TI Analog Handbook

Analog Engineers
Pocket Reference
Art Kay and Tim Green, Editors
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Analog Engineers Pocket Reference

Fourth Edition
Edited by:
Art Kay and Tim Green
Special thanks for technical contribution and review:

Kevin Duke
Rafael Ordonez
John Caldwell
Collin Wells
Ian Williams
Thomas Kuehl
Copyright 2014, 2015 Texas Instruments Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
Message from the editors:

This pocket reference is intended as a valuable quick guide for often used board- and systemlevel design formulae. This collection of formulae is based on a combined 50 years of analog
board- and system-level expertise. Much of the material herein was referred to over the years
via a folder stuffed full of printouts. Those worn pages have been organized and the information is now available via this guide in a bound and hard-to-lose format!
Here is a brief overview of the key areas included:
Key constants and conversions
Discrete components
AC and DC analog equations
Op amp basic configurations
OP amp bandwidth and stability
Overview of sensors
PCB trace R, L, C
Wire L, R, C
Binary, hex and decimal formats
A/D and D/A conversions
We hope you find this collection of formulae as useful as we have. Please send any comments
and/or ideas you have for the next edition of the Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference to
artkay_timgreen@list.ti.com
Additional resources:
Browse TI Precision Labs (www.ti.com/precisionlabs), a comprehensive online training
curriculum for analog engineers, which applies theory to real-world, hands-on examples.
Search for complete board-and-system level circuits in the TI Designs Precision
reference design library (www.ti.com/precisiondesigns).
Read how-to blogs from TI precision analog experts at the Precision Hub
(www.ti.com/thehub).
Find solutions, get help, share knowledge and solve problems with fellow engineers and
TI experts in the TI E2E Community (www.ti.com/e2e).
Contents
Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Physical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Standard decimal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Metric conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Temperature conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Error conversions (ppm and percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Discrete components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Resistor color code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard resistor values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Practical capacitor model and specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Practical capacitors vs frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capacitor type overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard capacitance values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capacitance marking and tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diodes and LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
13
14
15
16
17
17
18
Analog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Capacitor equations (series, parallel, charge, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inductor equations (series, parallel, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capacitor charge and discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RMS and mean voltage definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RMS and mean voltage examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Logarithmic mathematical definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dB definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Log scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pole and zero definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time to phase shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
21
23
24
24
27
28
29
30
34
Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Basic op amp configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Op amp bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Full power bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Small signal step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phase margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stability open loop SPICE analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Instrumentation Amp filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
41
42
43
44
48
50
53
PCB and wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

PCB conductor spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-heating of PCB traces on inside layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PCB trace resistance for 1oz and 2oz Cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Package types and dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PCB parallel plate capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PCB microstrip capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PCB adjacent copper trace capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PCB via capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common coaxial cable specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coaxial cable equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resistance per length for different wire types (AWG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum current for wire types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
57
58
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Temperature sensor overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resistive temperature detector (RTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diode temperature characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermocouple (J and K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
71
72
74
76
A/D conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Binary/hex conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A/D and D/A transfer function (LSB, Data formats, FSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantization error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total harmonic distortion (THD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effective number of bits (ENOB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise free resolution and effective resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Setting time and conversion accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
84
90
91
92
94
94
95
96
Standard decimal prefixes

Metric conversions
Temperature scale conversions
Error conversions (ppm and percentage)
Conversions
Conversions
Conversions
ti.com/precisionlabs
Conversions
Conversions
Table 1: Physical constants

Constant
Speed of light in a vacuum
Symbol
Value
2.997 924 58 x 108
Units
m/s
-12
8.854 187 817 620 x 10
F/m
Permeability of free space
1.256 637 0614 x 10-6
H/m
Planks constant
6.626 069 57 x 10-34
Js
Permittivity of vacuum
-23
Boltzmanns constant
1.380 648 8 x 10
Faradays constant
9.648 533 99 x 104
C/mol
Avogadros constant
NA
6.022 141 29 x 1023
1/mol
mu
1.660 538 921 x 10-27
kg
-19
Unified atomic mass unit

Electronic charge
J/K
1.602 176 565 x 10
-31
Rest mass of electron
me
9.109 382 15 x 10
kg
Mass of proton
mp
1.672 621 777 x 10-27
kg
-11
Nm2/kg2
Gravitational constant
Standard gravity
gn
9.806 65
m/s2
Ice point
Tice
273.15
Maximum density of water

Density of mercury (0C)
Gas constant
Speed of sound in air (at 273K)
6.673 84 x 10
1.00 x 10
kg/m3
Hg
1.362 8 x 104
kg/m3
8.314 462 1
J/(Kmol)
cair
3.312 x 10
m/s
Table 2: Standard decimal prefixes

Multiplier
Abbreviation
10
tera
109
giga
106
mega
103
kilo
103
milli
106
micro
109
nano
1012
pico
1015
femto
atto
18
10
Prefix
12
Texas Instruments Analog Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Engineer's Pocket Reference
Conversions
Table 3: Imperial to metric conversions

Unit
Symbol
Equivalent
Unit
Symbol
inches
in
25.4 mm/in
millimeter
mm
mil
mil
0.0254 mm/mil
millimeter
mm
feet
ft
0.3048 m/ft
meters
yards
yd
0.9144 m/yd
meters
miles
mi
1.6093 km/mi
kilometers
km
circular mil
cir mil
5.067x10-4 mm2/cir mil
square millimeters
mm2
square yards
yd
0.8361 m
square meters
m2
pints
pt
0.5682 L/pt
liters
ounces
oz
28.35 g/oz
grams
pounds
lb
0.4536 kg/lb
kilograms
kg
calories
cal
4.184 J/cal
joules
horsepower
hp
745.7 W/hp
watts
Symbol
Table 4: Metric to imperial conversions

Unit
Symbol
Conversion
Unit
millimeter
mm
0.0394 in/mm
inch
in
millimeter
mm
39.4 mil/mm
mil
mil
meters
3.2808 ft/m
feet
ft
meters
1.0936 yd/m
yard
yd
kilometers
km
0.6214 mi/km
miles
mi
square millimeters
mm2
1974 cir mil/mm2
circular mil
cir mil
square meters
m2
1.1960 yd2/ m2
square yards
yd2
liters
1.7600 pt/L
pints
pt
grams
0.0353 oz/g
ounces
oz
kilograms
kg
2.2046 lb/kg
pounds
lb
joules
0.239 cal/J
calories
cal
watts
1.341x10-3 hp/W
horsepower
hp
Example
Convert 10 mm to mil.
Answer
10 mm x 39.4
mil
= 394 mil
mm
Conversions
Table 5: Temperature conversions

Table 5: Temperature conversions
Table 5:
5 Temperature conversions
Fahrenheit
F 2
FahrenheittotoCelsius
Celsius
9 5
Fahrenheit to Celsius
9 F 2
9
Celsius
CelsiustotoFahrenheit
Fahrenheit
F 2
5 9
Celsius to Fahrenheit
F 2
CelsiustotoKelvin
Kelvin
Celsius
52.15
Celsius to Kelvin
2.15
KelvintotoCelsius
Celsius
Kelvin
2.15
Kelvin to Celsius
2.15
Table 6: Error conversions

Table 6: Error conversions
Table 6: Error
conversions
easured
Ideal
Error%
100
Ideal Ideal
easured
Error% easured Ideal 100
Ideal
Error% FSR
100
Fullscale range
easured Ideal
Error% FSR ppm
100
Fullscale range
% 100
10 ppm
% 100
ppm
10
100 1000
m%
10ppm
100 1000
m%
10
ppm % 10
ppm % 10
ppm m% 10
ppm m% 10
Error in measured value

Errorin
inmeasured
measuredvalue
value
Error
Error in percent of full-scale range
Error
Errorin
inpercent
percent of
of full-scale
full-scale range
range
Part per million to percent
Part
Part per
per million
million to
to percent
Part per million to milli-percent
Part per
per million
million to
to milli-percent
Part
Percent to part per million
Percent to
to part
part per
per million
Percent
Milli-percent to part per million
Milli-percent to part per million
Milli-percent
million
Example
Example
Compute the error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V and
theCompute
range
is 5V.
Example
the error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V and
Compute
the
range isthe
5V.error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V
and the range is 5V.
Answer
Answer 0.12V 0.1V
Error%

100 20%
Answer
0.1V 0.1V
0.12V
V
Error% 0.12V
0.12
0.1V 100 20%
Error %
0.1V
Error% FSR
0.1V 100 0.%
5V 0.1V
0.12
V 100 0.%
Error% FSR
Error % FSR
5V
5V
Example

Percent FSR
Percent FSR
Percent FSR
Example
Example
Convert
10 ppm to percent and milli-percent.
Convert
Convert10
10ppm
ppmtotopercent
percentand
andmilli-percent.
milli-percent.
Answer
Answer
10 ppm
Answer
Part per million to percent
100 0.001%
10
10 ppm
10
ppm
Part
Partper
permillion
milliontotopercent
percent

100
0.001%
10 ppm
10
10 100 1000 1 m%
Part per million to milli-percent
10
10 ppm
10 ppm
Part
Partper
permillion
milliontotomilli-percent
milli-percent
100 1000 1 m%
10
10
10
Texas

10
Discrete
Components
Resistor color code

Standard resistor values
Capacitance specifications
Capacitance type overview
Standard capacitance values
Capacitance marking and tolerance
11
Texas
Discrete
Discrete Components
Discrete Components
Discrete
Table 7: Resistor color code

Color
Digit
Additional
Zeros
Black
Tolerance
Temperature
Coefficient
Failure
Rate
250
Brown
1%
100
Red
2%
50
0.1
Orange
15
0.01
Yellow
25
0.001
Green
0.5%
20
Blue
0.25%
10
Violet
0.1%
0.05%
Grey
White
Gold
-na-
-1
5%
Silver
-na-
-2
10%
No Band
-na-
-na-
20%
4 Band example: yellow violet orange silver indicate 4, 7, and 3 zeros.

i.e. a 47k, 10% resistor.
Figure 1: Resistor color code

12
Texas
10.0
10.1
10.2
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.9
11.0
11.1
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.7
11.8
12.0
12.1
12.3
12.4
12.6
12.7
12.9
13.0
13.2
13.3
13.5
13.7
13.8
14.0
14.2
14.3
14.5
0.1%
0.25%
0.5%
14.3
14.0
13.7
13.3
13.0
12.7
12.4
12.1
11.8
11.5
11.3
11.0
10.7
10.5
10.2
10.0
1%
13
12
11
10
2%
5%
10%
14.7
14.9
15.0
15.2
15.4
15.6
15.8
16.0
16.2
16.4
16.5
16.7
16.9
17.2
17.4
17.6
17.8
18.0
18.2
18.4
18.7
18.9
19.1
19.3
19.6
19.8
20.0
20.3
20.5
20.8
21.0
21.3
0.1%
0.25%
0.5%
21.0
20.5
20.0
19.6
19.1
18.7
18.2
17.8
17.4
16.9
16.5
16.2
15.8
15.4
15.0
14.7
1%
20
18
16
15
2%
5%
10%
21.5
21.8
22.1
22.3
22.6
22.9
23.2
23.4
23.7
24.0
24.3
24.6
24.9
25.2
25.5
25.8
26.1
26.4
26.7
27.1
27.4
27.7
28.0
28.4
28.7
29.1
29.4
29.8
30.1
30.5
30.9
31.2
0.1%
0.25%
0.5%
30.9
30.1
29.4
28.7
28.0
27.4
26.7
26.1
25.5
24.9
24.3
23.7
23.2
22.6
22.1
21.5
1%
30
27
24
22
2%
5%
10%
31.6
32.0
32.4
32.8
33.2
33.6
34.0
34.4
34.8
35.2
35.7
36.1
36.5
37.0
37.4
37.9
38.3
38.8
39.2
39.7
40.2
40.7
41.2
41.7
42.2
42.7
43.2
43.7
44.2
44.8
45.3
45.9
0.1%
0.25%
0.5%
45.3
44.2
43.2
42.2
41.2
40.2
39.2
38.3
37.4
36.5
35.7
34.8
34.0
33.2
32.4
31.6
1%
43
39
36
33
2%
5%
10%
46.4
47.0
47.5
48.1
48.7
49.3
49.9
50.5
51.1
51.7
52.3
53.0
53.6
54.2
54.9
55.6
56.2
56.9
57.6
58.3
59.0
59.7
60.4
61.2
61.9
62.6
63.4
64.2
64.9
65.7
66.5
67.3
0.1%
0.25%
0.5%
Standard resistance values for the 10 to 100 decade
66.5
64.9
63.4
61.9
60.4
59.0
57.6
56.2
54.9
53.6
52.3
51.1
49.9
48.7
47.5
46.4
1%
62
56
51
47
2%
5%
10%
68.1
69.0
69.8
70.6
71.5
72.3
73.2
74.1
75.0
75.9
76.8
77.7
78.7
79.6
80.6
81.6
82.5
83.5
84.5
85.6
86.6
87.6
88.7
89.8
90.9
92.0
93.1
94.2
95.3
96.5
97.6
98.8
0.1%
0.25%
0.5%
97.6
95.3
93.1
90.9
88.7
86.6
84.5
82.5
80.6
78.7
76.8
75.0
73.2
71.5
69.8
68.1
1%
91
82
75
68
2%
5%
10%
Discrete Components
Table 8: Standard resistor values
13
Discrete Components
Practical capacitor model and specifications
Rp
ESR
ESL
Figure 2: Model of a practical capacitor
Table 9: Capacitor specifications
Parameter
Description
The nominal value of the capacitance

