Free

Electrons

flow (K/m)

Q= -K

Assumptions in Fourier,s law of heat

conduction

1. Heat flow is unidirectional under steady state conditions.

2. The temperature gradient is linear and constant.
3. There is no internal heat generation within the body.
4. The material is homogeneous and isotropic (Kr:Kr= Kr)
Thermal Conductivity of Materials

The mechanismofheatqonduction and the mechanismof

transport of electric current are both dependent upon the
flow of free electrons.
The val ence electrons in the outermost shell of an atom get

'

excited on availability of energy. They overcome the binding

force to become free and move within the boundaries of the

solid. Such electrons are called free electrons. These free

electrons impart their energy by moving fromhigher level
to lower level.
Good electric conductors are good heat conductors. Because
good electric conductors have large number of free electrons.
e.g., Silver, copper, aluminium etc.

Steady State Condition

When the temperature of a body does not vary with time, the
condition is known as steady state.

1.

Copper

Aluminium
Iron
Steel

2.

Concrete
Glass

3.

Hydrogen

It states that the rate ofheat flow through

direction of heat flow.

For the heat flow in X-direction, mathematically

it

can be

expressed as

o * ,q4!
dx

Q = heattransfer rate in given direction

A = area of heat flow normal to heat flow
direction (m2)
temperature difference between two ends of
of thickness dr

a block

thickness of solid bodv

(Wm'K)

-+
-+
-+
-+
_+

4tj
386

202
73
45

-)
-+
-+

L04
0.92

0.j5

-+
-)

0.556

-+
-)

0.024

8.20

0.169

Now, it can be summarized that order of thermal conductivity

in ma.terials

a homogeneous solid

is directly proportional to the area measured normal to the

direction of heat flow and the temperature gradient in the

dx

Gases

Air

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction

Liquids
Mercury
Water

4.

Thermal conductivity

Non-metals

Brick

dt

dT

Metals
Si1ver.,

AT
-:-=0

where,

Aq
lx

Metal > Non- metal > Liquid > Gas

Effect of Temperature on
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity indicates the ability of a material to

conduct heat. It has different values for different materials.

Its
variation with temperature is as

Effect of Temperature on Thermal

Conductivity of Solids
o

The heat conduction in solids is due to transport offree

electrons and lattice vibrations. When the temperature
of
metals increases, the lattice vibrations impede the motion

offree electrons.

Heat and Mass

Due to this, the thermal conductivity of pure metals

decreases with increase in temperature.
Most non-metals are poor conductors ofheat transfer, thus
they have low thermal conductivity and are known as

Now, integrating between boundary conditions,

1. Atx=0,7=Tt
2. Atx= l,T=7,

olt
a*=-KAI"
dr
)Tl
-Jo

thermal insulators.
Whereas the thermal conductivity of non-metals and
insulating rnaterials, having few free electrons, increases
with increase in temperature because their heat conduction
mainly depends upon the lattice vibrations. It can be said

(K)-.,",
' 'meral* I
T

and (O".n--"tut
'no

Qt =

Heat

The transport ofheat pnergy by conduction in liquids and

gases is due to randommotion of molecules irnparting energy
andmomentum.

flux

temperatures, the molecules

will

have higher rate of

It is similar to gases. It is observed that the thermal conductivity

of liquid tends to decrease with increase in temperature.

But the behaviour of water is an exception.

_Tz)

o -. (Tt
s=;= u -72)
t-

The dependence of thermal conductivity on temperature can

be exp{essed as

K=Ko(1 +02)
where,

Ko = thermal conductivity at reference temperature

F = constant for a given material

7 = temperature
Fourier's law of heat conduction through a thick wall is
exoressed as

collisions.

Effect of Temperature on Thermal

Conductivity of Liquids

,_

Heat Conduction in a Thick Wall

with Variable Thermal Conductivity

As the kinetic energy of molecules is the function of

temperature, so when the molecules of higher temperature
region collide with molecules of lower temperature region,
they loose their kinetic energy by collisions.
Therefore in gases, the thermal conductivity of ideal gases
increases with the increase in temperature because at higher

-K A(T z-T)

e=KA__

7.

Effect of Temperature on Thermal

Conductivity of Gases

Transfer E 411

O=-KA#=-Ko(r
1o*

=Ko (1+

+Ornff

gDdr

...(,

Integrating the above equati.on with boundary conditions

1. Atx=0,7=7,
2. Atx= l,T=Tz

rr'
9l' a*=-Jn
Ko(l+LJTldr
AJo

Heat Conduction through a

Wall/Slab

fvll,- -Kol,.lr'tr:

Consider a slab of surface area A of thickness x as shown

in Fig. l.I-r:t Q be the heat transfer rate in X-direction as
shown and K be the thermal conductivity of material.

fa -or = -ro[(L -q )+ \t
=

..

[(ri

: -r;)f,

-r,y +f;rn -r;

rr,

+r;f

-l
Ir = uo{r,-rrlr*f;r;,r, +2,fl
Q=
Fig.

1 Heat conduction

through a slab

According to Fourier's law of heat conduction,

Heat transfer rate

Q=-Y1{
dx

K*A(T\ -72)

K* = Ko[r.fra.n,] represents the mean

value of thermal conductivity calculated at mean

where,

remperarureofr=W)

412 *

#A{"9: Yt*fq*n Mechanical Engineering

Example l. Write the equation for heat conduction through

a plane wall having surface temperature T, and T,
cross-section al area A and thermal conductivity r( which

.
3.

-xtt

x=l dX

QJ,oft
O

-ln

is thermal resistance for a plane wall. It varies

according to the shape ofbody.

-Ko(x+ c)A4L
dx

eT=Tt

=-KoAJ

--'dr

[rntx + c;]l = - KoA(72 _71)

Qlln(l +c)

represents the thermal resistance to heat flow ratg

I I(A ]

o=
-dx
=

r\

equivalenq to electrical resistance R.

varies as K: Ko@ + c).

Sol.

(l-l

cl= *KoALT

Thermal Resistance bf
Hollow Cylinder
Consider a hollow cylinder ofinternal radius r, and external
radius r, with respective internal and external ternperatures of

T,and To as shown in Fig. 3.

Example 2. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit area

through an aluminium plate of 100 cm thickness whose
one face is maintained at 150" C and other is at \ 50"C.
K",, = 3oo wm-'c.

Sol.

KA(Tt -Tzt

300x1x(150-50)
0.1

= 300 kW

Fig. 3 Heat transfer through hollow cylinder

Z be the length of cylinder and Ko is the thermal conductivity
of cylinder. Assume that heat transfer takes place radially.
Consider a ring of radius r and thickness dr.

Irt

Analogy lcetween Heat

Conduction and Electricity
It is observed that rate ofheat flow has an analogy with current
flow in an electrical system having the electrical resistance R
with potential difference V as shown inFigZ.

According to Fourier's law ofheat conduction,

g=-KoA#

@utA

:ZnrL)

e=-Koenrr)ff
-7, -To
R

Thermal resistance of hollow cylinder

(a) Heat conduction (b) Electrical system
Fig. 2. Analogy between electrical conduction and heat

conduction system

By Ohm's law, we can write

Current

I =\

For heat conduction systerrl

,,-,r=_

KA(T|'

(Tt _72)
-T2\
_ LT
- =-

-(t)-n

o =log"('z

\)

ZnKoL

Thermal Resistance of
Hollow Sphere o *
Consider the hollow sphere of internal and external radii
as r, and r, respectively with respective temperatures Z,
and-To. Heit conduction is radial
Consider a ring at radius r of thickness dr as shown in Fig. 4.
Surface area ofsphere A = 4nf

lxe )
By comparing, we draw the following analogy between
electricity and heat flow:

1.

2.

(Tt -T) across the wall represents

the driving force equivalent to potential difference
(Vt * V).
Heat flow rate Q corresponds to current flow 1.
Temperature difference

Fig. 4. Heat transfer through a hollow sphere

Heat and Mass

Transfer V 413

Overall heat transfer coefficient

o
= -K^At=-K^4nr'dT
-udr"dr

It is defined

as the

ability of a composite wall to transfer heat

rate through it.

Now, integrating

'-

-rodr
ot
-J q
12

= -Ko

+n!r" ar

o=LT
.R =tlALT

I rlz _xo+nlrl!,
=
ol_:l
r)n

U=7

RA

If A is outer surface area, then U will be Uor,"..

n_4nKo(T-7,) _

(1 tl
t--t
lt

\{

rz

q,-7")

t (t
t__l r)
anKo

[,i

,,

, _ Ti-To _Tr-To
R
( ,r-r, \

Composite wall having resistances

in series
The walls having different temperature differences in system
are considered as series combination.

l4"K"rrk )
Hence, n

= 4xK1412
!'2 il

represents the thermal resistance.

Mechanism of Heat
Transfer by Convection

ll

Generally, convection occurs when any fluid flows over surface

of solid. In this case, the equation of heat transf'er is governed

Fig.5

(a)

Fis.5

(b)

Electrical network is

by Newton's law of cooling.

Newton's Law of Cooling

The Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat transfer

is proportional to the surface area perpendicrllar to heat flow

direction and the temperature difference beiween the wall
surface temperature T*and the fluid temperature Trin the
direction perpendicular to heat flow direction.

or

-t)

Q*

A(T*

Q=

hA(T,,-Tt)

6, =To

=(JALT =LT
R

u=L
RA
The walls which have same temperature differences in
composite wall system are considered as parallel combination

lne )

of resistances.

Convective thermal resistance,

t-

_7,
O

*.ai.

For parallel cases

r1)
R-*t

'tTt'z
hA

K1

where,

1rtr

-7,

1lttl
_+_+_+_+_
4A KtA KzA KzA bA

(assumeT.>Ty)

(T _7,\
J

7,,.

R
To

where, h is the constant of proportionality called the coefficient

ofconvective heat transfer or surface conductance.
Unit of /r is W/m2- K.
Rewriting the above equation in the form
n_'fi'

-T'

represents the thermal resistance R.oru offered by

the film due to heat transfer by convection.

