Machining Processes

CHAPTER 23
Machining Processes Used to Produce

Various Shapes
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology © 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 23-1
Examples of Parts Produced Using the
Machining Processes in the Chapter
Figure 23.1 Typical parts and shapes produced with the machining processes described in this
chapter.
Examples of Milling Cutters and Operations
Figure 23.2 Some of the basic types of milling cutters and milling operations.
Example of Part Produced on a CNC Milling
Machine
Figure 23.3 A typical part that can be
produced on a milling machine equipped
with computer controls. Such parts can
be made efficiently and repetitively on
computer numerical control (CNC)
machines, without the need for
refixturing or reclamping the part.
Conventional and Climb Milling
Figure 23.4 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab milling operation,
showing depth of cut, d, feed per tooth, f, chip depth of cut, tc, and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic
illustration of cutter travel distance lc to reach full depth of cut.
Summary of Milling Parameters and Formulas
TABLE 23.1
N = Rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpm
f = Feed, mm/tooth or in./tooth
D = Cutter diameter, mm or in.
n = Number of teeth on cutter
v = Linear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mm/min or in./min
V = Surface speed of cutter, m/min or ft/min
=D N
f = Feed per tooth, mm/tooth or in/tooth
=v /N n
l = Length of cut, mm or in.
t = Cutting time, s or min
=( l+lc ) v , where lc =extent of the cutter’s first contact with workpiece
MRR = mm3/min or in.3/min
=w d v , where w is the width of cut
Torque = N-m or lb-ft
( Fc ) (D/2)
Power = kW or hp
= (Torque) (ω ), where ω = 2π N radians/min
Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must
be used in the formulas.
Face Milling
Figure 23.5 Face-milling operation showing (a)
action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb
milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in
face milling. The width of cut, w, is not necessarily
the same as the cutter radius. Source: Ingersoll
Cutting Tool Company.
Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutter

with indexable inserts. Source:
Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting
Tool Company.
Effects of Insert Shapes
Figure 23.7 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface:
(a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of a small radius followed by a
large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. Source: Kennametal Inc. (d) Feed marks due to various
insert shapes.
Face-Milling Cutter
Figure 23.8 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.
Effect of Lead Angle
Figure 23.9 The effect of lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face
milling. Note that as the lead angle increase, the chip thickness decreases, but the
length of contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The insert in (a) must be sufficiently
large to accommodate the contact length increase.
Cutter and Insert Position in Face Milling
Figure 23.10 (a) Relative position
of the cutter and insert as it first
engages the workpiece in face
milling, (b) insert positions
towards the end of the cut, and (c)
examples of exit angles of insert,
showing desirable (positive or
negative angle) and undesirable
(zero angle) positions. In all
figures, the cutter spindle is
perpendicular to the page.
Cutters for Different Types of Milling
Figure 23.11 Cutters for (a) straddle
milling, (b) form milling, (c) slotting,
and (d) slitting with a milling cutter.
Other Milling Operations and Cutters
Figure 23.12 (a) T-slot cutting

with a milling cutter. (b) A
shell mill.
Arbors
Figure 23.13 Mounting a

milling cutter on an arbor for
use on a horizontal milling
machine.
Capacities and Maximum Workpiece
Dimensions for Machine Tools
TABLE 23.2 Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for