Table 11 lists standard capacitance values
ESR
Equivalent series resistance

Ideally this is zero
Ceramic capacitors have the best ESR (typically in milliohms). Tantalum Electrolytic have ESR in the hundreds of milliohms and Aluminum Electrolytic have ESR
in the ohms
ESL
Equivalent series inductance

Ideally this is zero
ESL ranges from 100 pH to 10 nH
Rp
Rp is a parallel leakage resistance (or insulation resistance)

Ideally this is infinite
This can range from tens of megaohms for some electrolytic capacitors to tens of
gigohms for ceramic
Voltage rating
The maximum voltage that can be applied to the capacitor

Exceeding this rating damages the capacitor
Voltage
coefficient
The change in capacitance with applied voltage in ppm/V

A high-voltage coefficient can introduce distortion
C0G capacitors have the lowest coefficient
The voltage coefficient is most important in applications that use capacitors in
signal processing such as filtering
Temperature
coefficient
The change in capacitance with across temperature in ppm/C

Ideally, the temperature coefficient is zero
The maximum specified drift generally ranges from 10 to 100ppm/C or greater
depending on the capacitor type (See Table 10 for details)
14
Texas
Discrete Components
Practical capacitors vs. frequency
Impedance (ohms)
Practical capacitors vs. frequency
of ESR
ESL on capacitor
frequency
Figure 3:Figure
Effect 3:
of Effect
ESR and
ESL and
on capacitor
frequency
responseresponse
15
Discrete Components
Table 10: Capacitor type overview

Capacitor type
Description
C0G/NP0
(Type 1 ceramic)
Use in signal path, filtering, low distortion, audio, and precision

Limited capacitance range: 0.1 pF to 0.47 F
Lowest temperature coefficient: 30 ppm/C
Low-voltage coefficient
Minimal piezoelectric effect
Good tolerance: 1% to 10%
Temperature range: 55C to 125C (150C and higher)
Voltage range may be limited for larger capacitance values
X7R
(Type 2 ceramic)
Use for decoupling and other applications where accuracy and

low distortion are not required
X7R is an example of a type 2 ceramic capacitor
See EIA capacitor tolerance table for details on other types
Capacitance range: 10 pF to 47 F
Temperature coefficient: 833 ppm/C (15% across temp range)
Substantial voltage coefficient
Tolerance: 5% to 20%/+80%
Temperature range: 55C to 125C
Voltage range may be limited for larger capacitance values
Y5V
(Type 2 ceramic)
Use for decoupling and other applications where accuracy and

low distortion are not required
Y5V is an example of a type 2 ceramic capacitor
See EIA capacitor tolerance table for details on other types
Temperature coefficient: 20%/+80% across temp range
Other characteristics are similar to X7R and other type 2 ceramic
Aluminum oxide
electrolytic
Use for bulk decoupling and other applications where large

capacitance is required
Note that electrolytic capacitors are polarized and will be damaged, if a
reverse polarity connection is made
Capacitance range: 1 F to 68,000 F
Temperature coefficient: 30 ppm/C
Substantial voltage coefficient Tolerance: 20%
Temperature range: 55C to 125C (150C and higher)
Higher ESR than other types
Tantalum
electrolytic
Capacitance range: 1 F to 150 F

Similar to aluminum oxide but smaller size
Polypropylene
film
Capacitance range: 100 pF to 10 F

Very low voltage coefficient (low distortion)
Higher cost than other types
Larger size per capacitance than other types
Temperature coefficient: 2% across temp range
16
Texas
Discrete Components
Table 11: Standard capacitance table

Standard capacitance table
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.7
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.3
4.7
5.1
5.6
6.2
6.8
7.5
8.2
9.1
CK06
223K
Figure 4: Capacitor
marking code
Example
Translate the capacitor marking
2 2 3 K "K" = 10%
22 000 pF
= 22nF = 0.022F
Table 12: Ceramic capacitor tolerance markings

Code
Tolerance
Code
Tolerance
0.1 pF
5%
0.25 pF
10%
0.5 pF
20%
1%
+ 80%, 20%
2%
Table 13: EIA capacitor tolerance markings (Type 2 capacitors)

First letter
symbol
Low temp
limit
Second
number
symbol
High temp
limit
Second
letter
symbol
Max. capacitance
change over
temperature rating
+10C
+45C
1.0%
30C
+65C
1.5%
55C
+85C
2.2%
+105C
3.3%
+125C
4.7%
7.5%
10.0%
15.0%
22.0%
22% ~ 33%
22% ~ 56%
22% ~ 82%
Example
X7R: 55C to +125C, 15.0%
17
Discrete Components
Diodes and LEDs

Anode (+)
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
Anode (+)
Long Lead
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
Long Lead
Cathode (-)
Short Lead, Flat
Cathode (-)
Figure 5: Diode and LED pin names
Color
Wavelength (nm)
Voltage (approximate range)
Infrared
940-850
1.4 to 1.7
Red
660-620
1.7 to 1.9
Orange / Yellow
620-605
2 to 2.2
Green
570-525
2.1 to 3.0
Blue/White
470-430
3.4 to 3.8
Table 14: LED forward voltage drop by color
Note: The voltages given are approximate, and are intended to show the general trend for
forward voltage drop of LED diodes. Consult the manufacturers data sheet for more precise
values.
18
Texas
Analog
Analog
Analog
Capacitor equations (series, parallel, charge, energy)

Inductor equations (series, parallel, energy)
Capacitor charge and discharge
RMS and mean voltage definition
RMS for common signals
Logarithm laws
dB definitions
Pole and zero definition with examples
19
Analog
Capacitor equations
Capacitor
equations
C
C
1
C
C
C C
1
C
1
C
(1) Series capacitors
(2) Two series capacitors

(3) Parallel capacitors
Analog
Where
Ct = equivalent total capacitance
C1, C2, C3CN = component capacitors
V
(4) Charge storage

(5) Charge defined
Where
Q = charge in coulombs (C)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A)
t = time in seconds (s)
dv
dt
(6) Instantaneous current through a capacitor
Where
i = instantaneous current through the capacitor
dv = the instantaneous rate of voltage change

dt
1
CV
2
(7) Energy stored in a capacitor
Where
E = energy stored in an capacitor in Joules (J)
V = voltage in volts
20
Texas

20
Analog
Inductor
equations
Inductor equations
L L L L
L
L
1
1
1
1

L
L L
L L
L L
Series
inductors
(8)Series
(8)
inductors
Parallel
inductors
(9)Parallel
(9)
inductors
Two
parallel
inductors
(10)
parallel
inductors
(10)Two
Where
Where
total inductance
inductance
LLtt = equivalent total
LL11,, L
L33L
LNN == component
componentinductance
inductance
L22,, L

di
Instantaneousvoltage
voltageacross
acrossananinductor
inductor
(11)Instantaneous
vL
(11)
dt
Where
Where
v = instantaneous voltage across the inductor
v = instantaneous voltage across the inductor
L = inductance in Henries (H)
di
= instantaneous rate of current change
dt = the instantaneous rate of voltage change
1
LI
2
Energystored
storedininananinductor
Inductor
(12)Energy
(12)
Where
Where
EE =
energy stored
stored in
in an
an inductor
inductorininJoules
Joules(J)
(J)
= energy
II ==current
currentininamps
amps

21
21
Analog
Equation for
for charging
capacitor
Equation
chargingaan
RC circuit
V V
General
relationship
(13)
(13)
General
relationship
Equation for charging a capacitor
Where
Where
relationship
VC =voltage
V
the
capacitor(13)
V
across
at anyGeneral
instant in
time (t)
across
the capacitor
VCV ==voltage
the source
voltage
charging at
theany
RCinstant
circuit in time (t)
S
VSt = =time
the source
voltage charging the RC circuit
in seconds
Where
t = =
time
seconds
RC,inthe
time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
VC = voltage across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
= RC, the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
VS = the source voltage charging the RC circuit
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
t = time in seconds
capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common practice to consider
this fully charged.
Graphing
equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note
that
the capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
practice
to consider this fully charged.
this fully charged.
Figure 7: RC charge curve
22
Texas
Texas
22 Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
Analog
Equation for discharging a capacitor
Equation for discharging an RC circuit
V V
(14) General Relationship

(14) General
relationship
Equation for discharging a capacitor
Where
Where
V V
(14) General relationship
==
voltage
across
the capacitor
at any instant
time (t) in time (t)
VV
voltage
across
the capacitor
at anyininstant
CC
==
thethe
initial
voltage
of
the
capacitor
at
t=0s
VV
i Where
initial voltage of the capacitor at t=0s
I
t =VCtime
in seconds
= voltage
across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
time intime
seconds
t=V=IRC,
constant
charging
and discharging capacitors
= thethe
initial voltage
of thefor
capacitor
at t=0s
t == time
RC,in the
time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
seconds
Graphing equation 14 produces the capacitor discharge curve below. Note

Graphing
equation
14 produces
capacitor
discharge
curve belo
that
the capacitor
is discharged
to 0.7%the
at five
time constants.
It is comGraphing equation 14 produces the capacitor discharge curve below. Note that the
mon
practice
to
consider
this
fully
discharged.
capacitor is 0.7% charged at five time constants. It is common prac
this fully
this
fullydischarged.
discharged.
PercentageDischargedvs.NumberofTimeConstants
100
PercentageDischargedvs.NumberofTimeConsta
100
90
80
PercentagePercentage
Charged Charged
90
70
80
60
70
50
40
60
30
50
20
10
40
0
30 0
NumberoftimeConstants( =RC)
20
Figure
Figure 7: RC discharge curve
10 8: RC discharge curve
0
0
NumberoftimeConstants( =RC)
Figure 8: RC discharge curve
23
Analog
RMS voltage
RMS
voltage
RMS voltage
RMS voltage1
(15)
General
relationship
(15)
General
relationship
V
Vt dt


Vt dt
V 1
V
Vt dt

Where

Where
V(t) = continuous function of time
Where
t=
time in seconds
Where
t =V(t)
time continuous
in seconds function of time
T
continuous
T2 = the time
interval
that the function is defined over
1 t=
V(t)
=
function
of time
t
T
the time
interval
that the function is defined over
T1t
= time 2in=seconds
t = time in seconds
T1 tvoltage
T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
Mean
T1 t T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
Mean
voltage
Mean voltage
1
Mean
Vtdt
V voltage
(16)(16)
General
relationship
General
relationship
V 1
Vtdt
V
Vtdt