K3

Fig.6

(a)

414 &

#Ag'ffi 8ss{#rx Mechanical Engineering

Electrical network is

T2

T1

ru

t/ft43

+ /

--.>

Fis. 6 (b)

7--.-------i

Ir)
x

1111
R&R2R3
111
=_+_+_UK24 lth4
'UK14
Example

3.

11

AT

--f-

-ze\

{L )f / )
Ir,a.J l*rt)

Kt+ Kz
K", _
2

4. Calculate equivalent resistance of given figure.

Also, calculate the temperatures at point 3 and point P.

Example

Calculate the equivalent thermal conductivity for

the following:

(a)

r1

T1

T2

P
K3

(b)

T1

K2

K1

[t
ll
I

K,

trl

<-/-+<-/->-<

T2

Sol.

Equivalent circuit diagram is

F- I ---l
Cross-sectional area ofeach slab is A.

Sol.

R1
(a)

R4

R2

Ir@I,
R.o

''77r.4'='
*-

=&+Rr+;p
ll

zr

--_|
R=Rr+R,

_
(as series combination)

2ltl
K.qA KrA KzA
211
K"o K1 K2

rJ"r r

1<q111
(b) o=&*&

KzA

T-l

Al2Kl 2Kz
g =Tr-Tz
-&oRr

(t
t_+_lr)

1 _(& Kz)

I
I
K,A K^A
_r_r_l_L
KIA K22A _l * I

'

KqA

Kr+Ko )

:7r-Tt -Tr-To
&

[^ =-r']
KzA)
From this,

7,

['
and Trcan be calculated.

Heat Transfer Through a

Composite Cylinder
Assume heat transfer coefficient for liquid and inner surface
of cylinder is fu, and for gas and outer surface of cylinder is lz,
then heat transfer will be as

Transfer

Heat and Mass

T-T

'l

n-

Sol.

@
T,

415

'o

R,+Rr+R,

R,

R2
O=

F3

To

(r, -rn)

| ' 4nkrrr,
"-\ -' ho4nrj
h, 4nr,2
1

As heat transfer rate is constant for whole system then,

Fig.7

T1

1
R,=
'

R2

F3

R4

Tn

/l

ln the same way,

4,4i

h,2n4l
ln(', t
p, =hrz
' 2rK,l. ol.- - 2nKrl'r)

D-

4T.K

-7,
rdrz4)

4nK rr( r,

n_

tt"d

XTo

-7,

Insulation

_7.

Purpose of insulation is to vary the heat transfer rate.

Sometimes, it reduces the heat transfer rate but in some cases,

T,-7,

1 *t!(rz4)*t!(nJ2)*_l
2nKrl ZnKrl ho2nr2l

\2nry1

Applications of Insulation in Plane Walls

R=

as given in composite cylinder,

t
1
' hi4= 44n\',
- t2
R" = -2:-7- R, ' 4nKrrrr' ' 4nKrrr,
|
R-=
- hoAn= h,4nr!
'
T'-To
g=
;

13

& +Rz +R,

insulation increases the heat transfer rate.

For plane wall,

Heat Transfer through a

Composite Sphere
All the arrangement is same
onlYresistancewill"no"T

+R2 +R, +R,

5.

T,

Example

r2

rr-(12-t)

I rr

^o- hA"--

t_l
\n,+n

T2

Rl

'r

'r

n\/-(t

Convection -+ Conduction -+ Conduction -+ Convection

+Ro

In the given figure, calculate the temperature at

point P and Q. Heat transfer coefficient for gas and inner
surface is /2, and liquid and outer surface is lrr. Assume
spherical system.

t
KA

where, r is thickness of insulation layer. As / increases then, R

increases means Q decreases.
So, for a plane wall, insulation always reduces the heat transfer
rate. But this case is not for cylinders and spheres.

Applications of Ingulation on Cylinders

Consider heat flow fromtube ofoutside radius r,. This is
insulated by a layer of insulation so that outer radius of
insulation is rr.
Let the temperature of outside surface of tube be T'
conductivity of insulatiofi 6e ,< (W/m-K) and let thii
insulation be exposed to atmospheric air at temperature Q
with convective heat transfer coefficient as /z (Wm2 -K)
and length of tube is Z metre as shown in Fig. 8.

I
T^t

/Atmospheric
,Q

@fa
T1 8n,

T2

4on,

Fig. 8 Critical thickness

air

416 *

{;,4 i

T***m Mechanical Engineering

Important Aspects of Critical Radius of

Insulation

Now, heat transfer rate from this insulated steel tube

6 =---Jt!n/\

ml2l
(,r ,l

ZnKL

From this equation,

it

With th6 increase in thickness of insulation, conductive

resistance increases logarithmically and convective
resistance decreases linearly, hence total resistance first

h2n rrL

decreases and attains a minimum value (corresponding to

maximum Q) and then increases.
Critical radius is independent of pipe radius. It only
depends on thermal conductivity of insulation and h
between exposed surface ofinsulation and its surroundings

can be seen that on increase of

insulation, heat flow rate Qmay decrease or increase with

rnl2l
increase in insulation since conductive resistancr'

[n

2nK L

/\
I r l.decreases linearlY'
\n"

rrL

r<:

l{-=;1.
h)
\

increases logarithmically but conv,ective resistance

If the purpose of insulation is to reduce the heat transfer

rate then, outside radius of tube (r,) should be greater
than critical radius (r,). e.g., Steel tubes carrying steam

frorn boiler to turbine.

If the purpose of insulation is to increase the heat transfer
rate, thenouterradius oftube (r,) shouldbeless thancritical

radius (r,). e.g., Insulation over current carrying electric

conductors.

12+

Heat transfer

Fig. 9 Variation of heat transfer w.r.t. insulation radius

If we draw Q as a function of r, as shown in Fig. 9, we

see that Q first increases with increase in r, and then
decreases when passing through a maximum value.

To calculate the value of

r,

for which Q is maximum,

dQ

should be equatedto zero or denominator of equation

should be minimum, so differentiating denominator with

respect to rrand equating it to zero, we have

) ,
al[,,i,\q)*

anl ZnxL

I
l=n

h2nr,L

L]

l^(r) I
a l,t )*ll=n

I K
drzl

LJ
Llw-

hr,

will always reduce on application of

insulation on wall as conductive resistance will increase

with thickness of insulation while eonvective resistance
will remain unchanged. Hence, concept of critical radius
is not applicable in case of plane wall.

Critical Thickness of Insulation in

Case of Spheres
In Fig. 10, consider the hollow sphere at outer radius r, at
temperatue
4.rr-

r,),

which is covered with an insulation of thickness

so that its outer radius is rr.

It is

subjected tu convective heat transfer fo having fluid

ternperature Tr. Let Ko be the thermal conductivity of
insulation.
lnsulating
layer

(rz'\)

rnl

dr2lK K *-Ll=n
nrr)
II
-]==o
rz K h'i
11
K
ol'
t\=_=f^

Khrz'h

r" is called critical radius ofinsulation.

Fig. 10 Sphere with insulation

Heat transfer rate across the sphere
(Tt

o- (r2-4\-T r\

4"K"rrr,- 4n lh
where, conductive resistance due to insulation

t2-11

R,' 4fiKnrrr,

Heat and Mass

Convective resistance to atmosphere,

4nr2h
Maximum heat transfer rate

de
dr"

'

We get,

Example

=o

General heat conduction equation for non-homogeneous

material, self heat generating and unsteady three-dimensional

zKn

'h--

l^

heat flow

A current of 1000 A is flowing through a long

rod of 10 mm diameter having an electrical resistance

20x10-6 O/m. The rod is insulated to a radius of 10 mm

with cotton

(K'=

=20.61"C

One-dimensional Heat Conduction

l.

6.

417

This is maximum temperature in plastic layer because as we move

through plqptic layer, I starts to decrease.

Rz=

Transfer &

0.058 Wlm-'C) which is further cov-

ered by alayer of plastic (K = 0.42W lm'-C). Convective

heat transfer h betwedn plastic and surrounding is 20

9_(

r {).
dx )

* ?r'l.qrr. ?r)*, 'Dr

dy[--'ay] a;('-'dz ) 'r =6g7]

g_(

3x\'-*

Anisotropic and Isotropic Materials

Thermal conductivity also depends on grain structure of

materials. Some materials have different thermal

conductivities in X Y Z directions. Such materials are

- of plastic layer which gives minimum

(a) Thickness

called anisotropic materials.

The materials having same thermal conductivities in all
directions are called isotropic materials.
i.e., (Kr= Kr= Kr--O

m2-"C and temperature of surrounding is 17"C.

Calculate
temperature in cotton insulation.

(b) For this condition, maximum temperature in the

plastic layer.

Sol. (a) Minimum

temperature in cotton insulation will exist

when there will be minimum thermal resistance. It
occurs when heat transfer rate is maximum.
So, thickness ofplastic layer = r,- r,

Here,

0.42

+:q: n

:Zlmm

t =21 -lO = 11 mm
Heat generated in the copper rod due to flow of

current

= PR

= (1000)2 x 20x1F6
= ZAWlm
T

Thermal Diffusivitiy

(cr)

It is a property of materials. It is defined as the ratio of thermal

conductivity K of the material to heat capacity pC.
.'. Thermal diffusivity

tol=
'

WHeat capacity (p C)

where, p = density of material; C = specific heat of material

As higher is the value of K, higher is the rate of heat conduction
throught the material, where pC indicates the amount of heat
stored perm of rnaterial. Thus, the thermal diffusivitily of a
material indicates, how fast heat energy propagates through a
material.
If material is isotropic,

d'T a'T a'T \

^aT
Kl
dy' dz- .)
( dr'
-+.-*.-ltQs=Paar
/-c

_.1

-1

-.

vrr
Plastic

For steady state ,

| ar
i%K aat

dT

ldt =0

This heat will transfer through whole system

tt

-T
Rr+R2--,

r-15
|,r,)
Int -.l

\rr)

ni*
2O=

vzr +93-=o
K

nn4

(taking I = lm as Q is in Wm)
T -t5

( zt\
lnl-

\101
'+-

Ifone-dimensional heat conduction is in steady state, then

d2T

o;

Ifthere is no heat generation, er= 0

2xx0.42

20x2rcx21

*?=o

Then,

tI=o
ax

418 1

#,4{#""rsfqa{t Mechanical Engineering

Plane Wall with Uniform

Heat Generation
Consider a plane wall of thickness

of uniform thermal

conductivity K, in which heat sources are uniforrnly distributed,

as shown in Fig. 11. Let the wall surfaces are maintained at
temperatures t, and tr.

