Analog communication

Suppression of Carrier

Balanced Ring Modulator

FET Balanced Modulator
Balanced Bridge Modulator
LIC Bridge Modulator

Balanced Ring Modulator

The working operation explained in 2 modes

Mode 1: Carrier suppression in the absence of modulating
signal
Mode 2: Operation in the presence of modulating signal

 Mode 1: a) Operation in the positive half cycle of the

carrier

D1 and D2 are FB, D3 and D4 are RB

Currents flowing through the primary of T2 are equal and opposite
Therefore the magnetic fields produced by these currents are equal and opposite and cancel
each other
Hence the carrier is suppressed

 Mode 1: b) Operation in the negative half cycle of the

carrier

D3 and D4 are FB, D1 and D2 are RB

Currents flowing through the primary of T2 are again equal and opposite
Therefore the magnetic fields produced by these currents are equal and opposite and cancel
each other
Hence the carrier is suppressed

 Mode 2: a) Operation in the positive half cycle of

modulating signal

In the positive half cycle of modulating signal there are many cycles of the carrier signal
In the positive half cycle of carrier D1 and D2 are ON, secondary of T1 is applied as it is
across the primary of T2. Hence the output is positive
In the negative half cycle of carrier D3 and D4 are ON, secondary of T1 is applied in reverse
manner across the primary of T2. Hence the output is negative

 Mode 2: a) Operation in the negative half cycle of

modulating signal
When modulating signal reverses the polarities, the operation of the
circuit is same as that in the positive half cycle
Only difference is that the diode pair D3 D4 will produce a
positive output voltage whereas D1 D2 will produce a negative
output voltage as shown in the waveform.

Balanced modulator waveforms

(a) Modulating signal

(b) Carrier signal

(c) DSB signal at primary of T2

(d) DSB-SC output (output of transformer T2)

FET Balanced Modulator

(1) Mode 1: operation in the absence of modulating signal

Both FETs conduct simultaneously due to the in phase carrier voltage
supplied to their gates
Their drain currents are equal in magnitudes but opposite in direction,
hence their fields cancel each other inducing a zero secondary voltage
Thus the carrier is suppressed.

FET Balanced Modulator

(2) Mode 2: carrier and modulating signal both present

The modulating signal appears 180 out of phase at the gates.
The drain currents of the two FETs flow due to the combined effect of both
signals.
Thus the carrier is suppressed, we get a DSB SC signal.

Balanced Bridge Modulator

 During the positive cycle of carrier,

all four diodes are reverse biased
and off.
Consequently, the modulating signal
is transferred directly to the load
resistor
During the negative cycle of carrier,
all four diodes are forward biased
and on.
The load resistor is by-passed and
shorted out.

LIC Bridge Modulator

If the same carrier is fed
simultaneously to the bases of Q1
and Q2, and a constant current
source is applied to the emitters,
the collector currents will be same
and output will be zero.
If a modulating signal is applied to
the base of Q3 and fed to the
emitters, it produces a voltage
proportional to the modulating
signal.

SSB Transmitters(Suppression of
unwanted sideband)
Filter method
Phase shift method
Third method

Filter Method

Balanced modulator is used to suppress the carrier and filter is used to suppress
unwanted sideband
The modulating signal mixes with the carrier in balanced modulator to produce a DSB
frequency spectrum.
Filter is tuned to a band width centered around a frequency of the upper side band
frequency spectrum.
The pilot or reduced amplitude carrier is added in the carrier reinsertion stage.

Phase Shift Method

 There are two separate DSB modulators(Balanced modulators

1 and 2)
The modulating signal and carrier are applied directly to one
of the modulators and then both are shifted 90 and applied to
the second modulator.
The outputs from the two balanced modulators are DSB-SC
signals with proper phase such that when they are combined in
a linear summer, the upper side band is cancelled.

Mathematical Analysis
Output from balanced modulator 1
=(sin m t)(sin c t)
=1/2 [cos (wc - wm)t]- 1/2[cos (wc + wm)t]

Output from balanced modulator 2

=(cos m t)(cos c t)
=1/2 [cos (wc - wm)t]+ 1/2[cos (wc + wm)t]
Output from linear summer
=1/2 [cos (wc - wm)t]- 1/2[cos (wc + wm)t] +1/2
[cos (wc - wm)t]+ 1/2[cos (wc + wm)t]
=cos (wc - wm)t lower side band

Third Method

 Input audio signals mix with the audio subcarrier in balanced modulators 1
and 2, which are supplied with quadrature subcarrier signals (f0 and
f0+90)
Input to balanced modulator 1 consists of fm and f0+90
Hence, the output from balanced modulator 1 contains the upper and lower
sidebands each shifted in phase(f0 fm+90)
Input to balanced modulator 2 consists of fm and f0
Hence the output from balanced modulator 2 contains the upper and lower
sidebands(f0 fm)
Upper sidebands are removed by their respective low-pass filters
Output from balanced modulator 3 is fc (f0+90-fm)
Output from balanced modulator 4 is (fc+90) (f0-fm)
Finally the linear summer combines the output from balanced modulators 3
and 4 to generate the lower side band component:
(fc+ f0-fm+90)+(fc-f0+fm-90)
+(fc+ f0-fm+90)+(fc-f0+fm+90)
--------------------------------------------(fc+ f0-fm+90)
cancelled

GENERATION OF FM
FM Modulators are of two types:
Direct FM Modulators: The frequency of the
carrier is varied directly by the modulating signal,
ie. Frequency deviation is directly proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal
Indirect FM Modulators: The frequency of the
carrier is varied indirectly by the modulating
signal, ie. Frequency deviation is accomplished by
changing the phase of the carrier.