Where

Where
t=
time in seconds
Where
Where
V(t)
= continuous
function
ofthat
time
T
T2 = the time
interval
1 =t continuous
V(t)
function
of
V(t) = continuous
function
of time
time the function is defined over
t =time
time inseconds
seconds
tt ==
time in
in seconds
T1 t T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
TT11
t T22 == the
the time
time interval
interval that
that the
the function
functionisisdefined
definedover
over
V
RMS for full wave rectified
V
(17)
sine wave
2
V
RMS for full wave rectified
RMS
for fullsine
wave
rectified
V V
(17)
(17) RMS for full
wave
rectified
wave
V
2 2
(17)
sine
wave
Mean
for full wave
rectified
V
(18) sine wave
V 2
sine wave
Mean for full wave rectified

2 V
for full wave rectified
(18) Mean
V 2 V
(18) Mean for full
rectified
(18)wave
sine
wave sine wave
V
sine
wave
Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave
Figure
8: Fullsine
wave
rectified sine wave
Figure 9: Full wave
rectified
wave
Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave
24
Texas

24
24
Analog
RMS voltage
andand
mean
voltage
RMS
voltage
mean
voltage
2T
V
V
RMS for a half-wave

(19)
(19) RMS for
a half-wave
sine wave
rectified rectified
sine wave
Mean for a half-wave

(20)
(20) Mean for
a half-wave rectified sine wave
rectified sine wave
9: sine
Half-wave
Figure 10: Half-wave Figure
rectified
wave rectified sine wave
V
V
V
V
(21)
a square
wave
(21)
RMSRMS
for afor
square
wave
Figure 11: Square wave
(22) Mean for a square wave
Figure 10: Square wave

25
25
Analog
RMS voltage and mean voltage

RMS voltage and mean voltage
V
V
(V
V
2T
V V
3
(( T (
(23)
RMS
for afortrapezoid
(23)
RMS
a trapezoid
(24)
Mean
for afortrapezoid
(24)
Mean
a trapezoid
Figure 12: Trapezoidal wave

Figure 11: Trapezoidal wave
V
V
V
2T
3T
Figure 13: Triangle wave
26
Texas
(25) RMS
a triangle
wave wave
(25) for
RMS
for a triangle
(26) Mean
for a triangle
(26) Mean
for a triangle
wave wave
Figure 12: Triangle wave

26
Analog
Logarithmic
mathematical
definitions
Logarithmic mathematical
definitions
A
B
log AB
log A
log
log
ln X
log
log
log
log
(27)ofLog
of dividend
(27) Log
dividend
(28) Log
product
(28)ofLog
of product
(29)ofLog
of exponent
(29) Log
exponent
(30) Changing
the of
base
log function
(30) Changing
the base
logof
function
(31) Example
changing
to logtobase
2
(31) Example
changing
log base
2
(32) Natural
log is log
log is
base
e
(32) Natural
log base
e
(33) Exponential
function
to 6 digits.
(33) Exponential
function
to 6 digits
Alternative
Alternative notations
notations
exp x
Different
notation
for exponential
(34) Different
notation
for exponential
function
(34)
function
Different notation for scientific
(35) Different notation for scientific notation,
(35) notation, sometimes confused with
sometimes confused with
exponential function
exponential function

27
27
Analog
dB definitions
Bode
plot basics
dB definitions
The frequency response for the magnitude or gain plot is the change in
voltage
gain
as frequency changes. This change is specified on a Bode plot,
Bode plot
basics
a plot of frequency versus voltage gain in dB (decibels). Bode plots are
The frequency
for theplots
magnitude
or gain ploton
is the
the change
voltage
usually
plottedresponse
as semi-log
with frequency
x-axis, inlog
scale,gain
as frequency
changes.
This
change
is specified
on half
a Bode
plot,frequency
a plot of frequency
and
gain on the
y-axis,
linear
scale.
The other
of the
versus voltage gain in dB (decibels). Bode plots are usually plotted as semi-log plots
response is the phase shift versus frequency and is plotted as frequency
with frequency on the x-axis, log scale, and gain on the y-axis, linear scale. The other
versus
degrees
phase
shift. Phase
plotsshift
are versus
usuallyfrequency
plotted as
half of the
frequency
response
is the phase
andsemi-log
is plotted as
plots
with
frequency
on
the
x-axis,
log
scale,
and
phase
shift
onasthe
frequency versus degrees phase shift. Phase plots are usually plotted
semi-log
y-axis,
linear
scale.on the x-axis, log scale, and phase shift on the y-axis, linear
plots with
frequency
scale.
Definitions
V
V
Measured
P
P
((36)
36) Voltage
Voltagegain
gaininindecibels
decibels
((37)
37) Power
Power gain
gain in
in decibels
decibels
Power Measured (W)

1 mW
(38) Used
input
or
Powerfor
gain
in decibel
(38) output power
milliwatt
Table 15: Examples of common gain

A (V/V)
A (dB)
Table 14: Examples of common
gain
and dB equivalent
values and
dBvalues
equivalent
0.001
60
A (V/V)
A (dB)
0.01
4060
0.001
Roll-off rate is the decrease in gain with frequency
0.010.1
2040
0.1
20 Decade is a tenfold increase or decrease in
0 0
frequency (from 10 Hz to 100 Hz is one decade)
1 1
20 20
10 10
Octave is the doubling or halving of frequency
100100
40 40
(from 10 Hz to 20 Hz is one octave)
1,000
60
1,000
60
10,000
80
100,000
10,000
80 100
1,000,000
120
100,000
100
10,000,000
140
1,000,000
120
Roll-off rate is the decrease in gain with frequency
10,000,000
140
Decade is a tenfold increase or decrease in frequency.(from 10 Hz to 100 Hz is one

decade)
Octave is the doubling or halving of frequency (from 10 Hz to 20 Hz is one octave)
28
Texas
Analog
Figure 13 illustrates a method to graphically determine values on a

logarithmic axis that are not directly on an axis grid line.
Figure 14 illustrates a method to graphically determine values on a logarithmic axis
that areLnot
directly
an axis
grid line. with a ruler.
1. Given
= 1cm;
D on
= 2cm,
measured
2. L/D = log10(fp)
1. (L/D)
Given L =(1cm/2cm)
1 cm; D = 2cm, measured with a ruler.
3. fP = 10
= 10
= 3.16
2. L/D = log10(fP)
(L/D)
(1CM/2CM) (for this example, f = 31.6 Hz)
4. Adjust
p
3. for
fP =the
10 decade
= 10 range
= 3.16
A (dB)
4. Adjust for the decade range (for example, 31.6 Hz)
Figure14:
13:Finding
Findingvalues
valueson
onlogarithmic
logarithmic axis
axis not
not directly
directly on
on aa grid
grid line
line
Figure
29
Analog
Bode plots:
Poles
Bode plots:
Poles
fP
100
0.707*GV/V = 3 dB
Actual
function
G (dB)
80
Straight-line
approximation
20 dB/decade
60
40
20
0
1
10
100
(degrees)
+90
+45
1k
10k
100k
1M
10M
100k
1M
10M
Frequency (Hz)
10
100
1k
10k
0
45
5.7 at
fP
10
45 at fP
90
45/decade
84.3 at fP x 10
90
Figure
14: Pole gain and phase
Figure 15: Pole gain
and phase
Pole Location
fP (cutoff freq)
Pole=Location
= fP (cutoff freq)
Magnitude (f < fP) = Gdc (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude (f < fP) = GDC (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude (f = fP) = 3 dB
(f dB/decade
= fP) = 3 dB
MagnitudeMagnitude
(f > fP) = 20
Phase (f =Magnitude
fP) = 45 (f > fP) = 20 dB/decade
Phase (0.1
fP < f <(f10
Phase
= ffPP) == 45/decade
45
Phase (f > 10 fP) = 90
Phase (0.1 f < f < 10 fP) = 45/decade
Phase (f < 0.1 fP) = 0 P
Phase (f > 10 fP) = 90

Phase (f < 0.1 fP) = 0
30
Texas
Texas Instruments
Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
30
Analog
Pole (equations)
Pole (equations)
G
V
V
V
V
G
j f
f
(39) As (39)
a complex
number number
As a complex
f
f
(40) Magnitude
(40) Magnitude
f
f
(41)shift
Phase shift
(41) Phase
(42) Magnitude
(42) Magnitude
in dB in dB
Where
Gv = voltage gain in V/V
Where
GdB = voltage gain in decibels
GG
voltage gain in V/V
v=
dc = the dc or low frequency voltage gain
Hz in decibels
GfdB= frequency
= voltageingain
frequency
which
the pole occurs
P ==
GfDC
the dc oratlow
frequency
voltage gain
= phase shift of the signal from input to output
f = frequency in Hz
fP = frequency at which the pole occurs
j = indicates imaginary number or 1

31
31
Analog
BodeBode
plotsplots
(zeros)
(zeros)
80
Straight-line
approximation
+20 dB/decade
G (dB)
60
40
Actual
function
20
+3 dB
0
1
10
100
+90
1k
10k
100k
1M
10M
+90
+45 at fZ
(degrees)
84.3 at fZ x 10
+45
0
f
5.7 at Z
10
+45/decade
0
10
100
1k
10k
100k
1M
10M
Frequency (Hz)
45
90
Figure
15: Zero gain and phase
Figure 16: Zero gain
and phase
Zero location
fZ
Zero =location
= fZ
Magnitude (f < fZ) = 0 dB
Magnitude (f < fZ) = 0 dB
Magnitude (f = fZ) = +3 dB
Magnitude (f = fZ) = +3 dB
Magnitude (f > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
Phase (f Magnitude
= fZ) = +45(f > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
Phase
fZ)fZ=) +45
= +45/decade
Phase (0.1
fZ < f(f<=10
Phase
(0.1
fZ < f < 10 fZ) = +45/decade
Phase (f > 10 fZ) = +90
Phase (f Phase
< 0.1 fZ(f) =
> 0
10 fZ) = +90
Phase (f < 0.1 fZ) = 0
32
Texas

32
Analog
Zero (equations)
Zero (equations)
G
V
f
G j
V
f
f
V
G
f
V
f

f
G G
As a complex
(43) As(43)
a complex
number number
(44) Magnitude
(44) Magnitude
(45) shift
Phase shift
(45) Phase
(46) Magnitude
in dB in dB
(46) Magnitude
Where
GV = voltage gain in V/V
Where
voltage
gain
decibels
GG
==
voltage
gain
in in
V/V
V dB
the dc or
lowinfrequency
voltage gain
DC==voltage
GG
gain
decibels
dB
f = frequency in Hz
GDC = the dc or low frequency voltage gain
fZ = frequency at which the zero occurs
f = frequency in Hz
fZ = frequency at which the zero occurs
j = indicates imaginary number or 1

33
33
Analog
Time to phase shift
Figure 17: Time to phaseFigure

shift 16: Time to phase shift
(47) Phase
fromshift
timefrom time
(47) shift
Phase
360
Where
Where
T
S = time shift from input to output signal
TPS==period
time shift
from input to output signal
of signal
T
TP= =
phase
shiftofofsignal
the signal from input to output
period

Example
Calculate the phase shift in degrees for Figure 17.
Example
Answer
Calculate the phase shift in degrees for Figure 16.
T
Answer
34
T Ts
Tp
0.225
1
360 =
Texas
ms
0.225ms
ms
1 ms
) 360 = 81
34
Amplifier
Amplifier
Amplifier
Basic op amp configurations

Op amp bandwidth
Full power bandwidth
Small signal step response
Noise equations
Stability equations
Stability open loop SPICE analysis
ti.com/amplifiers
35
Amplifier

Gain
for buffer
(48) Gain (48)
for buffer
configuration
configuration
(48) Gain for buffer configuration
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
Figure 17: Buffer configuration

Figure 18: Buffer configuration
Amplifier
FigureR18: Buffer configuration
(49)
forfor
non-inverting
configuration
Gain
non-inverting
configuration
G
(49)Gain
R
R1
Rf
(49) Gain for non-inverting configuration
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
Figure 18: Non-inverting configuration


ti.com/amplifiers
36
Texas
Basic op amp configurations (cont.)