=_*!a*
ax
q.
d2r*3=0
.
dx' K

or

Now, integrating this equation, we get

dr -q"-s !f.
-1
dxK
--

Again integrating it,

,r*r=

t
'max

7t(x)

Case

K2|
?,.r

...

+c,x+C,

(i)

. (ii)

I Both the surfaces have the same

temperatures

At x=0,
At x: L-

t=tr=tn

t=tr=t*

where, /w = temperature of the wall surface

Using these boundary conditions in Eq. (ii), we get

- Qt L
'2K

Ct =1.., and C,

Substituting these values of C, and CrinBq. (ii), we have

L

q" . A/(x)-- -' x'+ 'u Lx+1.

2K2K4

-------+l

Fig. 11 Plane wall uniform heat generation. Both the sur{aces

maintained at a common temperature

Let us assume that heat flow is one-dimensional under steady

state conditions and there is a uniform volumetric heat
generation.
Consider an element at a distance x from the left hand face of
the wall.
Heat conducted in at distance,r
O.. =

-KAL
dx

O =Adxa

where, Q n = heatg"n".u,"Jfl., upit ,ofr*. per unit time in the

element)"
Heat condqcted out at distance (x + dx)

Qt,+a*t=Q***rQ,ro*
dx

Or 0s represents an energy increase in the volume element,

an energy balance on the element dx is given by

+O =0-tx

q.Adx
'6

x)x+tw

...(iii)

dr q"'' (L_2.r)=0
_=
dx 2K

Therefore,

q.
^o *0
2K

L*Zx=O or *=L

Thus, the distribution of te*p"itLe given Or?, (iii) is the

parabolic and symmetrical about the mid-plane. The maximum
temperature occurs at x =

r*u*

unAits value is

a-

-1

=l*''-*,*).=r*,*

+ dx)

= er **re-ro*
dx'
e,

161=

^3L-6
2K
To determine the location of the maximum temperature,
differentiating the Eq. (iii) w.r.t. x and equating the derivative
to zero, we have

But

Heat generated in the element

or

ft{e)a*

=!-(
dx( -*!l)nr
d*
)

L)tl
-i
)l)*',
Lr" It

t.o, = lq,(.

r-"* = !-t2 +r*

prr[-,o*f,5s uottittre

Heat transfer takes

each surface it is given as

...

(iv.)

surfaces and for

Heat and Mass

( at.i
Q=-KA t_t
ld* ),=o o, r=,
r-l
= -KA I lu,t-2xttl

l2K
L -"

Case

-lr=0^ or x=L

AL

= r'nr

III

Transfer E +lg

If both surfaces have different

temperatures
Atx= 0,i=t*.
Atx= L,t=trr'.
By these boundary conditions, we can evaluate the constants
C, and C, of Eq. (ii).

Ifboth the surfaces are considered,

Q=z**qo
2,8

= ALQs

Also, heat conducted to each wall surface is further dissipated

to the surrounding atmosphere at temperature /o.

Case

IV Current carrying electrical

conductor

I (L-x)x
2K
Q

+ t.. +93- L

2h

When electric current passes through a conductor, heat is

generated as

:0,

2R.

It is the source of internal heat generation.

R I'pL
Volume AxL AxLxA
Qr

II If one surface is insulated

In this case,
At x

L--------+ X=L

Fig.13

ct-

(iii),

t(xr =

Case

<-

o;'

tr'=to
Putting this value in Eq.

-t,)

=hA(t,

*ru

12

, -,2

L=o

,r=l+l
\ rI,/

(asQ=g;

dx

o=.r'o

Here, p is specific resistance and -I is current density.

Atx:L, t:t.

7. A2cmthickand l0cmwideplateisusedtoheat
fluid at 30"C. The heat generation rate inside the plate

Example
a

Sol.
Fig. 12

FromEq. (i),

dt

=-Qr
dxK

*+c,

+Crx+C,
weknow t(x) =-33-12
2K
t=t*
Atx=0,
t=t-..
x=L,

As

Ct=0
FromEq. (ii),

-st(L\=3t
2K

+C.

C, = t.., * 3s2K

t:

Hence, the equation for terrperature distribution when one face

is insulated,
v1v1=--!-s x2

+t.. +qs

2K*2K

is 7x 106 Wim3. Determine the heat transfer coefficient to

maintain the temperatureofthe platebelow 180'C. Given,
K (plate) =26W/m-"C. Neglect heat loss from edge.
Thickness of the plate b =2 cm = 0.02 m
Temperature of fluid to be heated to= 30"C
Heat generation rate Qr=7xl 06 Wm3
Maximum temperature of the plate /**= 180oC
Thermal conductivitypfplate material K = 26 Wm-oC

42O

{;eE"# {ss{#r: Mechanical Engineering

cl

1(x)- '8 ( L-x\x+t

"2Kw

As we know when r.wl= /.w)

. then.

,max occurs at x :

L/2

, -4r(r-L\L
,U [L -, )r*,,

r,n,* =

_er !*,
2K4

9. The temperatures on the two ,urfu"", of 25 mm

thick steel plate (K = 480 Wim-.C) having a uniform
volumetric generation of 30x106 Wm3 are 190"C and
130'C. Neglect end effects.

or

3o+7x

Y=W
,

ro6

Find-

(a) Temperature distribution across the plate.

(b) Value and position of maximum temperature.
Sol. (a) As we know,

t*u^ = to . , r(*8o =

J9L
a11yz
2x25

Example

,w2h
- !ur*,I

356a

= 360'C

*''z'' = hAtr^ -t's

Hence.

1-^- =0+ 1.*2K

-r!-e

Weset

*)
[o'oz *

to'ozl'z

\ 2h

8x26 )

190t

#=r.e5xro-5

0.02

2xl.95xl0-5
= 512.8Wm2-'C

Example 8. A plane wall is 1m thick and it has one surface

(x = 0 ) insulated while the other surface (x = I) is
maintained at a constant temperature of 350.C. The
thermal conductivityof wall is 25W/m-"C and

x=0
;r=0, ,-twt

At

heat generation per unit volume of 500 Wrn3 exists

--

uniform

^=L.

,=1r.,

, =l

where it occurs.

Heat transfer through insulated surface

*ill b" ,".o.

As we know,

Atx:L,

!L=0,
dx

t=t*,

(t"

r'' )1,

Substituting the values, we have

2K

x=0,

lurr-.r)

l2K

,r*r=-!**2 +C,x+C,
At

Now. by solving we get

throughout the wall. Determine the maximum

temperature in the wall and the location of the plane

Sol.

x=

or

[ -lo,

= I ---

+ I r''

(130- 190) I

rou

lr+tso
0.02s I

----(0.025-x)+
2x48

= [312500(0.025 - x) -2400] x +190

= U812.5 -312500x -24001x +190

/ = 190+5412.5x -3*2500 x2
(where, temperature / is in "C and the distance x is

in metre)

(b) In order to determine the position of maximum

temperature, differentiating the above expression and
equating it to zero, we obtain

dt
dx

x=

*,. * t
2K"2K
As we know, in this case /mu* occurs at r :0
Hence,

tg1= -!-E- *'

5412.5
541?

625000x = 0

--Z
= 0.00866m
62s000

o18.66 mm

The value of maximum temperature is

L'

/*u^ = 190 + 5412.5 x 0.00866

=213.44oC

2500 x (0.00866)2

Heat and Mass

Transfer

* lZt

Intro Exercise I
1. Heat transfer takes place according to

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(a) zero
(c) 80t

zeroth law of thermodynamics

first law of thermodynamics
second law of thermodynamics
third law of thermodynamics

6.

(d) Data insufficient

A flat plate has thickness 5 cm, thermal conductivity

1 W/m-K, convective heat transfer coefficients on its two
flat faces of 10 W/m2-K and 20 W/m2-K. The overall heat

2. Using thermal electrical analogy in heat transfer, match

List I (Electrical quantities) with List ll (Thermal quantities)
and select the correct answer using the codes given below

the

(b) 77"C

lists.

transfer coefficient for such a flat plate is

(b) 6.33 W lm2-K

(a) 5 W/rn2-K
(c) 20 W/m2-K

(d) 30 W/m2-K

7. A steady two-dimensional heat conduction takes place in

the

P. Voltage
Q. Current
R. Resistance
S. Capacitance
Codes

PQ
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 2
(d) 4

3
1

'1

2.
3.
4.