Direct FM Modulators

The tank circuit (L and Cm) determine the frequency determining section
The capacitive microphone acts as a transducer that converts acoustical energy to
mechanical energy which is used to vary the distance between the plates of Cm and
hence its capacitance
The resonant frequency = 1/2 varies when Cm varies
Thus the oscillator output frequency varies directly with the external sound source

Varactor diode modulator

R1 and R2 develop a dc voltage proportional to the modulating signal that

reverse biases varactor diode VD1
Positive alternations of the modulating signal increases the reverse bias on
VD1, which decreases its capacitance and hence increases the frequency of
oscillation
Conversely, negative alternations of the modulating signal decreases the
frequency of oscillation

VCO FM Modulator

Voltage controlled oscillator FM generator also uses a varactor diode to transform

the changes in the modulating signal amplitude to changes in the frequency
1
The center frequency for the oscillator is determined by = 2 where

fc= carrier rest frequency(Hertz)

L=Inductance of the primary winding of T1(Henries)
C=varactor diode capacitance(Farads)
With the modulating signal applied, the frequency is =

2 (+)

where

f= new frequency of oscillation

C=change in varactor diode capacitance due to modulating signal

FM Reactance Modulator

JFET is used as variable reactance load to the LC tank circuit

The modulating signal varies the gate signal applied to the JFET and hence
changes the reactance of Q1, which causes a corresponding change in the
resonant frequency of the oscillator tank circuit

 Ac equivalent circuit of the modulator circuit is shown

From the eqt circuit:

= where =
Therefore =

JFET drain current = =

where gm is the transconductance

of the JFET

Impedance between drain and ground is = = = 1

If R<<<Xc,

 When modulating signal is applied to JFET, gate to source

voltage is changed accordingly, causing a proportional change
in gm
As a result, the equivalent circuit impedance and hence the
resonant frequency of the oscillator tank circuit is a function of
the modulating signal.

Indirect FM Modulator

Indirect FM is accomplished by directly changing the phase of the carrier and

hence frequency is varied.
The modulator comprises a varactor diode VD1in series with and inductive
network that acts as resonant circuit to output frequency from the crystal
oscillator
Varactor diode produces a change in capacitance according to the modulating
signal.
Hence the phase angle of impedance seen by the carrier varies, which results
in the corresponding phase shift in the carrier.
The phase shift is directly proportional to the modulating signal.

FM DEMODULATORS
Frequency dependent circuits that produces an output
voltage that is directly proportional to the
instantaneous frequency at its input
Vout=Kf where f is the difference between the
input frequency and the center frequency and K is the
transfer function of the demodulator in volts per hertz
Tuned circuit frequency discriminators convert FM to
AM and then demodulate AM envelope with
conventional peak detectors

Slope detector

Simplest form of tuned circuit frequency discriminator

Tuned circuit(L and C) produces an output voltage proportional to the input
frequency
The maximum voltage occurs at the resonant frequency of the tank circuit(f0)
The output voltage decreases as the input deviates below or above f0
The circuit is designed so that the IF center frequency (fc) falls in the center of the
most linear portion of the voltage-versus-frequency curve(transfer curve)

Transfer Characteristic of Output voltage

Balanced Slope Detector

Combination of two single ended slope detectors connected in parallel and

fed 180 out of phase using a center tapped transformer
There are three tuned circuits:
(i)Primary is tuned to fc
(ii)Upper tuned circuit of the secondary is tuned to fc+f
(iii)Lower tuned circuit of the secondary is tuned to fc-f

 V01 and V02 are the output voltages of the two slope
detectors
The final output voltage V0 is obtained by taking the
subtraction of the V01 and V02 ie,
V0= V01- V02

Working operation of the circuit

Input frequency consists of three ranges
fin=fc: Induced voltage in the T1 winding of the secondary is
equal to that in the T2. Thus input voltages to the two diodes
are same. Hence, V01 and V02 are equal and opposite causing
net output voltage V0=0
fc<fin<(fc+f): Induced voltage in the T1 winding of the
secondary is higher than that in the T2. Therefore input to D1
is higher than D2. Hence V01 >V02 and hence V0 is positive
(fc-f)<fin<fc: Induced voltage in the T1 winding of the
secondary is less than that in the T2. Therefore input to D1 is
less than D2. Hence V01 <V02 and hence V0 is negative

FOSTER SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR

The capacitance value for Cc, C1 and C2 are chosen such that they are short circuits for
the center frequency. Therefore, the right side of L3 is at ground and Vin is fed directly
across L3(VL3)
The incoming signal is inverted 180 by transformer T1 and divided equally between La
and Lb
The primary of transformer acts as an inductor and hence its current lags voltage by 90 .
The magnetic induction depends on primary current, hence voltage induced in secondary
is 90 out of phase with Vin(VL3)
VLa and VLb are 180 out of phase with each other and in quadrature, or 90 out of
phase with VL3

Principle of operation

At fin=fc, the output voltages of the two diodes will be equal and opposite, V0=0
For fin>fc, the phase shift between primary and secondary windings is such that the

output of D1 is higher than D2. Hence the output is positive.

For fin<fc, the phase shift between primary and secondary windings is such that the
output of D2 is higher than D1. Hence the output is negative.

 The voltage across the top diode VD1 is the vector sum of Vin and VLa and
the voltage across the bottom diode VD2 is the vector sum of Vin and VLb
Figure b shows the vector diagram when fin=f0
Figure c shows the vector diagram when fin>f0, XL>XC
Figure d shows the vector diagram when fin<f0, XL>XC

RATIO DETECTOR

Ratio detector is similar to Foster Seeley discriminator except that the

diode D2 is reversed and the output is taken between C1 and C2
Therefore, ratio detector output voltage is equal to half of the difference
between voltages from two diodes
S-curve of foster seeley also applies to ratio detector