R
Amplifier
Gain for inverting configuration
(50)
R
R
R
Gain
for inverting
(50) Gain(50)
for inverting
configuration
R1
configura
Rf
VCC
VIN
VOUT
VEE
Figure
19: Inverting configuration
Figure 20: Inverting
configuration
V V
V
Transfer function for i
V R
(51) Transfer function
(51) for inverting
R
R
R
Figure 20:
configuration
summing amplifier summing amplifier
Inverting
Transfer function for i

R
VV V
Transfer
function
V V
Transfer function forsumming
V V
V
amplifier,
as
(52)
(52)

(51)inverting summing
R R
summing
R R
R amplifier, assuming R
R
=
=R
R1 =
2 = =R
N amplifi
1 = R
2
N
V
VN
RN
R
V V V
R
RN
R
2
V2
VN
VN
(52)
R2
V1
V2
V2
V1
R1
R
RN1
Transfer function
summing amplifi
R1 = R2 = =RN
Rf
VCC
Rf
R2
VOUT
Vcc
R1
- + VEE
Rf
Vcc
Vee
-+
Vout
V1 Inverting summing configuration

Figure 20:
ti.com/amplifiers
Figure 21: Inverting summing configuration
Vout
37
Amplifier

R
V V
V

R
N N
N
Transfer
function
(53) Transfer
function
forfor noninverting summing
amplifier
(53)noninverting
summing
amplifier
equalinput
inputresistors
resistors

forforequal
Where
R1 = R2 = = RN
Where
of input resistors
R1N==Rnumber
2 = = RN
N = number of input resistors
Rin
R1
V1
Rf
VCC
VOUT
R2
V2
RN
VEE
VN
Figure 22: Non-inverting summing configuration
Figure 21: Non-inverting summing configuration
ti.com/amplifiers
38
Texas
Amplifier
Simple
amp
Cf filter
Simplenon-inverting
non-inverting amp
withwith
Cf filter
R non-inverting amp with Cf filter
Simple
Gain for non-inverting configuration
G
1
(54) Gain(54)
for non-inverting configuration for f < fc
for f < fc
R
R
Gain
non-inverting
configuration
Gain
forfor
non-inverting
configuration
G
1
(54)
(55) Gain(55)
for
non-inverting
configuration
for f >> fc
1
G
f <fcfc
R
forfor
f >>
Gain frequency
for non-inverting
configuration
for non-inverting
(55) Cut off for
(56) Cut off
configuration
(56)frequency
for f >> fnon-inverting
c
configuration
Cut off frequency for non-inverting
(56)
Cf configuration
G 11
f
2 R C
1
f
2 R C
R1
Rf
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
Figure 23: Non-inverting amplifier with Cf filter

Figure 24: Frequency response for non-inverting op amp with Cf filter

Figure 23:
24: Frequency
Frequency response
response for
for non-inverting
non-inverting op
op amp
amp with
with C
Cff filter
ti.com/amplifiers

39
39
Amplifier
Simple inverting amp with Cf filter

SimpleRinverting amp with Cf filter
(57) Gain for inverting configuration for f < fC
G
R
R
Gain for inverting configuration
(57)
20dB/decade after f C
GG
< fC
R
(58) Gainfor
forf inverting
configuration for f > fC
f
G
f
until op amp bandwidth

limitation
20dB/decade after fC
1until op amp bandwidth (59) Cutoff frequency for inverting configuration
2 Rlimitation
C
1
frequency for inverting configuration
(59) Cutoff
Cf
2 R C
Cf
R1
R1
Rf
VIN
Rf
VCC
Vcc
Vin
VOUT
-+
+
Vout
VEE
Vee
Figure 24: Inverting amplifier with Cf filter

Figure 25: Inverting amplifier with Cf filter
Figure
25: Frequency
response
for inverting
op amp
with
Cf filter
Figure
26: Frequency
response
for inverting
op amp
with C
f filter
ti.com/amplifiers
40
Texas
Amplifier
Op amp
bandwidth
Op amp bandwidth
GBW
= Gain
BW
GBW
GainBW
(60) Gain
product
defined
Gain bandwidth
product
defined
(60) bandwidth
Where
Where
= bandwidth
gain bandwidth
product,
op amp
sheet specification table
GBWGBW
= gain
product,
listedlisted
in opinamp
datadata
sheet
Gain
= closed loop
gain, set by op amp gain configuration

specification
table
= the loop
bandwidth
limitation
of thegain
amplifier
Gain BW
= closed
gain, set
by op amp
configuration
BW = the bandwidth limitation of the amplifier
Example
Determine bandwidth using equation 60
Example
Gain 100
Determine
bandwidth using equation 60(from amplifier configuration)
Gain = 100 (from amplifier configuration)
(from data sheet)
GBW 22MHz
GBW = 22MHz (from data sheet)
GBW 22MHz
22MHz
GBW
= 220Hz
220 kHz
BW BW
= Gain= 100
100
Gain
Note that the same result can be graphically determined using the AOL curve as
Note shown
that thebelow.
same result can be graphically determined using the AOL curve
as shown below.
Open-loop gain and phase vs. frequency
Open-loop gain and phase vs. frequency
Figure 27: Using AOL to find closed-loop bandwidth

Figure 26: Using AOL to find closed-loop bandwidth
ti.com/amplifiers
41
Amplifier
Full power
Full
powerbandwidth
bandwidth
Full power bandwidth
SR
Maximum output without slew-rate induced
(61) Maximum
(61) output without slew-rate induced distortion
V
distortion
2fSR
Maximum output without slew-rate induced
(61)
V
distortion
2f
Where
VP = maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
Where
Where
= slew ratepeak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
VSR
P=
= maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
VPmaximum
f = =frequency
of applied signal
SR
raterate
SRslew
= slew
f = ffrequency
of applied
signal
= frequency
of applied
signal
Maximum output voltage vs. frequency


. /
. .
. /

. .

Figure 28: Maximum output without slew-rate induced distortion

Figure 27: Maximum output without slew-rate induced distortion
Figure
output
withoutusing
slew-rate
induced
Notice
that28:
theMaximum
above figure
is graphed
equation
61 for distortion
the OPA188. The
example
calculation
shows
the
peak
voltage
for
the
OPA277
at
40kHz.
This can be
Notice
thatthat
thethe
above
figure
is graphed
using
equation
6161
forfor
thethe
OPA277.
Notice
above
figure
is graphed
using
equation
OPA188. The
determined
graphically
or
with the
equation.
The
example
calculation
shows
the
peak
voltage
for
the
OPA277
at
40kHz.
example calculation shows the peak voltage for the OPA277 at 40kHz. This can be
Thisdetermined
can be determined
graphically
with the equation.
graphically
or with theorequation.
Example
Example
SR
Example
V
0.8V/s
3.8Vpk or 6.37Vpp
2fSR 20k
0.8V/s
V
SR
0.8V/s 3.8Vpk or 6.37Vpp
VP = 2f= 20k = 3.18Vpk or 6.37Vpp
2f
2(40kHz)
ti.com/amplifiers
42
Texas

42
Amplifier
Small signal
signal step
response
Small
step
response

0.35
f
a small
signal
(62)
(62)
RiseRise
timetime
for afor
small
signal
stepstep
Small signal step response
Where
0.35
of a small signal step response
(62) Rise time for a small signal step
R = the rise time
f
Where
C = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit
t f=
the rise time of a small signal step response
R
Wherebandwidth of the op amp circuit

fC = the closed-loop
Small signal step
response waveform
R = the rise time of a small signal step response
fC = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit
Small signal step response waveform
Small signal step response waveform
Figure 29: Small signal step response
Figure
29: Small
signal
step response
Figure 28:
Maximum
output
without
slew-rate induced distortion
ti.com/amplifiers
43
43
Amplifier
Op amp noise model

Op amp noise model
Figure 30: Op amp noiseFigure

model29: Op amp noise model
Op amp intrinsic noise includes:
Noise caused by op amp (current noise + voltage noise)
Op amp intrinsic noise includes:
Resistor noise
Noise caused by op amp (current noise + voltage noise)
Resistor noise
ti.com/amplifiers
44
Texas
Amplifier
Noise bandwidth calculation
Noise
bandwidth
calculation
Noise bandwidth
calculation
(63) Noise bandwidth
NoiseBW
bandwidth
f calculation
Noise
bandwidth
BW f
(63)Noise
(63)
bandwidth
BW Where
f
(63) Noise bandwidth
Where BW = noise bandwidth of the system
N
Where
BWN = noise
of the
systemfactor for different filter order
KN = bandwidth
the brick wall
correction
Where
BW
noise
bandwidth
of the factor
system
KNN==the
brick
wall
correction
for
different filter order
3 dB
bandwidth
system
noise
bandwidth
of of
thethe
system
BWN f=C =
brick
wall correction
factor for different filter order
KNfC == the
3 dB
bandwidth
of the system
KN = the brick wall correction factor for different filter order
fC = 3 dB bandwidth of the system
fC = 3 dB bandwidth of the system
Figure 31: Op amp bandwidth for three different filters orders

Table 15: Brick wall correction factors for noise bandwidth
Table 15: Brick wall correction factors for noise bandwidth
wall for noise bandwidth
KN brickfactors
16:ofBrick
wall correction
Number
poles
Table Table
15:
Brick
wall
correction
factors for noise
bandwidth
wall
KN brick
correction
factor
Number of poles
correction factorKN brick wall correction factor
Number
of
poles
KN brick wall
1
1.57
Number
1 of poles1
1.57
correction
factor
1.57
2
1.22
2 1
1.221.57
2
1.22
3
1.13
3 2
1.13
1.22
3
1.13
4
1.12
4 3
1.121.13
4
1.12
4
1.12
Broadband
total
noise
calculation
Broadband
totalcalculation
noise calculation
Broadband
total noise
Broadband
total
noise
calculation
Totalfrom
rmsbroadband
noise from broadband
E
(64) noise
BW
(64) Total rms
E BW
(64) Total rms noise from broadband

E Where
BW
(64) Total rms noise from broadband
Where Where
EN = total rms noise from broadband noise

ENrms
= total
rms
noise
from broadband
noise
EN = total
noise
from
broadband
noise
eBB = broadband
noise spectral
density (nV/rtHz)
Where
eBB = broadband
noise
spectral
density
(nV/rtHz)
e
=
broadband
noise
spectral
density
BB
= noise
bandwidth
(Hz)
EN = BW
totalN rms
noise
from broadband
noise (nV/rtHz)
BWN = noise
bandwidth
(Hz)
bandwidth
(Hz)
N = noisenoise
eBB =BW
broadband
spectral
density (nV/rtHz)
BWN = noise bandwidth (Hz)
ti.com/amplifiers
45

45
45
Amplifier
1/f total
noise
calculation
1/f
total
noise
calculation
1/f total noise calculation
Normalized1/f
1/fnoise
noiseatat1 1Hz
Hz
(65) Normalized
E_ f
(65)
E_ f
(65) Normalized 1/f noise at 1 Hz
Where
Where
E Where = 1/f noise normalized to 1 Hz
ENN_NORMAL
_NORMAL = 1/f noise normalized to 1 Hz
EN_NORMAL
= 1/f noise
normalized
to 1 in
Hzthe 1/f region
eBF
= noise spectral
density
measured
= =noise
spectral
density measured
in the
eBF
noise
spectral
the1/f
1/fregion
region
frequency
thatdensity
the 1/f measured
noise eBF isinmeasured
at
fOe=BFthe
fOfO= =the
frequency
that
the
1/f
noise
e
is
measured
BF
the frequency that the 1/f noise eBF is measuredat
at
f
E_ E_ f
f
E_ E_
f
1/f total noise calculation