Thermal resistance
Thermal capacity
Heat flow
Temperature

body shown in the figure below. The normal

temperature gradients over surfaces P and Q can be
considered to be uniform. The temperature gradient

AI

at surface Q is equal to 10 l(m. Surfaces P and O are

maintained at constant temperatures as shown in the

filure, while the remaining part of the boundary

RS
14
32
34
12

is

insulated. The body has a constant thermal conductivity

of 0.1 W/m-K. The values ot

3. The equivalent

thermal conductivity of the wall as shown

in the figure below is

Srna S
Surface Q,

at surrace e are

0t

,;f
_t_

L,= l,
(a)

(c)

K.+K"
-'r*

(b\

K,K,
K1+

K,

Surface P

2K1 K2

K, + K,

@ ,[K

K2

4. Heat

flows through a composite slab, ds shown in the

figure given below. The depth of the slab is 1 m. The values
of K are in W/m-K. The overall thermal resistance in KAff
is

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

K = 0.04
0.25 m

!=rorv,.n,{=o
dx
dy
Dr

9I

dx= 0.'dy =,0 ^r,

I=,o,vr,{=1oK/m
dx
dy

{=0,
dx {=zowst*
dy

a steady one-dimensional heat conduction

through a slab. lt T1 = 70"C and Tz =30'C, then
temperature of point P is

8. There is

(a) 17.2
(c) 28.6

(b) 21.e
(d) 3e.2

T1

IGATE 20051
5.

ln the given figure, consider one-dimensional heat

conduction in Y- direction. Temperature of point P is 80C
and Q = 1 W/m2. lt K = 1 W/m-K, then at steady state, the
temperature of point Q is

T3
lf r.p

o
K

<-f Tn+
(a)
(c)

aot
45t

T2

K
2m----->
(b) 43.3rc
(d) 47"C

422 1 #eY#

Trs**r: Mechanical Engineering

(a) 0.4
(c) 2 ln 0.8

9. Upto the critical radius of insulation,

(a) convection heat loss will be less than conduction heat

loss

(b) heat flux will decrease

(c) added insulation will increase heat loss
(d) added insulation will decrease heat loss

14. ln giveru figure, there is a hollow cylinder which contains

a liquid at 25 "C and outer surface is exposed to gas
having temperature 225"C. lf thermal conductivity of
cylinder is 1W/m-K and h, = ho= 2Wlmz-K, r.,= 1srrr, 7r=
2 cm, then heat transfer rate (assume rad.ial heat transfer)

10. Water jacketed copper rod

of D m diameter is used to
carry the current. The water, which flows continuously
maintains the rod temperature at {"C during normal
operation at / A. The electrical resistance of the rod is
known to be B A/m. lf the coolant water ceased to be
available and the heat removal diminished greatly, the
rod would eventually melt. What is the time required for
melting if the melting point of the rod material is I,o? (Co
is specific heat, p is density of the rod material and L i6
the length of the rod.)

r,,

(b)

'[*)+W'

p(r."
(c) /, -

I)

\d)

(r,"

in W/m

oo o

(c)

-i- "c/w
24

(a)
(c)

11

(c)

-lt

qTc

(b) e.52

(d) 16.5e

the convective heat transfer coefficient with the ambient

atmosphere is 5 W/m2-K, the critical radius of insulation
is

(a) 2 cm
(c) 8 cm

(b) 4 cm
(d) 50 cm

16. Thermal conductivity of hollow cylinder varies as K = Kor,

where ris radial distance from centre. Thermal resistance
of cylinder (L= 1m) if 'll, > I, is

----->

'clw

(b)

(d)

::.c/w

,l

rz-

(d)

rz-

rt

(a) A"W,r,

\")

(b)

ln(rr l 4)

2rKo 4 r,
2nKo

(d)

2"K,

ln a compound hollow cylindd Ti=

al V

ln(rr l r,)

20'C, Io= 90t. There

distance from outer surface of cylinder,

is

m_--_______>

(b)

o
o

)O

.25

then Io

(a)

OO

13

is a point Q

17

%o

OO

15. A cylinder made of a metal of conductivity 40 W/m-K is to

be insulated with a material of conductivity 0.1 W/m-K. lf

17.

=1

OO

%d

12. ln compound cylinder, heat flows longitudinally, thermal

conductivities for inner cylinder and outer cylinder are
1 W/m-K and 4 W/m-K respectively. The net resistance
of given system (in K^/V) is

<_l

ool
ol
%
oO

T*

fO
oo
%o

%r

-I)
pR

tr

-a'c/w
32

jo

o(

co(T*o -Tt)

T-

(a)

oo Soqo o

ooj

%oo/

+l

is

p/rn

11. The net resistance of given system is (given, h, = 1 W/m2-t,

hz= 2w lm2-t,, K = 4vtt lm-T, A = 3 m2. i = m)

<-l------>

(b) 1.6
(d) 2.5

To

th.
2x
tn2

13. A composite hollow sphere with steady internal heating is

made of 2 layers of materials of equal thicknesses with
thermal conductivities in the ratio of 1:2 for inner to outer

layers. Ratio of inside to outside diameters is 0.8. What

is the ratio of temperature drop across the inner and outer
layers?

(a) eot
(c) 74.36t

(b) 82.9t
(d) 78.38rc

Heat and Mass

18.

A wire is kept in a hollow tube having radius 8 cm

and thermal conductivity 0.2 W/m-K. (t = 1m)

Transfer

(ll) lf tube length is 25 m, then heat

423

loss from tube is

(in kW)

(b) 17.1e
(d) 15.27

(a) 20

(c)

18

20. An electrical conductor of 10 mm diameter, insulated

Diameter of wire is 1 cm and electric current flows

through it /o = 0.5 A, V1 = 10 V, Vz= 4 V.
(l) Heat transfer across the cylinder (radial) is
(a) 10 W
(b) 4w

(c)3W
(ll) Temperature of wire, if
(a) 22.377
(c) 39.87"
19

(d) 6w
Io = 20"C, is
(b) 24.96rc
(d) 26.64t

by asbestos (K = 0.18 W/m-K), is installed in air at

30'C having convective heat transfer coefficient of
7.8 \Nlmz-K. lf the surface temp'erature of base
conductor is 85C, a 2 mm thick insulation is provided
and resistivity of conductor is 70 pQ-cm.
(l) Current flowing through the conductor is
(a) a0 A
(b) 45 A
(c) 43.8 A
(d) 50 A
(ll) Critical thickness of insulation is
(b) 5 mm
(a) 23 mm
(c) 18 mm
(d) 28 mm

(lll)

Maximum current which can flow through the wire, is

(a) 43.8 A
(c) 55 A

A copper tube with 8 cm outer diameter, 6 cm inner

diameter and K = 15 W/m-K is covered with an insulation
covering of thickness 2 cm and K = 0.2 W/m-K. A hot gas
at 300 qC with ho = 400 W/m2-K flows inside the tube. The

outer surface oI insulation is exposed to cool air at 30"C

with h, = 50 W/m2-K.

(l) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer

surface of insulation is
(a) 6.75 W/m2-K
(b) 10 W/m2-K
(c) 5.6 W/m2-K
(d) 7.25 W/m2-K

(b) s2.48 A
(d) 60.72 A

21. Cdnsider steady one-dimensional heat flow in a plate

of 20 mm thickness with a uniform heat generation

of 80 MW/m2.The left and right faces are kept at

constant temperatures of 1 60 "C and 'l 20'C
respectively. (Kprat" = 200 W/m-K)

(l) The location of maximum temperature within the

plate from its left face is
(a) 15 mm
(b) 10 mm
(d) zero
(c) 5 mm
(ll) The maximum temperature within the plate in rc, is
(a) 160
(b) 165
(c) 200
(d) 250 [GATE 2007]

fp5ryers with Solutions

1. (c)
2. (d)
J' (c) T.
3.

T2

(as 2 and 3 have same

end.temperature)

'[."'FTar"=''a-;-].'
r

T.

It is a series order.

I-1

LL2L
KrA KzA

t( x,+xr\
A[ K1K2 )-

t__

KA

Rz=

12
k
KzAz' ":-- - K.A.r

R'R'
Re=R.*
I Rz+&

'(as 2 and 3 have same end

temperature)

= 28.6IVW

ze
2K1K2

(c)

(R=R,+Rr)

2L

K= y3.4.

Rr: t<A'

5. (c)

As heat flow in I-direction and it is one-dimensional,

AT
_=o
dx

Tpq=T

=80oC

424
6.

&

Ge-{tr Ts*{{}yr Mechanical Engineering

(a)
hi

e"(xd')c,
12R

ho

11. (a) As both ends of rod are at same temperature,

It will be in parallel order.
I

R,=-=R^
,KAJ

llhoA

tlk A

UA=

-\)

l-

' 5cm'
llhiA

.(T^p

11

XR= 1+1+1
hi

-*

ho

---------..----I 1 5x10-'

R3

10241

Rz=

U_ 5 Wm2-K
AZ

7. (d)'dxAs . = l0

R+=

Wm at surface Q.

tl
-+AKA
tl
Rr'= R3*Ro=

.'. Heat transfer rate in X-direction

=KA
=0.

It is given that
temperatures.

.'. At

Rr' = R, -l Rr=

AT

a*

1x2xlx10=2W

surfaces

2A

P and Q are at constant

Req=

AT

p.'dx
-:- = 0

For surface P,
AT

x1.- dy

Putting,

llK = ll4

AT

oy

8.

=20Klm

(b) As heat transfer rate will be constant at any point in

the slab,

T,_Tz

70-30

10-TP

KA

2/ KA

3I

TP

9.

- 32" oc/!v

(c) Added insulation increases heat loss upto critical

radius and after that it decreases heat loss.

10. (a) When 1 current flows through a resistance R, then

heat produced = PRt

mC LT

[, *1) 1*r1*1)
\ 4)3 \2 4)
_111 +l+-+

513
=434

= 43'3"C

PRt =

A=3

-X-X-

210-3L
= 139

Due to this, heat change in internal energ]

R eq

and

4.F 4 2

_7,_7,

80 =

37"

KA

R''N,ni+ N,

!(,*L) 111.1)
A( K)Alz r)
/)
'[,*'.)oo[1*
A\
K) A[2 K)

AT

AtO' - =0
dy
2=0.1 x1

11
hAA
11
lhA 2A

mC ^LT

12. (b) As both ends of cylinder are at same temperature,

it will be in parallel order.
R,xR"
R= !=

& +Rz

ll
KAl
tt

KzL

KrAt Kz4

so

Heat and Mass

4I
-x_
n4nt

-+n4n

^sphere

t7

TE

1256

=-75.69

4nKrrr,

AT

O=E R'pt'.,"
=

CZS

-25)x2x3.14
= -Too--tnJ loo
2x2 -+I 2xl

fc-h

D_'

(225

R= 4 t 13. (d)

Transfer

15.(a)

16.59

Wm

,=L
'ho

r" does not depend upon radius of cylinder.