Some Machine Tools
Maximum dimension Power Maximum
Machine tool m (ft) (kW) speed
Milling machines (table travel)
Knee-and-column 1.4 (4.6) 20 4000 rpm
Bed 4.3 (14)
Numerical control 5 (16.5)
Planers (table travel) 10 (33) 100 1.7
Broaching machines (length) 2 (6.5) 0.9 MN
Gear cutting (gear diameter) 5 (16.5)
Note: Larger capacities are available for special applications.
TABLE 23.3 Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining*
Tools Size (in.) Cost ($)
Drills, HSS, straight shank 1/4 1.00–2.00
1/2 3.00–6.00
Coated (TiN) 1/4 2.60–3.00
1/2 10–15
Tapered shank 1/4 2.50–7.00
1 15–45
2 80–85
Approximate 3
4
250
950
Cost of Reamers, HSS, hand 1/4
1/2
10–15
10–15
Selected Tools Chucking 1/2
1
5–10
20–25
for Machining End mills, HSS
1 1/2
1/2
40–55
10–15
1 15–30
Carbide-tipped 1/2 30–35
1 45–60
Solid carbide 1/2 30–70
1 180
Burs, carbide 1/2 10–20
1 50–60
Milling cutters, HSS, staggered tooth, wide 4 35–75
8 130–260
Collets (5 core) 1 10–20
*Cost depends on the particular type of material and shape of tool, its quality,
and the amount purchased.
TABLE 23.4
General-purpose starting
conditions Range of conditions
Feed Speed Feed Speed
Workpiece mm/tooth m/min mm/tooth m/min
material Cutting tool (in./tooth) (ft/min) (in./tooth) (ft/min)
Low-C and free- Uncoated carbide, 0.13–0.20 120–180 0.085–0.38 90–425
machining steels coated carbide, (0.005–0.008) (400–600) (0.003–0.015) (300–1400)
cermets
Alloy steels
Soft Uncoated, coated, 0.10–0.18 90–170 0.08–0.30 60–370
cermets (0.004–0.007) (300–550) (0.003–0.012) (200–1200)
General Hard Cermets, PCBN 0.10–0.15

(0.004–0.006)
180–210
(600–700)
0.08–0.25
(0.003–0.010)
75–460
(250–1500)
Recommendations
Cast iron, gray
Soft Uncoated, coated, 0.10–10.20 120–760 0.08–0.38 90–1370
cermets, SiN (0.004–0.008) (400–2500) (0.003–0.015) (300–4500)
for Milling Hard
Stainless steel,
Cermets, SiN,
PCBN
Uncoated, coated,
0.10–0.20
(0.004–0.008)
0.13–0.18
120–210
(400–700)
120–370
0.08–0.38
(0.003–0.015)
0.08–0.38
90–460
(300–1500)
90–500
Operations austenitic
High-temperature
cermets
Uncoated, coated,
(0.005–0.007)
0.10–0.18
(400–1200)
30–370
(0.003–0.015)
0.08–0.38
(300–1800)
30–550
alloys, nickel base cermets, SiN, (0.004–0.007) (100–1200) (0.003–0.015) (90–1800)
PCBN
Titanium alloys Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.15 50–60 0.08–0.38 40–140
cermets (0.005–0.006) (175–200) (0.003–0.015) (125–450)
Aluminum alloys
Free machining Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.23 610–900 0.08–0.46 300–3000
PCD (0.005–0.009) (2000–3000) (0.003–0.018) (1000–10,000)
High silicon PCD 0.13 610 0.08–0.38 370–910
(0.005) (2000) (0.003–0–015) (1200–3000)
Copper alloys Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.23 300–760 0.08–0.46 90–1070
PCD (0.005–0.009) (1000–2500) (0.003–0.018) (300–3500)
Thermoplastics and Uncoated, coated, 0.13–0.23 270–460 0.08–0.46 90–1370
thermosets PCD (0.005–0.009) (900–1500) (0.003–0.018) (300–4500)
Source: Based on data from Kennametal Inc.

Note: Depths of cut, d , usually are in the range of 1–8 mm (0.04–0.3 in.). PCBN: polycrystalline cubic boron nitride;
PCD: polycrystalline diamond.
Note: See also Table 22.2 for range of cutting speeds within tool material groups.
General Troubleshooting Guide for Milling
Operations
TABLE 23.5
Problem Probable causes
Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cutting
parameters too high.
Tool wear excessive Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; improper tool
angles; improper cutting fluid.
Rough surface finish Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool
chipped or worn; built-up edge; vibration and chatter.
Tolerances too broad Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips
clogging cutter.
Workpiece surface Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small.
burnished
Back striking Dull cutting tools; cutter spindle tilt; negative tool angles.
Chatter marks Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed, depth, and
width of cut too large.
Burr formation Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or
exit; feed and depth of cut too high; incorrect insert geometry.
Breakout Lead angle too low; incorrect cutting edge geometry; incorrect angle
of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high.
Surface Features and Corner Defects
Figure 23.14 Surface features and corner defects in face milling operations; see also Fig. 23.7. For
troubleshooting, see Table 23.5. Source: Kennametal Inc.
Horizontal- and Vertical-Spindle Column-and-
Knee Type Milling Machines
Figure 23.15 Schematic illustration of a horizontal-
spindle column-and-knee type milling machine. Source:
G. Boothroyd.
Figure 23.16 Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle

column-and-knee type milling machine (also called a knee
miller). Source: G. Boothroyd.
Bed-Type Milling Machine
Figure 23.17 Schematic

illustration of a bed-type
milling machine. Note the
single vertical-spindle cutter
and two horizontal spindle
cutters. Source: ASM
International.
Additional Milling Machines
Figure 23.18 A computer numerical control,

vertical-spindle milling machine. This
machine is one of the most versatile machine
tools. Source: Courtesy of Bridgeport
Machines Division, Textron Inc.
Figure 23.19
Schematic
illustration of a
five-axis
profile milling
machine. Note
that there are
three principal
linear and two
angular
movements of
machine
components
Examples of Parts Made on a Planer and by
Broaching
Figure 23.20 Typical parts that can be
made on a planer.
Figure 23.21 (a) Typical parts made by internal

broaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching. Heavy
lines indicate broached surfaces. Source: General
Broach and Engineering Company.
Broaches
Figure 23.22 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach.
Chipbreakers and a Broaching Machine
Figure 23.23 Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach. (c) Vertical
broaching machine. Source: Ty Miles, Inc.
(a) (c)
(b)
Internal Broach and Turn Broaching
Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broach

used for enlarging long holes.
Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaft

rotates while the broaches pass tangentially across the
crankshaft’s bearing surfaces. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll
Cutting Tool Company.
Broaching Internal Splines
Figure 23.26
Sawing Operations
Figure 23.27 Examples

of various sawing
operations. Source:
DoALL Company.
Types of Saw Teeth
Figure 23.28 (a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of tooth set on saw teeth, staggered to
provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.
Saw Teeth and Burs
Figure 23.29 (a) High-speed-steel teeth welded on steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed
to blade teeth.
Figure 23.30 Types of burs. Source:

The Copper Group.
Spur Gear
Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.
Gear Generating
Figure 23.32
(a) Producing
gear teeth on a
blank by from
cutting. (b)
Schematic
illustration of
gear generating
with a pinion-
shaped gear
cutter. (c)
Schematic
illustration of
gear generating
in a gear shaper
using a pinion-
shaped cutter.
Note that the
cutter
reciprocates
vertically. (d)
Gear generating
with rack-
shaped cutter.
Gear Cutting With a Hob
Figure 23.33 Schematic
illustration of three views of gear
cutting with a hob. Source: After
E. P. DeGarmo and Society of
Manufacturing Engineers
Cutting Bevel Gears
Figure 23.34 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutters. (b) Cutting a
spiral bevel gear with a single cutter. Source: ASM International.
Gear Grinding
Figure 23.25 Finishing gears by grinding: (a) form grinding with shaped grinding wheels;
(b) grinding by generating with two wheels.
Economics of Gear Production
Figure 23.36 Gear
manufacturing cost as a
function of gear quality.
The numbers along the
vertical lines indicate
tolerances. Source:
Society of Manufacturing
Engineers.

Machining Processes

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CHAPTER 23

Machining Processes Used to Produce

Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutter

Figure 23.8 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.

Figure 23.12 (a) T-slot cutting

Figure 23.13 Mounting a

TABLE 23.2 Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for

General Hard Cermets, PCBN 0.10–0.15

for Milling Hard

Source: Based on data from Kennametal Inc.

Figure 23.16 Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle

Figure 23.17 Schematic

Figure 23.18 A computer numerical control,

Figure 23.21 (a) Typical parts made by internal

Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broach

Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaft

Figure 23.27 Examples

Figure 23.30 Types of burs. Source:

Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.

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