(66)
1/fnoise
total noise
calculation
(66)
(66) 1/f total
calculation
Where
Where = total rms noise from flicker
EN_FLICKER
rmsnormalized
noise fromtoflicker
EN_FLICKER= =1/ftotal
noise
1 Hz
EN_NORMAL
Where
1/f frequency
noise
normalized
tobandwidth
1 Hz
E
E
==total
rms noise
flicker
fHN_FLICKER
=N_NORMAL
upper cutoff
orfrom
noise
f=H =
upper
frequency
or noise
bandwidth
fLN_NORMAL
lower
cutoff
normally
to 0.1 Hz
E
=cutoff
1/f frequency,
noise
normalized
to set
1Hz
f
=
lower
cutoff
frequency,
normally
set to 0.1 Hz
L
f = upper cutoff frequency or noise bandwidth
H
fL = lower cutoff frequency, normally set to 0.1Hz

Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Number of
Percent chance
Table
17:Number
Peak-to-peak
conversion
standard
deviations
reading
is inchance
range
of
Percent
reading
is in range
2standard
(same
as deviations
1)
68.3%
Number
of standard deviations
Percent chance reading is in range
2 (same as 1)
3 (same as 2
1.5)
(same as 1)
3 (same as 1.5)
(same as 1.5)
4 (same as3
2)
4 (same as
2)
4
(same as 2)
5 (same as 2.5)
5 (same as
2.5)
5 (same as 2.5)
6 (same as 3)
6 (same as 3)
6
(same
as
6.6 (same as 3)
3.3)
6.6 (same
as(same
3.3)
6.6
as 3.3)
68.3%
86.6%
86.6%
95.4%
95.4%
98.8%
98.8%
99.7%
99.7%
99.9%
99.9%
68.3%
86.6%
95.4%
98.8%
99.7%
99.9%
ti.com/amplifiers
46
Texas

46
Amplifier
Thermal noise calculation

En_R =
4kTRf
4kTR
Thermal noise calculation

en_R =
(67) Total rms Thermal Noise

(68) Thermal Noise Spectral Density
(67)
E_ 4 kTRf
Total rms thermal nois
Where
En_R = Total rms noise from resistance, also called thermal noise (V rms)
Where
en_R = Noise spectral density from resistance, also called thermal noise (V/Hz )
EkN_R
= total rms noise from resistance, also called thermal noise
= Boltzmanns constant 1.38 x 10-23J/K -23
kT== Boltzmanns
constant 1.38 x 10 J/K
Temperature in Kelvin
Tf==temperature
ininKelvin
Noise bandwidth
Hz
f = noise bandwidth in Hz
NoiseSpectralDensity(nV/rtHz)
1000
100
10
55C
25C
0.1
1.E+01
125C
1.E+02
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05

Resistance()
1.E+06
1.E+07
Figure
32:
Noise
spectral
vs. resistance
Figure 31:
Noise
spectral
densitydensity
vs. resistance
ti.com/amplifiers
47
Amplifier
Ac response
frequency (Dominant 2-Pole System)
Ac responseversus
versus frequency
Ac response versus frequency
Figure
32 illustrates
a bode
four different
differentexamples
examples
of peaking.
ac peaking.
Figure
33 illustrates
a bodeplot
plotwith
with four
of ac
Figure 33 illustrates a bode plot with four different examples of ac peaking.
Figure
32: Stability
ac peaking
relationship
Figure 33:
Stability
ac peaking
relationship
exampleexample
Figure 33: Stability ac peaking relationship example
Phase margin versus ac peaking
Phase
marginversus
versus ac
Phase
margin
acpeaking
peaking
This graph illustrates the phase margin for any given level of ac peaking.
graph
illustrates
thephase
phasemargin
margin for
of of
ac ac
peaking.
This This
graph
illustrates
the
for any
anygiven
givenlevel
level
peaking.
Note that 45 of phase margin or greater is required for stable operation.
NoteNote
thatthat
4545
of phase
isrequired
requiredforfor
stable
operation.
of phasemargin
marginor
or greater
greater is
stable
operation.
Figure 34: Stability phase margin vs. peaking for a two-pole system
ti.com/amplifiers
48
Texas
Amplifier
Transient overshoot (Dominant 2-Pole System)

Transient overshoot
Figure
34 35
illustrates
withtwo
two
different
examples of
Figure
illustratesa atransient
transient response
response with
different
examples
percentage
overshoot.
of
percentage
overshoot.
Transient overshoot
Figure 35 illustrates a transient response with two different examples
of percentage overshoot.
Figure 35:Figure
Stability
transient
overshootovershoot
example example
34:Stability
transient
Phase margin versus percentage overshoot
Figure 35: Stability transient overshoot example
Phase
margin
versus
overshoot
This graph
illustrates
the percentage
phase margin for
any given level of
transient
overshoot.
Note
that 45 of overshoot
phase margin or greater is required
Phase margin
versus
percentage
Thisforgraph
stableillustrates
operation. the phase margin for any given level of transient
This graph
illustrates
theof
phase
margin
for any
given level
of
overshoot.
Note
that 45
phase
margin
or greater
is required
for
transient overshoot. Note that 45 of phase margin or greater is required
stable
operation.
for stable operation.
Figure 36: Stability phase margin vs. percentage overshoot

Note:
assume
a two-pole
system.
Figure
35:
Stability
phase
margin
FigureThe
36:curves
Stability
phase
marginvs.
vs.percentage
percentageovershoot
overshoot
Note: The curves assume a two-pole system.
ti.com/amplifiers
49
49
Amplifier
VFB
R1
C1 1T
RF
L1 1T
VIN
V+
VO
Riso
VOUT
CL
V
Figure 36: Common spice test circuit used for stability
Figure 37: Common spice test circuit used for stability
A_
V
V
V
1
1
Loaded
open-loop gain
(68)
(69) Loaded
open-loop
gain
(70) Feedback
Feedback factor
(69) factor
(71) Closed-loop
gain noise gain
Closed-loop
(70) noise
A_ V
(72) Loop gain

(71)
Loop gain
Where
VO = the voltage at the output of the op amp.
Where
= the
voltage
delivered
the
load, which may be important to the
VVOOUT
= the
voltage
at output
the output
of thetoop
amp.
application
but
is
not
considered
in
stability
analysis.
VOUT = the voltage output delivered to the load,
which may be important to
feedback
voltage
VFB =the
application
but is not considered in stability analysis.
RF , R1, RISO and CL = the op amp feedback network and load. Other op amp
VFB = feedback voltage
topologies will have different feedback networks; however, the test circuit will be the
Rsame
, RiS0
andcases.
CL = the
op amp
feedback
network and
load.
most
Figure
38 shows
the exception
to the
rule (multiple feedback).
F , R1for
C1 and
Other
op components
amp topologies
have different
feedbackThey
networks;
L1 are
thatwill
facilitate
SPICE analysis.
are large (1TF, 1TH)
to make
however,
the test
circuit will
the
same
most
the circuit
closed-loop
forbe
dc,
but
openfor
loop
for cases.
ac frequencies. SPICE
requires
Figure
37 showsoperation
the exception
rule (multiple feedback).
closed-loop
at dc to
forthe
convergence.
C1 and L1 are components that facilitate SPICE analysis. They are large

(1TF, 1TH) to make the circuit closed-loop for dc, but open loop for ac

frequencies. SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc

for convergence.
ti.com/amplifiers
50
Texas
Amplifier
R1
R1
VFB
CIN
CF
V-
VIN
Vin
C1 1T
C1 1T
RF
RF
L1 1T
Cin
VFB
CF
V+
-
Riso
V+
Vo
Riso
VO
Vout
C
CL
VOUT
Figure 37: Alternative (multiple feedback) SPICE test circuit used for stability
Figure 38: Alternative (multiple feedback) SPICE test circuit used for stability
A_ V

V
V
V
1

V
A_ V
open
loop gain
(73) (72)
LoadedLoaded
open loop
gain
Feedback
(74) (73)
Feedback
factor factor
Closed-loop
noise gain
(75) (74)
Closed-loop
noise gain
Loop gain
(76) (75)
Loop gain
Where
Where
VOUT = the voltage output delivered to the load. This may be important to the
V
output
delivered
to the load.
This may be important to
application
but is not
considered
in stability
analysis.
OUT = the voltage
VFB =the
application
but is not considered in stability analysis.
feedback
voltage
, RISO and voltage

CF = the op amp feedback network. Because there are two paths for
RFB
F, R
V
=1feedback
feedback, the loop is broken at the input.
RF, R1, Riso and CF = the op amp feedback network. Because there are two
C and L1 are components that facilitate SPICE analysis. They are large (1TF, 1TH)
1 paths
for feedback, the loop is broken at the input.
to make the circuit closed loop for dc, but open loop for ac frequencies. SPICE
C
are components
thatatfacilitate
SPICE analysis. They are large
1 and L1
requires
closed-loop
operation
dc for convergence.
C =(1TF,
1TH) to make
circuit closed
loop
forthe
dc,op
but
open
loop for This
the equivalent
inputthe
capacitance
taken
from
amp
datasheet.
IN

ac frequencies. SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc for
capacitance normally does not need to be added because the model includes it.
convergence.
However, when using this simulation method the capacitance is isolated by
C
= theinductor.
equivalent input capacitance taken from the op amp datasheet.
IN 1TH
the

This capacitance normally does not need to be added because the

model includes it. However, when using this simulation method the

capacitance is isolated by the 1TH inductor.
ti.com/amplifiers
51
Amplifier
R1
RF
+Vs
VOUT
Voffset
+
-Vs
VIN
Volts
VOUT
Voffset
50mVpp
Figure 38: Transient real world stability test
Test tips
Choose test frequency << fcl
Small signal (Vpp 50 mV) ac output square wave (for example, 1 kHz)
Adjust VIN amplitude to yield output 50 mVpp
Worst cases is usually when Voffset = 0 (Largest RO, for IOUT = 0A).
Use Voffset as desired to check all output operating points for stability
Set scope = ac couple and expand vertical scope scale to look for
amount of overshoot, undershoot, and ringing on VOUT
Use 1x attenuation scope probe on VOUT for best resolution
ti.com/amplifiers
52
Texas
Amplifier
+15V
RIN1
VIN-
CCM1
1nF
CDIF
10nF
1k
RIN2
VIN+
Rg
1k
RG
RG
Ref
Out
VOUT
U1 INA333
1k
CCM2
1nF
-15V
Figure
filter for instrumentation
amplifier
Figure 40:
40: Input
Input
filter39:
forInput
instrumentation
amplifier
Figure
filter
for
instrumentation
amplifier
Figure 40: Input filter for instrumentation amplifier
Differential
filter
is sized
sized
10
(77) Differential
filter
is sized
10 is
times
the
filter
10
(76) Differential
Select C
1C
1C
(76)
Select C
times
the
common-mode
filter
common-mode
filter
Differential
filter is sized 10
times
the common-mode
filter
(76) Input resistors must be equal
Select C
1C
(77)
R
R
R

times
the
common-mode
filter
(77)
Input
resistors
must
be
equal
R
(78) Input resistors

must be equal
Common-mode
capacitors
(77)
Input
resistors
must
be
equal
R
RC
Common-mode
capacitors

(78)
C
(78) must be equal

C C
Common-mode
must
be equal capacitors
(79) Common-mode
capacitors must be equal
(78)
C C1
1
must be equal
ff
(79)
Differential
filter cutoff
cutoff
(79) Differential filter
2R
1 C
2R
C
f
(79)
Differential
filter
cutoff
(80) Differential filter cutoff
2R C
1
1