0.8

0.1

,r= -{

16.,tb.l

o-

m=2cm

-KA.dT
dr

Q=-Kor'2n '1'{ dr
t'2dr

lTz
Ol3=-Kr2nLl
dr
r\ f
Jli

l- tf'2
I = K(2nL(Tr-T,)
ol-:
"
=L ,),,

ri

-r
ro-

=
Bol
and

=0.8

ro- r, = 2t
0.8ro = 2t

t=0.1 r
r = ri+L

KjKr=
A4nr".

ro

ol; ) = 2nK&(rt-r2)

112

4no".

A4u,.,- &r,.,
(0.9r,-0.8ro\

r,=0.9

O.S ro+0.1

g= ,\-Tz
I rr-n

,5;

14. (d) Q will be same at all points.

+,
"o - -*--72rEKorrr,

17. (b) All cylinders are in series order, hence is same at

e
all points.

'We can use

T,-Ti

o= ryl

is the net resistance between T, and Tr.

To

-7,

I Inr" lr
h,A, 2xKL
I

ComparingwithQ=

K, 1
= K,"0* =2x1'25=2'5

Q=

lr"hr,k )

_4nro(0.9rn)K,

^*lrrr",r"")"-tr"

rR, _,

( t r)
Ol- r.i)=-2xKoLtr2-r)
( r.-^\

h,4

- I.

,lnrz/\,*

h,2nr,L- znxt

n,zrrqr

426 E #,eT# Ysataw: Mechanical

To-7,

Engineering

To-TQ

Q= R*, = 4n

r_@
90-Ta

90-20

h3'
m?
2r*r1n2.5r

2xx2KxL

= 43.8

VR

(II)

r,

(c)

K/h =23 mm

t=r--r=23-5=18mm

3r

2nx2KxL

(III)(b)

Znx2kxL

For

1.*,

Q should be maximu.m.

Te= 82'9"c

.LV
e=l:R=10-xrl0 =lo.LV
=0.5x(10-4)=3W
(ll) (b)

- -(T'-20)2xxo'2xl
= ,.7'-T-:
( tn r2t r,

lnSi

-,

I ,"KL -)
Ti
19.

= 24'9"C

O=
- max

AT

(I) (a)
U

oAo

= 24.56W

=R eq

@;

T-

I _ln(rrlrz)
I
= ho2nr.rL
2nKrL
U rA"

VR

= 52.48 A

_ln(rz/\) _

2xKrL

20.

. I
2nKL h.2nr,.L

Q= f *l =UoAo.LT=UAiLT

(ID

lnlr,/4)

hr ZnrrL

21.

(t) (c)

As

l(x)=

At

u, = 6'759 Wm2-K
Q = UoA,. A7= 17.19 kW

G)
(I) (c) If current

-?*'*C,x*C,
2K

x = 0, Z= 160'C
x = L,T=120"C

1 flows through a resistance R, then

rate of heat dissipated is 12rR.

x=0

x=

80x106
160=-_(0)+0+c2
2x200
Cz

Q=

,ro = *Y#x(0.02)2 +c,(0.02)+ 160

PR

\.-r*

lr.r.,

14

2nKL
=

= l60oC

Cz
1

h.2nrrL

17.12W

p=ptI=I

70x10*6 x10-2

lxQ.ot)z
= 0.00892 f)

xl

(rr) (b)

2ooo

dT

For

I.*. d* =0. Cr =

r=5mm

qs

(o.oo5)2
r*= -80x
z*zoo
I

06

+ 2000 x (0.005) + 160

165

oC

Transfer

Heat and Mass

427

Fins and Transient Heat Conduction

A fin is a surface that extends from an object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the environment

by increase convection. Adding a fin to an object, increases the surface area and can sometimes be an
economical solution to heat transfer problems.

The rate of heat transfer frorn a solid surface to atmosphere is

The heat is conducted fromthe base surface through the fin and

givenby Q=hALT
where, h and LT are not controllable. So, to increase the value
of Q surface area should be increased.

to atmospheric fluid from fin surface by convection

The extended surface which increases the rate of heat transfer

is known as fin.

Analysis of Fins of
Uniform

simultaneously.
Consider heat flow to an elemental section of thickness dx at a
distance r from the base temperature Zo.
Heat entering into section dx,

At

O-.=-K

"dx

Heat conducted out from element at (x + dx),

Cross-sectional Area
(Rectangular Plate Fin)
Consider a thin rectangular fin ofuniform cross-sectional area
as shown in Fig i. In each case, the fin is attached to the base
surface at temperature 70.

Q,*,t,=Q,+ltrQ,la*
dx -^
Heat convected out from surface of element of thickness

d-x

Q, = h' P 'dx (T '7")

where, 7 is the temperature at section x, (P.dx) is the area for
convection. Energy balance equation for element dxHeat conducted into element
= Heat conducted out + Heat convected out.

O =O . +O

Q* = Q* +

-*rO-'1dx
dx-

*g!)ax
-*(
dx\ dx
,2-

l,ength =

P=2(w+t) =2w

+ h. Pdx. (T

-To\

= hPdx(T - To)
=

hrdxrr - r,)

.)

KAo: =hp(T-To)
dx

Fig. 1 Thin rectangular plate fin

where, cross-sectional area , A,= wt
Perimeter

dxQr)dr

(if (r<<<w))

Some Assumptions are made in

Analysis of Fins
1. Heat conduction is along the X-axis under steady state.
2. Convective heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the
entire surface of fin.
3. There is no internal heat generation within the fin.
4. Material is isotropic i.e, K is constant.
5. Base temperature is maintained constant at ft.
Ir-t A, be cross-sectional area and P be the perimeter of the
frn, Tn be the atmospheric temperature and I as length of the
fin.

+:{<r
dx' KA'

L.et

-r)

..(i)

(T - T) +
(the excess temperature)
On differentiating above equation twice,

^hP)

ASSUme.

-KA

dr

de

dx

dx

m'

d2g
and dzT
= ----=
^
dx' dx'
(For convenience)

Using this value, the above Eq. (i) takes the fornq

tl2e

ctx

, -m2o=o

...(ii)

Eq. (ii) is the second order differential equation. It represents

the temperature distribution along the fin.
The general solution to the above second order differential
equation is
0 = Ct. e'nx +

Cr. e -w

428 | {:;,4T* {'r"t{*r:

Mechanical Engineering

In order to solve this equation, it is required to calculate the

constants C, and C, for which we need boundary condition.
Considering three cases

Case

1. A copper rod of 0.5 cm diameter and infinitely

long protrudes from a wall maintained at a temperature

Example

of 500'C. The surrounding temperature is 30.C.

Convective heat transfer coefficient is 40 Wm2-K and

thermal conductivity of material is 300 W/m-K.

Analysis of Infinitely
Long Fin

An infinitely logn fin is shown in Fig. 2. In such a case the

temperature at the end of pin approaches to surrouding fluid
temperature

as shown in Fig. 2.

{,

l-

SOI.

L=_

___+l

Determine
(a) Total heat transfer rate from rod. ,
(b) Temperature of the rod at 20 cm from wall.
Given, d=0.5 cm=0.005 m,L=-. Zo=500.C
7- = 30"C, h=40 Wm2-K, K= 300 Wm-K
.'. P=Ttxd=N x0.005 =15.7 x 10 3m

A=+ .(d12= I
44

ro

(a)

,.t

x10.005.12

=1.9634x l0-5m2

Total heat transfer frorn fin

Q= ,K.kt1.P (To-T*)

T,

(as

=
X=O

X=a=L

(b)

Fig. 2 lnfinitely long fin

Boundary Conditions

-r-

(r-30)

e=

%-q
0=0

1500-301

T-Tn

T_T

Tn

-7,,

-(

_^

(*=.EE=ro.32s'l

= (To-

-tnx

Case II Fin
To) e-no

!-"-rr-,

or

eo

\K/

--' -

lo.r2.5xo2

7= 89.5'C

0 = Cre,rr* +Cre-,,r,

By solving, we get

*;

(500-30)

(BC)

T=To i.e.,
T=To i.e.,

-+

= 28.585 W
Temperature of rod at x = 2O cm = 0.2 m from wall

ro\=c""

'.'0=T1. At x = 0,
2. At x=L-)*,

with Insulated End Tip

Practically, the heat loss fiom the long and thin fin tip is negligible,
thus the end ofthe tip can be considered as insulated as shown in

Fig.3.

Above equation represents the temperature distribution in an

infiniteiy long fin.

The heat flow through the

conduction from base.

fin can be calculated by heat

Heat transfer by conduction at base

n=-*(#),,,
'

KA

l- (To- T) nt ,,ul , =o

x=01+-f-ix=r
%

rt
Ta

+ kAm (:To-7.)

Fig. 3 Long fin with insulated end tip

= KAxffi(ro-r")
=

J x,+t

1ro

-r"y

Infinitely long hn does not mean that we cannot

measure the length of fin. In actual, when length of
fin is larger compare to its thickness. For example,
practically it is seen that if / = 8 cm and d = 0.5 mm
then, it is considered as infinitely long fin.

Boundary conditions
l. At x = 0, T:To

and

2. At x=1,,

i.e.,

Q=0

0=70*4=00
de
_-0
dx

e = Ct e'o'+ C^e-*x
By solving this equation, we get

^
0= 0n
'

coshm(

.. (i)

L- rl

cosh mL

Heat and Mass Transfer

Temperature at tip (x = L),

A=
"L
Heat conducted from fin

-T* _
To-TT

p
Q

e0

cosh mL

T-15

= -ro(#),=,

300-15

Example

exposed to surroundings at 15'C. Heat transfer coefficient

between rod surface and surrounding is 20 Wm2-K. The

thermal conductivity of the mateial is 200 Wm-K.

Case

cosh(4.472x0.1)

(asx=L)

Finite Length
1. At x=0,

T=To and

2'

Oconriuction

At

x = L'

15'C,

0=00

O.onu..rion

Tomo"L)1

ffi^

h=20Wlm2-K, K=200Wm-K
0o= %-T*=300-15=285oC
P = nd=nx0.O2 =0.06283 m
TE:
1l

A=id
=

ln=

=Z^(0.02)2

=
^l\1KA

(ae)

-K'A' lA

0.0003142 mz

Fa

Fig. 4 Heat transfer by convection at the tip

),=, =

lh.A.0l_,=r

... (i)

(where,0=T-T*)

20x0.06283

By solving these, we get

200x0.0003142

= 4.412
This problem is based on adequately long fin with
insulated end i.e., (case II).

(a)

coshmL

III Analysis of Fin Having

Calculate
(a) Total heat dissipated by rod
(b) Temperatue of rod at 4 cm from the wall
(c) Temperature at the end of rod
Assume that the rod end is insulated
Given, d=2cm=0.02m,L=10cm=0.1 m, 70=300oC

Z-=

coshm(L- x)

The boundary conditions

2.

A copper rod of 2.0 cm diameter and 10 cm long

protrudes from the wall maintained'at 300'C. The rod is

Sol.

429

T = 273.7"C

(JnPt<e)Qo tanh mL

For infinitely long fin, tanh mL= |

It is observed that as mL >_ 3 , tanh mL -+ I , so for this value of
mL frn is assumed infinitely long.

coshm(L-

0=00.
coshmL+

.sinhmL

mK

Total heat dissipated by rod,

1l

Heat flow from fin

Q= 'ILPKA.0o.tanhmL

Q= -KA

2ffix0.W3 142
x 285 x tanh (4.4'72 x 0.1)
33.6 W
(b) Temperature of rod at 4 cm from the wall i.e., T at
20 x 0.06283

x)+\sinhm(L-

(49)
\'d*

/*=n

h
t tanhmL+mK
dnrxerco
t+ h 'tanhmL
t mK

x=4cmor0.04m

_T*

To'T*
T -15
300

1s

-=T -15
285

coshm(L- x)
coshmL
coshl4.47 2 (0.

0.04)l

1.0362

L= l0 cm

3.

A rectangular fin has width of 5 cm and thickness

2.5 cm. The one end of fin is attached to a plane wall

maintained at 110"C and the other end is exposed to

cosh(4.412x0.1)

1.1017
T = 283.06'C
(c) Temperature at the end of rod 1.e., T at x=

or 0.1 m

Example

Sol.

ambient at 30oC. Calculate the heat lost by the fin per

metre length assuming fins with convection of the end
with K = 20 Wm-K and h = 41 W/mz-K.
As convection is taking place from cross-section of the
the end, it is a case of short fin.

430 I

'{

#.4

aa{t*m

Mechanical Engineering

il

%= 110"C

x=0

Perimeter P =2 (b + t)
Cross-sectional area

=2(2.5 + 5) = 15 cm =0.15

16.193

16.793x20

...

l+

Actual heat transfer from fin surface

Rate of heat transfer without fins

\mK )

E_

t*[ L)

tt
.14

= 33.586 W

lhA

Fr<
< l, then effectiveness E <
t/ *

l.It means there will be

'Insulating any surface does not mean that it will reduce

rate of heat transfer alwaryst In the same way providing
the fins does not mean that it will always increase rate of
heat transfer'.

rate to the maximum possible heat transfer rate from the same

fin.
Heat trans-fer rate Q from the fin will be maximum when the
fin material has very large thermal conductivity (K), so that
the temperature of fin for whole length can be assumed to be
same as that at the base of the fin.

Herc,

hAqo

tanhmL
---_

reduction in rate of heat transfer. It occurs whenhis very high

(it is experienced in boiting, condensation and high velocity

Fin efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer

{'[t',et<,ueo

PhKA.tanhmL

fluids).

Fin Efficiency (q)

i(PL+bt\%
PL>> bt as L -) *

enJ

t/pr

x 1+0.l4xtanh\16J93)

Actual heat transfer rate from fin

O
hAgo

x0.t5x2}x12.5xtOa x (110 _ 30)

tanh(16'.7 93) +

\=

(e)

Practically, the use of fins is justified only when effectiveness

of fin is greater than l.
In case of insulated tip,

\mK ) "unh(mr,l

If length of fin is infinite, then

h{PL + bt) .00

Effectiveness

n nt*Ll+( h )

n=

mK
.tanhmL

It is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer rate from fin

surface tOthe heat transfer rate without fin (i.e., as if there
was no fin on base surface).

Since, it is short fin.

47

t+ h

Fin Effectiveness

mK
mK -t
h"
1+ tanhmL l+-'
mK
mK

Q= Jnpt<,qeo-T*)

tanhmL+
mI{

q:

=0.14

As mL > 3, hence tanh mL=

tanhmL+

_t

eoJnrxel

x 1= 16.793

41

mK

hP

is finite, then

(12.5x10-4 )x 20

= 16.193

mL=

KA

hPL.eo

If length of fin

41x0.15

m= ^l\'l
K'A

If fin is with insutated tipo

oodnpx,D.tanhmL
-=-

A= bxt=2.5x5=12.5cm2=12.5 x lOam2

riP

tJirxes

,hPLL

ll =

Unsteady state (Transient)

Heat Conduction
If temperature of a body does not vary with time, it is said to
in steady state. But if there is an abrupt change in its
surface temperature, it attains an equilibrium temperature or
a steady state after some period. During this period, the
temperature varies with time and body is said to be in
unsteady or transient state. This phenomenon is known as
be

transient heat conduction.

Heat and Mass Transfer

System

with Negligible Internal

convective resistance

system boundary

"the
high when compared to internal resistance

(r
t,"

ln(T-

due to conduction

At/=0,

*,

It means that the solid body behaves

as

it has infinite thermal

conductivity so that there is no variation of temperature inside

the solid and the temperature is the function of time only.
Practically, no material has infinite thermal conductivity still
bodies with large surface aiea as compared to volume (e.g.,
thin wires and plates etc.) with high thermal conductivity can

-!'*',
PLV

.'. (i)

T=7,

ln{7,-L)=0+Cr
C, = ln (Ti-T*)

ln(7-7

)=

,+lntZ-Z-)
-'o
pcv

. q -r_)

,.,

llt

(7,

_T*)

T_T*

The process in which internal resistance is negligible compared

-

to its convective resistance is called Newtonian cooling or

Analysis of Quenching of Body by

Lumped Heat Capacity Method

r-1

On substituting the value of C, in Eq. (i),

be considered with negligible temperature gradient.

heating process.
This analysis is called lumped parameter analysis. Total heat
capacity is equal to one lump.

PCV

On integrating,

is very

*T*

hA
_ __dt

dT

Tiansient heat conduction problems are analysed when the

431

dT

e=h A(T_f)=_pCV

Resistance-Lumped Heat
Capacity Method

T,

-T*

hA
-

PCV
_ hAt

s QCV

... (ii)

Temperature of a body in unsteady state can be calculated

any time only when Biot number < 0.1.
Biot number

lnlernal conducrive resistance

Bi=
Surface or convective thermal

Consider a body at temperature 7 of volume V and surface

area A which is suddenly placed in new surroundings at
temperature 7_ as shown in Fig. 5.

(a)
\xe

= (t)

ra

at /

\K.A )

r"rtr"*" (#)

hL,

lnq )

where,

h=
L. =
K=

A surface area

Fig. 5 Quenching of body in a fluid

Assuming T > T*, billet will be cooled.

Let

V=
C=

=
K=
P

h=

4=
T* =

volume (in m3)

specific heat of body (in J / kg-K)
density (in kg/m3)
thermal conductivity of material (in Wm-K)
conyective heat transfer coeffcient (in Wm2-K)
initial temperature of body (in K or 'C)
temperature of surroundings (in K or 'C)

m = gVt

Lumpedheat capacity

characrerisric tenetrr

ry'
Lc

"

where, cr is thermal diffusivity.

cr,=
Again,

p{

m2ls

T-T*

H
T'-T* = "'
hA

W,

we can write

By energy balance at any instant of time /,

T _T*

Rate of convective heat transfer Q = Change in internal energy

Ti

of the body per unit time

IL.

v\

=7J

thermal conductivity of material

Fourier's number (Fo)

By arranging

g = pVc

ayetage convective heat transfer coefficient at

the surface

exp (-Bi
-'*T =

' Fo)

432 E

{;,&"{# f n{*py: Mechanical Engineering

ar\

<_

Instantaneous rate of cooling t_l

la, )
T _T*
_ e_&Alpcta t
T,-T*

Fig.7

Instantaneous rate of cooling can be obtained by differentiating

the above equation.

dr

ne
(ri-r*) I
L-

,*"

-r n,q

_--__-____>

rocv

rtl

Tf

L_ nRzL
2nRL

L>>R,

c:

...tiiir

R
2

3. Cube

Instantaneous rate of heat transfer Qfrom

solid

tL

6t-6

It can be calculated by using convective heat transfer from the

surface as

e=hA(T-T*)=-mc{
dt
On substituting the value of Q
Q=

h A lli - T*)
"-(hA/oc10t1

- f)

+L+

from Eq. (ii),

Fig.8

...(iv)

Total transfer of heat in time

Rectangular plate

4.

Lbt

The total amount of heat transferred in time r is equal .to the

change in internal energy ofthe body. It can be obtained by
integrating the Eq. (iv) as follow:

en",

= !'oe

Lr= (Lt+bt+bL)2

o,

['.ru{r, -7*1"-(hatocv)t 41

Fig.9
If r is very small and b is small in comparison of L.

Lb'

.-..i-_( \(_pcv)"[-J&l
=hA(r_r
hA)_

Then.