(80) Common-mode
Common-mode filter
filter cutoff
cutoff
ff
1
(80)
C1
1C
C
22R C
2
f 22R
(81)
Common-mode
filter
cutoff
(80) Common-mode filter cutoff
21
22R C C
2
Where
Where
fWhere
DIF = differential cutoff frequency
f
DIF = differential cutoff frequency
Where
ff CM =
= common-mode
common-mode
cutoff
frequency
differentialcutoff
cutoff
frequency
cutoff
frequency
DIF==differential
CM
frequency
fDIF
= common-mode
input
resistance
R
IN =
fRCM
cutoff
frequency
input resistance
IN
fCM
==common-mode
cutoff
frequency
C
common-mode
filter capacitance
capacitance
CM
resistance filter
RCM
C
=input
common-mode
IN =
C
=
differential
filter
capacitance
DIF
RC = =input
resistance
common-mode
capacitance
differential
filter filter
capacitance
CM
INDIF
= common-mode
differential filter filter
capacitance
DIF=
CCCM
capacitance
Note: Selecting
Selecting C
CDIF
10
10 C
CCM sets
sets the
the differential
differential mode
mode cutoff
cutoff frequency
frequency 10
10 times
times
Note:
DIF
CM
Clower
= differential
filter capacitance
than
the
common-mode
cutoff
frequency.
This
prevents
common-mode
noise
DIF
Note: than
Selecting
CDIF 10 CCM sets
differential
mode
cutoff common-mode
frequency 10 times
lower
the common-mode
cutoffthe
frequency.
This
prevents
noise
from
being
converted
into differential
differential
noise due
due to
to
component
tolerances.
lowerbeing
than the
common-mode
cutoff frequency.
This
prevents tolerances.
common-mode noise
from
converted
into
noise
component
10 Cdifferential
differential
cutoff tolerances.
frequency 10 times
Note:
CDIF into
from Selecting
being converted
due to mode
component
CM sets thenoise
lower than the common-mode cutoff frequency. This prevents common-mode noise
from being converted into differential noise due to component tolerances.
ti.com/amplifiers
53
53
53
53
Amplifier
Notes
ti.com/amplifiers
54
Texas
PCB
andWire
Wire
PCB
and
PCB and wire
PCB trace resistance for 1oz and 2oz Cu

Conductor spacing in a PCB for safe operation
Current carrying capacity of copper conductors
Package types and dimensions
PCB trace capacitance and inductance
PCB via capacitance and inductance
Common coaxial cable specifications
Coaxial cable equations
Resistance per length for wire types
Maximum current for wire types
55
PCB and Wire
Table 18: Printed circuit board conductor spacing

Minimum spacing
PCB and wire
Voltage between
conductors
(dc or ac peaks)
Bare board
Assembly
B1
B2
B3
B4
A5
A6
A7
0-15
0.05 mm
[0.00197 in]
0.1 mm
[0.0039 in]
0.1 mm
[0.0039 in]
0.05 mm
[0.00197 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
16-30
0.05 mm
[0.00197 in]
0.1 mm
[0.0039 in]
0.1 mm
[0.0039 in]
0.05 mm
[0.00197 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
0.25 mm
[0.00984 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
31-50
0.1 mm
[0.0039 in]
0.6 mm
[0.024 in]
0.6 mm
[0.024 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
51-100
0.1 mm
[0.0039 in]
0.6 mm
[0.024 in]
1.5 mm
[0.0591 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
0.5 mm
[0.020 in]
0.13 mm
[0.00512 in]
101-150
0.2 mm
[0.0079 in]
0.6 mm
[0.024 in]
3.2 mm
[0.126 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
151-170
0.2 mm
[0.0079 in]
1.25 mm
[0.0492 in]
3.2 mm
[0.126 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
171-250
0.2 mm
[0.0079 in]
1.25 mm
[0.0492 in]
6.4 mm
[0.252 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
251-300
0.2 mm
[0.0079 in]
1.25 mm
[0.0492 in]
12.5 mm
[0.492 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.4 mm
[0.016 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
301-500
0.25 mm
[0.00984 in]
2.5 mm
[0.0984 in]
12.5 mm
[0.492 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
1.5 mm
[0.0591 in]
0.8 mm
[0.031 in]
B1 Internal conductors
B2 External conductors uncoated sea level to 3050m
B3 External conductors uncoated above 3050m
B4 External conductors coated with permanent polymer coating (any elevation)
A5 External conductors with conformal coating over assembly (any elevation)
A6 External component lead/termination, uncoated, sea level to 3050m
A7 External component lead termination, with conformal coating (any elevation)
Extracted with permission from IPC-2221B, Table 6-1.
For additional information, the entire specification can be downloaded at
www.ipc.org
56
Texas
PCB and Wire
Figure
Self of
heating
of PCB
on inside layer
Figure 41:
Self 40:
heating
PCB traces
on traces
inside layer
Example
cause a 20 temperature rise in a PCB trace that is 0.1 inch

Example Find the current that will
2
wide and
useswill
2 oz/ft
copper.
(Assume
traces on outside
Find the current
that
cause
a 20C
temperature
rise in of
a PCB.)
PCB trace
2
that is 0.1 Answer
inch wide and uses 2 oz/ft copper. (Assume traces on
outside of PCB.)
First translate 0.1 inch to 250 sq. mils. using bottom chart. Next find the current
Answer associated with 10 and 250 sq. mils. using top chart (Answer = 5A).
First translate 0.1 inch to 250 sq. mils. using bottom chart. Next find
with permission from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1.
the currentExtracted
associated
with 10C and 250 sq. mils. using top chart
For additional information the entire specification can be downloaded at www.ipc.org
(Answer = 5A).
Extracted with permission from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1.
For additional information the entire specification can
be downloaded at www.ipc.org
57
57
PCB and Wire
PCBtrace
trace resistance
for 1
PCB
PCB traceresistance
resistancefor
for11oz
ozCu
Cu
oz-Cu
5mil
5mil
10mil
10mil
25mil
25mil
50mil
50mil
100mil
100mil
11
100m
100m
10m
10m
1m
1m
100
100
10
10
1
1
11
10
10
100
1000
100
1000
Trace
Tracelength
length(mils)
(mils)
10000
10000
Figure
42:
trace
resistance
vs.
and
width
for
oz-Cu,
25C
Figure
41:
trace
resistance
vs. length
width
for
1 oz-Cu,
25C
Figure
42:PCB
PCBPCB
trace
resistance
vs.length
length
andand
width
for11
oz-Cu,
25C
Figure
43:
PCB
trace
resistance
vs.
and
width
for
11oz-Cu,
125C
Figure
PCB
trace
resistance
vs.
length
width
1 oz-Cu,
125C
Figure
43:42:
PCB
trace
resistance
vs.length
length
andand
width
forfor
oz-Cu,
125C
Example
Example
What
Example
Whatisisthe
theresistance
resistanceof
ofaa20
20mil
millong,
long,55mil
milwide
widetrace
tracefor
foraa11oz-Cu
oz-Cuthickness
thicknessat
at
25C
and
125C?
What
is
the
resistance
of
a
20
mil
long,
5
mil
wide
trace
for
a
25C and 125C?
1 oz-Cu thickness at 25C and 125C?
Answer
Answer
Answer
R25C
==33m.
The
points
are
on
curves.
R25C==222m,
m,
R125C
TheThe
points
arecircled
circled
onthe
theon
curves.
R25C
m,R125C
R125C
= m.
3 m.
points
are circled
the curves.
58
Texas

58
58
PCB and Wire
PCB trace resistance for 2 oz Cu
PCB trace
1 resistance for 2 oz-Cu
PCB trace resistance for 2 oz Cu
1
100m
100m
10m
10m
1m
5mil
10mil
25mil
5mil
10mil
50mil
25mil
100mil
50mil
100mil
1m
100
100
10
10
1
1 1
1
10
100
1000
10000
Trace length
100 (mils) 1000
10000
Trace length (mils)
Figure 44: PCB trace resistance vs. length and width for 2 oz-Cu, 25C
10
Figure
PCB
trace
resistance
length
and
width
2 oz-Cu,
25C
Figure
44:43:
PCB
trace
resistance
vs.vs.
length
and
width
forfor
2 oz-Cu,
25C
Figure
44:
PCBtrace
traceresistance
resistancevs.
vs.length
length and
and width
width for
for 2
2 oz-Cu,
Figure
45:
PCB
oz-Cu, 125C
125C
Figure 45: PCB trace resistance vs. length and width for 2 oz-Cu, 125C
Example
Example
What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
Example
What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
25Cisand
What
the125C?
resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a
25C and 125C?
2 oz-Cu thickness at 25C and 125C?

Answer
Answer
Answer
R25C
22m,
== 3
m. The
Thepoints
pointsare
arecircled
circled
on
R25C= =
m,R125C
R125C =
m.
thecurves.
curves.
=2
m,
R125C
33 m.
The points
are circled
ononthe
theR25C
curves.
59
PCB and Wire
Common package
typetype
and dimensions
Common
package
and dimensions
120.2mil
3.05mm
60
Texas

60
PCB and Wire
PCB
parallel
plate
capacitance
PCB parallel
plate
capacitance
Capacitance for parallel copper
(82) Capacitance
for parallel copper planes
(81)
planes
k w r
PCB parallel plate capacitance

Where
Where
of free space.
kk ==Permittivity
Permittivity
of free space.
Both the metric and imperial
k version
w ofr the constant are given.
k = Both
8.85410-3
pF/mm,
or 2.24710-4
pF/mil
the
metric
and imperial
version of (81)
the constant
are given.
planes
=PCB
length (metric
in
mm,
or
imperial
in mil)
parallel plate capacitance
-4
w = width
(metric
in mm, or-3
imperial in mil)
k
=
8.85410
pF/mm,
or
2.24710
pF/mil
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
PCB relative dielectric constant (r 4.5 for FR-4)
Where
==
length (metric
k in
mm,
w r or imperial in mil)
(81)
planes
k = Permittivity of free space.
w = width (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
r
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
k = 8.85410-3 pF/mm, or 2.24710-4 pF/mil

w
h=
between
(metric in mm, or imperial
in mil)
= separation
length (metric in mm,
or imperial inplanes
mil)
Where
w = width (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
rhk === Permittivity
PCB relative
dielectric
constant
4.5
for
FR-4)
separation
between planes
(metric in mm,
or imperial in(
mil)
r
of free space.
r = PCB relative dielectric constant (r 4.5 for FR-4)
k = 8.85410-3 pF/mm, or 2.24710-4 pF/mil
= length (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
l or imperial in mil)
w = width (metric in mm,
r = PCB relative dielectric constant (r 4.5 for FR-4)
A
Figure 45: PCBl parallel plate capacitance
h
Example Calculate the total capacitance for =5.08mm,
w=12.7mm,
h=1.575mm,
h
Figure
45: PCB
parallel plate
capacitance
r = 4.5
r
r
(8.854
103 pFmm)
(5.08mm)
(12.7mm)
(4.5)
Example
Calculate
the total
capacitance
for =5.08mm,
C(pF)
= 45: PCB parallel plate capacitance
= 1.63pF
Figure
1.575mm
w=12.7mm, h=1.575mm, = 4.5
Example Calculate
3 the total capacitance for =5.08mm,
(8.854 10
pFmm) (5.08mm) (12.7mm) (4.5)
C(pF) = Calculate
= 1.63pF
w=12.7mm,
h=1.575mm,
r = 4.5
Example
the1.575mm
total capacitance
for =200mil,
w=500mil, h=62mil, r = 4.5
(8.854 103 pFmm) (5.08mm) (12.7mm) (4.5)
C(pF) =
= 1.63pF
4
C(pF)
= (2.247
10 pFmil)
(200mil)
(500mil)
(4.5)
Example
Calculate
the1.575mm
total
capacitance
for =200mil,
= 1.63pF
62mil = 4.5
w=500mil, h=62mil,
Example
C(pF)
= (2.247 10
4
Calculate
the total
capacitance
for (4.5)
=200mil,
pFmil)
(200mil)
(500mil)
= 1.63pF
w=500mil, h=62mil,
62mil r = 4.5
4
C(pF) = (2.247 10
pFmil) (200mil) (500mil) (4.5)