= pCV .tT,-T*\ ,( :i)

5. Hollow cylinder

L=
-e
2Lb=t2
n(4 *

Calculating the characteristic length of following:

1. Sphere

4t.r

2nR,,L+2rcR,L+Zr.rA;

L_
C

Ri

Volune
Suface area exposed to surrounding

4.
fiR'
-3l(
4TER2

L+
Fig.10

Example

4. A

sphere of mass 6 kg is being maintained at

temperature

'
Fig.6

Sol,

2. Solid cylinder
nRzL

L"= 2nR(L+
R')

o; 420'C in a furnace. Suddenly, it

is
immersed in a fluid at 60'C. Estimate the time required
to cool the sphere upto the temperature 180"C. Assume,
h = 60 Wm2-K, p = 3000 kg/m3, c = 600 J&g-K and
K =2OO Wim-K. Also, calculate the heat transfer during
this period.
Given, m= 6kg, Ti= 400"C, T*= 4O,C,I= 160.C
Volume of sphere

j-

=, -= Jslsf
Density (p) 3ooo = 2 x lo-3 m3

Heat and Mass Transfer

As

4,4

= )nR]
3"3

=2x

l0-r= ]xnxRj

The

oVC

quandty

,t known

t,n

R = 0.124m

! -,3
, V 1"" R
,'A4nR233

0.124

=0.0114

.'. Bi < 0.1, lumped heat capacity method is applicable

in this case.

( n, l)

-T*
Ti-T*
180-60
420-60

-t*PII --v-pc"L,)
-( 6tu r )
y= e\ol
' \ 3ooox6oo o.ot24 )
I

= exp(- 0.002688 0

0.002688 r

-1.09861

-0J02688

= 408'7

-;:,i,
e "-

r"a'1hea'{ffi""::_,.,

-7,, = "

\ (T - T) = (7,- To) e,t"

(T-7"):0.368 (Ti-7,,)

When r =

Theret-ore, time required by thermocouple to achieve 63.27c

(l - 0.368 = A.632) of initial temperarure difference is calied
time constant of thermocouple or sensitivity of thermocouple.

a As a consequence we can say lower the value of time

L'

c-onstant, better is the response of thermocouple.

1n (0.3333) =

time constant. It is indicated by

T_T
T,

hL 60x0.04133
- ---=
K
200

-7,:

T-r;

= 0.04133

433

t. lt has unit of time.

Characteristic length

Bi

as

l,

Example 6. A thermocouple measures the temperature of a

fluid having the property ofsphericaljunction as specific
heat = 400 J/kg-K, density = 7800 kg/m3 and rhermal
conductivity = 50 Wm-K, diameter ofjunctiou = 3 mm.
The heat transfer coefficient is 40 Wm?-K. The junctiorr
is initially kept at 30'C and it is immersed into the fluid

'
Sol.

temperature maintained at 360'C. Find

(a) The time constant of thermocouple. (b) Temperature of junction after 8 s.
Given, C = 400 J/kg-K,
P = 7800 kg/m3,

K = 50 Wm-K,
d=3 mm=2R
R : 1.5 x l0-3 m,
h= 40 Wm-K.
30'c,
7- = 360"C
(a) Time constant of thermocouple t, characteristic

i.e.,
Example 5. A plate of asbestos material having thickness
5 cm is maintained at 300"C. It is suddenly put in
surrounding at 30"C. Assume p = 2000 kg/m3,
c

100 J/kg-K, K

= 10Wim-K

and convection heat

transfer coefficient h = 90 Wm2-K. What

temperature of slab after 100 s.
(a) 140.20"C (b) 278.93'C
(c) 110.20'C (d) Data is insufficient

Sol.

(d)

As

4:

lensth
-

R
l.5xl0r
L,=Z (forsphere)=
,

=0.5x1fr3

[^,r =i)

will be the

/-\
/\\
oOxl 'Jxl0-2
h.L
B = --l- =
=o.ll-i
'K10

hL" 40xr0.5x10-rl
O'=
=0.-lxl0-'<0.
O =
50

Hence, lumped heat capacity analysis is applicable.

Time constan

pCV pC
*L,
"= rr| = h

Br > 0.1

Hence, we cannot apply lumped heat capacity analysis.

To solve such problem, 'Heisler chart' is required.

Time Constant and Response of

Thermocouple
The measurement of temperatures of fluid by therrnocouple is
based on lumped heat capacity analysis.
The response of thermocouple is defined as time required for
the thermocouple to attain the source temperature.

Temperature

after/=8s,

-T*
T, -T*
T

7800x400

4O
39.2

,.

I i=')

10. 5

x l0

3)

attained by thermocouple junction

(n r)

I
rlr
-.*pI l__\,_
pC L,)ot?.'

T -360
-8179.2
-e
30 - 360
T = 91.2"C

434 \

,"i;+"7'{; f"t"y{csr: Mechanical

Engineering

Intro Exercise 2
1.

Match List I (Parameter) with List ll (Definition) and select

the correct answer using the codes given below the lists.

.,.!i$i[

o Biot number for

sphere of radius

T,)

(d)

-Tr

lL

Tr tTo

KRu,o

ro

hro

Critical thickness of
insulation for a wire

of radius

(b)

hro

thermometer of
radius ro

(c) h (To-

Listill

Time constant of

P.

To

(a) Zero

Ksolid

ro

The value of m lor this pin fin is

S. Nusselt number for a

sphere of radius

^fn
\l

ro

(b) z.l-

rca

Codes

PQRS
(a) 4 3
(b) 1 2
(c) 2 3
(d) 4 1

(d)

2
3
4
2

Fxa

V/,

4
1

2. ln order to achieve maximum heat dissipation, the fin

should be designed in such a way that
(a) it should have maximum lateral sudace at the root
side of the fin
(b) it should have maximum lateral surface towards the
tip side of the fin
(c) it should have maximum lateral surface near the
centre of the fin

(d)

a= 5 mm and K= S4Wlm-"C, h = 90 W/m2-C,

(a) m=so
(b) m = a8.06
lf

it should have minimum lateral surface near the centre

@) m = qz.ot

of the fin

3.

Consider the following statements:

Assertion (A) Lumped capacity analysis of unsteady heat

conduction assumes a constant uniform temperature

througout a solid body.

Reason (R) The surface convection resistance is very

large compared with the Internal conduction resistance.
Of these statements
(a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation

7.

(d) m = 60.73

Select the condition at whlch heat transfer from insulated

tip can be considered the case of fin of infinite length.
(a) m = 0.75, 1= 3
(b) m=1,1=3
(c) m = 3, 1= 0.72
(d) m=2,1=1.2

8. Two identical long rods are attached to base of heat source

having (Io = 100rc). ff Kj =4S W/m-K, then Kr(in W/m-K)
IS

ofA

(b) both A and R are true but

ofA

R is not a correct explanation

(c) A is true but R is false

(d) A is false but R is true

4. A fin of length / protrudes from a surface held at

temperature f,; it being higher than the ambient

ro =

100t

(Heat source)

T*=25tr
Tz=75'c

Ir. The heat dissipation from the free end of

the fin is stated to be negligibly small. What is the
( ar\
temperature

; I

temperature gradient |
\ 0x )x_t at the tip of the fin?

then

(a) 400
(c) 339.56

(b) 376.43
(d) 471.26

Heat and Mass

9.

ln the given long fin,

cm

I,

= 120'C, Iz = 90t and

do

Transfer ui 435

1.5

and surrounding temperature L = 30rc then, K

(in W/m-K) is (approximate) (h = 15 W/m2-K)

'r4- ,:---;1)1,,

,,I,,

T(a) 300
(c) 350

'r

12cm

(b) 400
(d) 275

(l)

10. A fin has 5 mm diameter and 100 mm length. The

thermal conductivity of fin material is 400 W/m-K. One
end of the fin is maintained at 130"C and its remaining
surface is exposed to ambient air at 30"C. lf the
(b) 5.0
(d) 7.8

(c) 7.0
11.

The cylindrical rod-is being used as a fin. Given,

Io = 5OO'C, L = 30"C, h = 40\Nlmz-K, K= 300 W/m-K
and do = 0.5 cm.

eP

T-

^DIn

is 20 cm,

wall

then, percentage change in temperature is

(b) 3.2%
(c) 2.8%
(d) 3%

(b) 91 .2' C
(d) 99.3'C

12. The temperature distribution in a fin along its length

is as 0 = 0o (ae-'- bx2).Here, 0 = T - 7". lf thermal
conductivity of fin is K and length is L, then total heat
transfer from fin (in W/m2) is
(a) Ka0o
(b) K (aeh- zbL) oo
(c) 2b0oK
(d) None of these

13. One end of a rectangularfin (L = 20 cm) is at constant

base temperature of fo = 127 "C, it is kept in
surrounding having temperautre f_ = 25"C.
ll K,,n = 200 W/m-K and h = 80 W/m2-K and temperature
at any point of fin varies as f = To @ - bxz).
(l) The temperature of end point I. is (if b = 0.75)
(a) 25"C
(b) 52"C

(c) 49.02'C
(d) 0'c
(ll) Heat transfer Q.from cross-sectional area is
(b) 2.16 W/m2
@) 2a kW/m2
(c) 20 kW/m2
(d) 2.00 W/m2
(lll) If cross-sectlon is perfectly insulated, then heat
transfer rate from this is
(a) 2.16 kW/m2
(b) zero
(c) 2.16 W/m2
(d) None of these
14. There is shown an internal fin (a pocket is created
radially into the pipe) as shown in figure. An air is
flowing inside the pipe (I, = 200'C). Length of pocket
is L = 5 cm and wall temperature is I0 = 140"C,6 =
1 mm and Kr,n = 112 W lm-K. Heat transfer coefficient
for air and fin material is 400 Wim2-K. (Assume
insulated end)

15. A longitudinal copper fin (K = 380 W/m-.C) 600 mm long

and 5 mm diameter is exposed to air stream at 20.C. lf
, h = 20 W/m2-t, then efficiency of fin at insulated tip is
(al 22%
(b) 43%
(c) 25.66%
(d) 41.26%
A solid copper ball of mass 500 g, when quenched in a
water bath at 30t, cools from 530'C to 430. in 10 s. What
will be the temperature of the ball after the next 10 s?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

300'C

320.c
350"C
Not determinable for want of sufficient data

17. A finned surface consists

is

(a) 89.6 "C

(c) 86.43'C

(b) 194rc
(d) 189 qC

(a) 2.5%

16.