62mil

61
= 1.63pF
61
PCB and Wire
Microstrip capacitance and inductance

L(nH) = kL ln
C(pF) =
( 0.85.98 w +h t (
kC (r + 1.41)
ln
5.98 h
( 0.8
w+t (
(83) Inductance for microstrip
(84) Capacitance for microstrip
Where
kL = PCB inductance per unit length.
kL = 2nH/cm, or 5.071nH/in
kC = PCB capacitance per unit length.
kC = 0.264pF/cm, or 0.67056pF/in
= length of microstrip (metric in cm, or imperial in inches)
w = width of microstrip (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
t = thickness of copper (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
r = relative permittivity, approximately 4.5 for FR-4 PCB
For imperial:
Copper thickness (mils) =
1.37 (number of ounces)
i.e. 1oz Cu = 1.37mils
i.e. oz Cu = 0.684mils
h
Figure 46: PCB Microstrip capacitance and inductance
Example
Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for =2.54cm, w=0.254mm,
t=0.0356mm, h=0.8mm, r = 4.5 for FR-4
L(pF) = (2 nHcm) (2.54cm) ln
5.98 0.8mm
0.8 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
C(pF) = (0.264pF/cm) (2.54cm)(4.5 + 1.41) = 1.3pF

5.98 0.8mm
ln (
)
0.8 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
) = 15.2nH
Example Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for =1in, w=10mil,
t=1.4mil, h=31.5mil, r = 4.5 for FR-4
L = 15.2nH, C=1.3pF. Note: this is the same problem as above with imperial units.
62
Texas
Where
l = length of copper trace (mils)
t = thickness of copper trace (mils)
copper thickness (mils) = 1.37 * (number of ounces)
PCB
ex: 1 oz. copper thickness = 1.37 mils
ex: oz. copper thickness = 0.685 mils
d = distance
Adjacent
copperbetween
tracestraces (mils)
and Wire
r = tPCB
r 4.2 for FR-4)
k
dielectric constant ((85)
Same layer
C(pF) w = width of copper trace (mils)
d
h = separation between planes (mils)
r w
C(pF) Example
h
k
(86) Different layers
l = 100 mils
Where t = 1.37 mils (1 oz. copper)

= length
themils
copper trace (mil, or mm)
d of
= 10
-3
r = 4.2
k = 8.854*10
pF/mm, or k=2.247*10-4 pF/mil
w = 25
t = thickness
of mils
trace (in mil, or mm)
h = 63 mils
d = distance between traces if on same layer (mil, or mm)
For imperial:
Copper thickness (mils) =
1.37 (number of ounces)
w = widthAnswer
of trace. (mil, or mm)
h = separation between planes. (mil, or mm)

C (same layer) = 0.003 pF
i.e. 1oz Cu = 1.37mils

i.e. oz Cu = 0.684mils
r = PCBCdielectric
constant (r = 4.5 for FR-4)
(different layers) = 0.037
pF
Figure 47: Capacitance for adjacent copper traces

Figure 48: Capacitance for adjacent copper traces
Example: Calculate the total capacitance for both cases: =2.54mm,

t=0.0348mm, d=0.254mm, w=0.635mm, h=1.6mm, r = 4.5 for FR-4
C(pF)
(8.854 103 pF/mm) (0.0348mm) (2.54mm)

63
0.254mm
= 0.0031pF Same
layer
(8.854 103 pF/mm) (4.5mm) (0.635mm) (2.54mm)

= 0.04pF
1.6mm
Adjacent
layers
Example: Calculate the total capacitance for both cases: =100mil,
t=1.37mil, d=10mil, w=25mil, h=63mil, r = 4.5 for FR-4
C(pF)
C = 0.0031pF (Same layer), C=0.4pF (Adjacent layers). Note: this is the

same problem as above with imperial units.
63
PCB and Wire
PCB via capacitance and inductance
L(nH) kL h 1 + ln
C(pF)
(4hd )]
(87) Inductance for via
kC r h d1
d2 d1
(88) Capacitance for via
Where
kL = PCB inductance per unit length.
kL = 0.2nH/mm, or 5.07610-3nH/mil
kC = PCB capacitance per unit length.
kC = 0.0555pF/mm, or 1.4110-3pF/mil
h=
separation between planes
d=
diameter of via hole
d1 = diameter of the pad surrounding the via

d2 = distance to inner layer ground plane.
r =
PCB dielectric constant (r = 4.5 for FR-4)

d1
d
Top Layer
Trace
Middle Layer
GND
Plane
d2
Bottom Layer
Trace
Figure 48: Inductance and capacitance of via
Example: Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for h=1.6mm,

d=0.4mm, d1=0.8mm, d2=1.5mm
L(nH) (0.2 nHmm) (1.6mm) 1 + ln

C(pF)
1.6mm
(40.4mm
)] = 1.2nH
(0.0555pF/mm) (4.5) (1.6mm) (0.8mm)

1.5mm 0.8mm
= 0.46pF
Example: Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for h=63mil,

d=15.8mil, d1=31.5mil, d2=59mil
L=1.2nH, C=0.46pF. Note: this is the same problem as above with imperial units.
64
Texas
PCB and Wire
Type
ZO
Capacitance / length (pF/feet)
Outside diameter (inches)
dB attenuation /100 ft at 750 MHz
Dielectric type
Table 19: Coaxial cable information
RG-58
53.5
28.8
0.195
13.1
PE
Application
Test equipment and RF power to a few
hundred watts, and a couple hundred MHz
RG-8
52
29.6
0.405
5.96
PE
RG-214/U
50
30.8
0.425
6.7
PE
9914
50
26.0
0.405
4.0
PE
RG-6
75
20
0.270
5.6
PF
RG-59/U
73
29
0.242
9.7
PE
RG-11/U
75
17
0.412
3.65
PE
RF power to a few kW, up to several

hundred MHz
RG-62/U
93
13.5
0.242
7.1
ASP
Used in some test equipment and 100

video applications
RG-174
50
31
0.100
23.5
PE
RG-178/U
50
29
0.071
42.7
ST
RF power to a few kW, up to several

hundred MHz
Video and CATV applications. RF to a few
hundred watts, up to a few hundred MHz,
sometimes to higher frequencies if losses
can be tolerated
Miniature coax used primarily for test

equipment interconnection. Usually short
runs due to higher loss.
65
PCB and Wire
Coaxial
cable
equations
Coaxial cable
equations
C
2
D
Coaxial
cable equations
d
D2
d D
d
LL 1 D
2 d
C 2
Capacitance
per length
(89)
per length
(84)Capacitance
per length
(90)
per
length
(85)Inductance
Capacitance
per length
(84) Inductance
impedance
(91)
impedance
(86)Characteristic
Inductance
per length
(85) Characteristic
L
1
Characteristic impedance
(86)
Where
Where
C 2
inductance in
in henries
henries (H)
(H)
LL==inductance
Z = impedance in ohms ()
Where
Zd == impedance
ohms
()
diameter of in
inner
conductor
L = inductance in henries (H)
D
=
inside
diameter
of
shield,
or diameter of dielectric insulator
d = diameter of inner conductor
= dielectric constant of insulator ( = r o )
D = inside
diameter ofinshield,
Z = impedance
ohms or
()diameter of dielectric insulator
= magnetic permeability ( = r o )
d = diameter of inner conductor
l = length
dielectric
constant
of the
cable of insulator ( = r o )
D = inside diameter of shield, or diameter
of dielectric insulator
= magnetic
permeability
(of
= insulator
r o ) ( = r o )
= dielectric
constant
= magnetic
permeability ( = r o )
= length
of the cable
l = length of the cable
Insulation
Figure 49: Coaxial cable cutaway

66
Texas

65
PCB and Wire
Table 20: Resistance per length for different wire types (AWG)
AWG
Stds
36
36
Outside diameter
Area
dc resistance
in
mm
circular mils
mm2
/ 1000 ft
/ km
Solid
0.005
0.127
25
0.013
445
1460
7/44
0.006
0.152
28
0.014
371
1271
34
Solid
0.0063
0.160
39.7
0.020
280
918
34
7/42
0.0075
0.192
43.8
0.022
237
777
32
Solid
0.008
0.203
67.3
0.032
174
571
32
7/40
0.008
0.203
67.3
0.034
164
538
30
Solid
0.010
0.254
100
0.051
113
365
30
7/38
0.012
0.305
112
0.057
103
339
28
Solid
0.013
0.330
159
0.080
70.8
232
28
7/36
0.015
0.381
175
0.090
64.9
213
26
Solid
0.016
0.409
256
0.128
43.6
143
26
10/36
0.021
0.533
250
0.128
41.5
137
24
Solid
0.020
0.511
404
0.205
27.3
89.4
24
7/32
0.024
0.610
448
0.229
23.3
76.4
22
Solid
0.025
0.643
640
0.324
16.8
55.3
22
7/30
0.030
0.762
700
0.357
14.7
48.4
20
Solid
0.032
0.813
1020
0.519
10.5
34.6
20
7/28
0.038
0.965
1111
0.562
10.3
33.8
18
Solid
0.040
1.020
1620
0.823
6.6
21.8
18
7/26
0.048
1.219
1770
0.902
5.9
19.2
16
Solid
0.051
1.290
2580
1.310
4.2
13.7
16
7/24
0.060
1.524
2828
1.442
3.7
12.0
14
Solid
0.064
1.630
4110
2.080
2.6
8.6
14
7/22
0.073
1.854
4480
2.285
2.3
7.6
67
PCB and Wire
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
(high density) at 90C
Polyvinylchloride Nylon
at 105C
Imax (A)
Imax (A)
Imax (A)
Imax (A)
Kapton
Teflon
Silicon at 200C
Polyethylene
Neoprene
Polyvinylchloride
(semi-ridged) at 80C
AWG
Kynar
Polyethylene
Thermoplastic at 125C
Wire gauge
Table 21: Maximum current vs. AWG
Imax (A)
30
28
26
24
10
22
10
11
13
20
10
12
13
14
17
18
15
17
18
20
24
16
19
22
24
26
32
14
27
30
33
40
45
12
36
40
45
50
55
10
47
55
58
70
75
Note: Wire is in free air at 25C
Example
What is the maximum current that can be applied to a
30 gauge Teflon wire in a room temperature environment?
What will the self-heating be?
Answer
Imax = 4A
Wire temperature = 200C
68
Texas
Sensor
Sensor
Sensor
Thermistor
Resistive temperature detector (RTD)
Diode temperature characteristics
Thermocouple (J and K)
69
70
55C < T < 150C
Low
LowLow
Low
High
Low
Less rugged
Very nonlinear. Follows reciprocal

|of logarithmic function
General
Applications
General
General
General
General
Requires excitation
General
purpose
Requires
excitation
Requires
excitation
Requires
excitation
Requires
excitation
Very
wide
variation
in resistance
Applications
General
purpose
General
purpose
Applications
General
purpose
Applications
General
purpose
Applications
range
180 to 3.9 k for PT1000
Requires excitation
Scientific
and industrial
Requires
excitation
Requires
excitation
Requires
excitation
Requires
excitation
Scientific
industrial
Scientific
andindustrial
industrial
Scientific
and and
industrial
Scientific
and
Industrial temperature
Requires excitation
Self-powered
Requires cold junction comp
Requires
Self-powered
Requires
excitation
Self-powered
Requires
excitation
Requires
excitation
Self-powered
Lowexcitation
cost
linear response Self-powered
measurement
Requires
junction
comp
Requires
cold
junction
comp
Requires
coldcold
junction
comp
Requires
cold
junction
comp
Low cost temperature monitor
10s of millivolts
0.4 to 0.8V
cost
temperature
monitor
Industrial
temperature
Low
cost
temperature
monitor Industrial
Industrial
temperature
LowLow
cost
temperature
monitor
temperature
Low
cost
temperature
monitor
Industrial
temperature
cost
linear
response
measurement
Low
cost
linear
response
measurement
LowLow
cost
linear
response
measurement
Low
cost
linear
response
measurement
of
millivolts
10s
millivolts
10s 10s
of millivolts
10s
ofofmillivolts
Most rugged
0.40.8V
to0.4
0.8V
0.8V
0.4 to
0.4
toto0.8V
Complex 10th order polynomial
rugged
Most
rugged
MostMost
rugged
Most
rugged
Rugged
diode processing
Rugged
Rugged
Rugged
Rugged
Depends on Type (can be rugged)
Typically
to
100s
of full
k
full
to18
390
for
PT100
Output
range
Typically
10s
to100s
100s
kfull
fullto18390
390
forPT100
PT100
Output
range
18
tofor
PT100
Typically
10s 10s
to 100s
k
Output
range
Typically
10s
toof
ofofk
18
to
390
for
Output
range
Typically
10s
toVery
100s
ofvariation
k
scale.
Very
wide
variation
to
3.9
k
for
PT1000
180
to3.9
3.9
kfor
forPT1000
PT1000
scale.
wide
variation
scale.
Very
wide
variation
in in inin180 180
to 180
3.9
k
for
PT1000
to
k
scale.
Very
wide
Output
18
to
390
for
PT100
resistance.
resistance.
resistance.
resistance.
full scale
Construction
Linearity
Relatively simple quadratic function
Good accuracy with