(l) lf lo = 50 cm, then heat transfer lrom fin is

(a) 28.58 W
(b) 30.e2 w
(c) 27.02 W
(d\ 26.72 W
(ll) Temperature of rod at point P, if distance from

(a) 199"rC
(c) 201 'C

(ii) lf temperature of point P is not equal to air temperature

convective heat transfer coeff icient is 40 W/m2 -K, the

heat loss (in watt) from the fin is -

(a) 0.08

Temperature of point P is

of root or base area of 1 m2

and fin surface area of 2 m2. The average heat transfer
coefficient for finned surface is 20 W/m2-K, effectiveness
of fins provided is 0.75. lf finned surface with root or base
temperature of 50C is transferring heat to a fluid at 30C,
then rate of heat transfer is
(a) a00 W
(b) 8oo w
(c) 1000 W

(d) 1200 w

18. A solid sphere of 1 cm radius made up of copper is initially

at 300"C temperature. For Cu, K = 60 W/m-K,
p = 7800 kg/m3, C = 434 Jlkg-K. The time required for
cooling it upto 50t when it is kept in air at 25"C with
h = 20 W/m2-K, is

(a) 1296 s
(c) 2016 s

(b) 1353
(d) 1491

s
s

19. A body is exposed to cooling airflow at 20.C. lf

Bi= 0.007143 and Fo =7200 t. Here, t istime (in hour)
required to cool the body from 550 t to 90 C. The value of
rts
(a) 171 s
(b) 1a1.7 s
(c) 161 .7 s
(d) 181 s

20. A spherical thermocouple junction of diameter 0.706

mm
is to be used for the measurement of temperature of a gas

stream. The convective heat transfer coefficient on bend

surface is 400 W/m2-K. Thermophysical properties of
thermocouple material are K = 20 W lmz-K, C = 4OO J/kg-K
and p = 8500 kg/m3. lf the thermocouple initially at 30t is
placed in a hot stream of 300.C, the time taken by the
bead to reach 298C, is

(a) 2.35

(c) 14.7

s
s

(b) 4.9 s
(d) 29.a s

436 i {;J

Mechanical Engineering

)'i'il: t'u{q.rr,;

fusyers with Solutions

l. (a) Biot number =

hL, _

hro

KK

m1

h r,,

rTtt
' I hp

= A- llurd

Nusselt number

Critical thickness of insulation of

Time constant =

2.

(a')

Kz=339.56 Wm-K

9.

(c) Temperature at any point x distance from base, is

- T* = (.To - T*) e-'"'

T, - T* : (To- T*) e mx
... (i)
+
o.tz)
Tr- T_ = (To - T*) e-m(!
. (ii)
T

hxrnl

--=

PL'V

Fin should be designed, so that base surface is

Dividing Eq. (i) and (ii), we

maximum: the more the heat transfer flows through

the base area, higher will be heat dissipation.

3.

(a) In lumped heat capacity,

4.

(a) Heat dissipation from insulated tip is zero.

''t .

it is assumed that thermal

conductivity of solid is very large.

c-0.12

+0.12m)

nr

m = 3.37

t;
Kxtr' o2

= 48.06

10. tb)

7. (b) Q= nliPKAo,,,,when L-+*

t[npxl,,

(tanhmL)

tanh mL
(insulated tip)

- :

'l-'

T-T*

0 : (,liPKA)(ru -r

To-T* - (^tnx

e-*r'rrz
T*) e m2'L/2
T*)

... (i)
... (ii)

By solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

- 0.32 and e-*zu2 = 0.6J

m,
'-: 2.2789

e m'LlZ

m2

0.8 109

'

ml.+_h

l;A;tl
L

1
I

mKl

Then, first calculate the value of tanh mL

ftt

fiP

= ^l_::.
\KA

mL = 5.163
Ar.

tanh

applied.

=2.81O2

P2, hr= hz, At=

= 5.04W = 5.0W
11. Fir st of all, we have to decide which case shou td

As rods are identical,

P1=

0.011

As it is the case of finitelength, hence

As we klow for long fin, temperature distribution is

Tt = T* + (%
Tz : T* + (70

= 0.113

MK

WhenmL > 3, tanh mL= |

or

-o( m.r+ nt

qo

Q=

ger

-0.12m-i-1 --t<
60 '''
0.12 m = 0.405

fiP
*:lKA=

6. tb) rn =

8. (c)

-T-

Tt-T* --

g0-30 --

O=-KA,l
ax lx=L -0
(b)

T1

:-

120-30

drl

s.

lx,
tiI r,.
t-r

l-r^

a wire

f='{)

U'
ir,a

As mL> 3,
tanh mL

=1

= 10.325. L=0.5

Transfer i

Heat and Mass

14. (r)

In this condition always apply

437

P:n(da)$)+nd
: xd.6

(b)

g = 1'[ltrx,+l'0,
Because all other cases would convert into this formula.

Let us see

Q:

:
(I)

(a)

(II)

(a)

L*n**L1

rJiprc,q,rrl;r#l
lmK,l
' "' ""'
o"J "-tt+htmKl
" hpxt |Lt+hlmK)

If surface of inside diameter

P = rE(d+26)

en"lhpKA-

\ent^

I = 89.6'C
12. (a) Total

As we know temperature distribution for fin with

heat transfer from fin

insulated tip is

= Heat transfer from the base of

fin

= _KA a*1,=,

9
A

(l) (b)

cosh

coshmL

l4O-200

491

-KA dxl*=o

(II)

(d)

- zbxtl
= -o'len.(r"-'
L"
-lx=0

Tr = l94oc
Initial temperature = 200'C
Measured temperature = 194"C
.'. Percentage error
Initial temperature

- Measured temperature xl(I)

Initial temperature

Heat transfer from cross-section

200-t94

2O0

= Convection heat transfer

TL

15. (c) Ifi, =

-x.firoto-bx2 | - h 0L- T-\

16. (c)

-KTo . [-Zbx], -, = h (T t- T*)

20Ox(.121 +273')x2bL= 80x (TL-25)

Tt=
l*_t

-*

Maximum heat transfer from fin

tanhmL
=25.667o
ml,

Firstcase,
7o=530iC
Second

r=r0s

hAt

To-7,,

epcv

430_30=(530 _30)s

2bKLTO

20
100

x 400

When cross-section is insulated, then Q =

, T=430"C

case, T=4306C r-los , T=?

T_T
Forfirstcase. r

t% (0 - Zbx))*=,

= 24kWlm2

(III)(b)

Actual heat transfer from fin

To=3ooc

52"C

=2x0.15x200x

x 100=37o

(JnPxe) (ro-r)tunn*r
h P L(To -7")

-KA 4!l
-'-'
drlr=' = hA(Tt-T*\

(II) (a) Qr=-ru{l

_
dx

(x=L)

cosh 2.98

] =0n.Ka
At end poinr

re(t - r)

TL-200 _

13.

-T*

Tn-T* -

drl

=nd (asd>>6)

This will occur in the figure given in question.

Hence, m for this internal fin is given by

O = 28.585 W

T-T *1, =(T^-T

does not come into

contact of surrounding air then,

For second case,7- 39 = (430

Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii),

400
7-30 -

I=

500

400

350'C

tor,

30) s-tor"

... (i)
.. (ii)

438

{;A"#i { w**r.t Mechanicat Engineering

17. (a) We know,

Effectiveness

Qr,n

(e) =

Owithout fin

Jipr<t,.eo
h4oo

Jxp

U.

Of-=P

.,Eox1 . J2oxlxo.l 5x2o

We

= 0J5 =400W

1353s

get,

r,)

r = 141.J s
Rl3

= l.16 x

10-a m

hL..

Bt=?=o'0023<0.1
Hence, lumped heat capacity analysis is applicable.

4 = 30'C

=nrz

t=?

T=298"C

7- = 300'C

r -r*

hL^

= f<

PCL,

To-T* = exp (-Bi. Fo)

90-20
= exp (- 0.001143 x7200
550 - 20

'

.' = Surtace
^*E area={4
4nR.
Bi

-ht

L, =

300

(b)

T_T*
To -T*

pcv

20. (b) For sphere,

Qtin

t =
2withourfin
_

18.

_h.At

19. (b) As we know,

T _T*

/5 x r/20x1

=20x0.75x20=300W

Owithoutfin

-T*
To -T*

/=

l^,

Qr,n= G/iFE4\eo

=0.0011

_=P'

T,

As Bi < 0. 1, we can use lumped heat capacity analysis.

-T*

ii

t=4.9s

Convection
Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as air or water when the heated fl,d i.
move away from the source of heat, carrying energy with it. Convection can be qualified in
terms"ru."d;
of being
natural, forced, gravitational, granular or thermomagnetic. Generally, it occurs between
a solid surface and
fluid in motion.

Types of Convection
Convection can be categorised in two

parts-

L Forced Convection
If fluid motion is imparted by external

means like pump, fan,

compressor etc., the convection is called forced convection.

2. Natural or Free convection

When the fluid moves due to density difference caused by the
heat transfer between solid surface and fluid. it is said to be
natural or free convection.
In both types of convection (forced and free) flow can be of
two types
laminar and turbulent flow

(a) Laminar flow

It is defined as the type of flow.in which the fluid

particles

move along a well defined path or streamline. In laminar flow,

fluid layers slide smoothly one over the,another adjacent layer,
as shown in figure.
Fluid
particles

\*++++
\+++++
-> ---> ---> ->

Fig. 1 (a)
Fluid particles

Fig. 1 (b)