polynomial correction
Depends
on on
Type
(can
be bebe
Depends
on
Type
(can
Depends
on Type
(can
be(can
Depends
Type
rugged)
rugged)
rugged)
rugged)
Poor accuracy without calibration
rugged
Construction
Less
rugged
Construction
LessLess
rugged
Construction
Less
rugged
Construction
Less accurate over full range
Low
LowLow
Low
accuracy
without
calibration.
Good
accuracy
polynomial
Poor
accuracy
without
calibration.
Good
accuracy
with
polynomial
PoorPoor
accuracy
without
calibration.
Good
accuracy
withwith
polynomial
Poor
accuracy
without
calibration.
Good
accuracy
with
polynomial
correction.
correction.
correction.
correction.
Low
250C
T< <1800C
250C
<250C
T<T
1800C
250C
<<<T1800C
250C
<1800C
T < 1800C
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Nonlinearity
< 4.5%
of scale.
full
scale.
Slope
-2mV/C
Nonlinearity
< 10%
of scale
full
scale
Slope
-2mV/C
Nonlinearity
10%
fullscale
scale
Nonlinearity
4.5%
fullscale.
scale.
Slope
Slope
-2mV/C
< 10%
full
Nonlinearity
< 4.5%
full
Nonlinearity
<of<4.5%
ofoffull
linear
-2mV/C
Nonlinearity
<of<10%
ofoffull
Fairly
Slope -2mV/CNonlinearity
Fairly
linear
Fairly
linear
Relatively
simple
quadratic
Slope
varies
according
to current
Complex
order
polynomial
Slope
varies
according
tocurrent
current
Complex
10th
order
polynomial
Relatively
simple
quadratic Slope
varies
according
to current
Complex
10th10th
order
polynomial
Relatively
simple
quadratic
Relatively
simple
quadratic
Slope
varies
according
to
Complex
10th
order
polynomial
Slope
varies
according
to
current
function.
excitation,
diode
type,
and
diode
function.< 4.5% of full scaleexcitation,
excitation,
diode
type,
anddiode
diode
diode
type,
and
diode
function.
function.
excitation,
diode
type,
and
Nonlinearity < 10% of full scale
Nonlinearity
excitation, diode type, and
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
Accuracy
Low
LowLow
Low
Diode
55C
T< <150C
55C
< 55C
T<T
150C
55C
<<<T150C
55C
<150C
T < 150C
Diode
Diode
Diode
Diode
TableTable
22: Temperature
sensor overview
21: Temperature sensor overview
Table 21: Temperature sensor overview
nonlinear.
Follows
Linearity
Very
nonlinear.
Follows
Linearity VeryVery
nonlinear.
Follows
Linearity
Very
nonlinear.
Follows
Linearity
reciprocal
of logarithmic
reciprocal
logarithmic
reciprocal
of logarithmic
reciprocal
ofoflogarithmic
function.
function.
function.
function.
Accuracy
High
HighHigh
High
RTD
200C
850C
200C
<200C
T<T
850C
200C
<<<T850C
200C
<T<T<850C
<
850C
RTD
RTDRTD
RTD
Excellent
accuracy
Excellent
accuracy
Excellent
accuracy
Excellent
accuracy
Good accuracy at one
temperature.
temperature.
temperature.
Goodtemperature.
accuracy
at
one
temperature
accurate
full full
range.
Less
accurate
over
fullrange.
range.
LessLess
accurate
overover
fullover
range.
Less
accurate
Excellent accuracy
CostAccuracy
Low
Good
accuracy
at one
Accuracy
Good
accuracy
at one
AccuracyGood
accuracy
at one
Cost
CostCost
Cost
<150C
150C
Temprange
range
55C 55C
< 55C
T < 150C
Temp range
T T<150C
Temp
Temp
range
55C
< T< <<
Temp range
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Sensors
Sensor

70
70
70
Sensor
Thermistor:
Resistance to temperature, Steinhart-Hart equation
Thermistor: Resistance to temperature, Steinhart-Hart equation
1
Convert resistance to
(87)
R to temperature,
(92) Convert Steinhart-Hart
resistance
to temperature
a thermistor
Thermistor: RResistance
equation
temperature
for for
a thermistor
T
1
Convert resistance to
Where
(87)
R
R
Where
temperature for a thermistor
T
T = temperature in Kelvin
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
a,Where
b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
R = resistance in ohms
temperature
in Kelvin
RT==resistance
in ohms
a,
b,
c
=
Steinhart-Hart
equation
constants Steinhart-Hart equation
Thermistor: Temperature
to resistance,
[
[
[
[
Thermistor:x Temperature
to resistance, Steinhart-Hart
equation
Convert temperature
to
x
(88)
y Temperature
y+
Thermistor:
to resistance, Steinhart-Hart
equation
resistance
for a thermistor
2
2
x
x
y
y
1y
T
1
T
cb
3c
b
3c
x
2
y+
x
4
x
4
x
2
Convert temperature to
(88)
(93) Convert
to resistance
resistance
forinaEquation
thermistor
Factor
used
88
(89)temperature
for a thermistor
Factor
used93
in Equation 88
(94) Factor(89)
used in
Equation
Factor used in Equation 88
(90)
(95) Factor(90)
used in
Equation
Factor
used93
in Equation 88
Where
Where
Where
a,
b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
R==
resistance
Rx,
ininohms
yresistance
=
Steinhart-Hart
factors used in temperature to resistance equation
T
=
temperature
Kelvin
T = temperature ininKelvin
x, y = Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
x, y = Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation

71
71
Sensor
RTD equation
temperature
to resistance
RTD
equation
temperature
to resistance
T
R
0
0
0T
0
RTD equation
temperature
to
resistance
R
0T
RTD resistance for

(96) RTD resistance
for T<0C
(91)
T<0C
RTD resistance for
(97) RTD resistance
for T>0C
(92)
(91)
T>0C
T<0C
Where
RTD resistance for
Where
R
0
0 of RTD
0 T over temperature range of (200C (92)
Rrtd = resistance
< T < 850C)
T>0C
Rrtd = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
Ro = 100 for PT-100, 1000 for PT-1000
RWhere
for PT-100, 1000 for PT-1000
A0O=
, B100
O, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
Rrtd = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
in degreesDusen
Celsius
( )
AT0,=Btemperature
coefficients
0, C0 = Callendar-Van
Ro = 100 for PT-100, 1000 for PT-1000
TA=O,temperature
in
degrees
Celsius
(C)
BO, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
RTD equation
resistance to temperature (T>0C)
T = temperature in degrees Celsius ( )
R
RTD resistance
A
RTD
equation
resistance
to temperature
RTD equation
resistance
toRtemperature
(T>0C) (T>0C)
(93)
0
for T>0C
2B
R
RTD
A
(98) RTD resistance
for resistance
T>0C
Where
R0
(93)
for T>0C
RRTD = resistance2B
of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
Ro = 100
Where
AO, BO, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
Where
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
= temperature
Celsius
( )
RTRTD
= resistanceinofdegrees
RTD over
temperature
range of (200C < T < 850C)
Ro = 100
RA0O=
, B100
, C = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
TableO22:OCallendar-Van Dusen coefficients for different RTD standards
T
=
temperature
in degreesDusen
Celsius
( )
A0, B0, C0 = Callendar-Van
coefficients
IEC-751
T = temperature
in degrees Celsius (C) US Industrial
43760
Table 22: DIN
Callendar-Van
Dusen coefficients for different RTD standards
US Industrial
Standard
BS 1904
IEC-751
Standard
D-100
ASTM-E1137
US Industrial
Table 23: Callendar-Van
Dusen
coefficients
for different
RTD standardsITS-90
DIN
43760
American
EN-60751
JISC 1604
American
US Industrial
Standard
BS 1904
A0
+3.9083E-3
+3.9787E-3
IEC-751
DIN 43760 +3.9739E-3
US Industrial +3.9692E-3
US Industrial +3.9888E-3
Standard
D-100
ASTM-E1137
1904 ASTM-E1137 5.870E-7
Standard 5.8495E-7
Standard 5.915E-7
B0 BS 5.775E-7
5.8686E-7
American
EN-60751
JISC 1604
American
ITS-90
EN-60751
JISC 1604
D-100 American
American
ITS-90
C0
4.183E-12
4.4E-12
4.167E-12
4.233E-12
3.85E-12
A0
+3.9083E-3
+3.9739E-3
+3.9787E-3
+3.9692E-3
+3.9888E-3
+3.9083E-3
+3.9739E-3
+3.9787E-3
+3.9692E-3
+3.9888E-3
A0
B0
5.775E-7
5.870E-7
5.8686E-7
5.8495E-7
5.915E-7
5.775E-7
5.870E-7
5.8686E-7
5.8495E-7
5.915E-7
B0
C0
4.183E-12
4.4E-12
4.167E-12
4.233E-12
3.85E-12
Example
4.183E-12
4.4E-12
4.167E-12
4.233E-12
3.85E-12
C
0
What is the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120 ?

Example
Answer
What is the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120 ?
Example
120
What is the temperature3.9888
given an
10 ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120?
100
Answer
Answer
3.9888 10
72
120
120
100
100

72
Sensor
RTD
equation
resistance
to temperature
RTD equation
resistance
to temperature
(T<0C) (T<0C)
(99) RTD resistance for T<0C

(94)
RTD resistance
for T<0
Where
Where
()
T = temperature in degrees Celsius (C)
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (T<0)
RRTD
= resistance of RTD over temperature range of (T<0C)
I = polynomial coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0
i = polynomial coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0C
th
Table 23: Coefficients for 5 order RTD resistance to temperature

IEC-751
Table 24:DIN
Coefficients
for 5th orderUS
RTD
resistance to temperature
Industrial
43760
US Industrial
Standard
BS 1904
IEC-751
Standard
D-100
ASTM-E1137
DIN 43760
American
EN-60751
JISC
1604
American
ITS-90
BS 1904
US Industrial
0 2.4202E+02
2.3864E+02
ASTM-E1137 2.3820E+02 2.3818E+02
Standard
US Industrial 2.3791E+02
EN-60751
JISC 1604
D-100
American Standard
American
ITS-90
1
2.2228E+00
2.1898E+00
2.1956E+00
2.1973E+00
2.2011E+00
2
0
2.4202E+02
2.5857E-03 2.3820E+02
2.5226E-03
2.3818E+02
2.4413E-03
2.3864E+02 2.3223E-03
2.3791E+02
2.4802E-03
3
1
4.8266E-06
4.7825E-06
2.2228E+00
2.1898E+00
4.7517E-06
2.1956E+00
4.7791E-06
2.1973E+00 4.6280E-06
2.2011E+00
4
2
5
2.8152E-08
2.7009E-08
2.5857E-03
2.5226E-03
1.5224E-10
1.4719E-10
4.8266E-06 4.7825E-06
2.3831E-08
2.4413E-03
1.3492E-10
4.7517E-06
2.5157E-08
2.4802E-03 1.9702E-08
2.3223E-03
1.4020E-10
1.1831E-10
4.7791E-06
4.6280E-06
2.8152E-08
2.7009E-08
2.3831E-08
2.5157E-08
1.9702E-08
1.5224E-10
5
Example
1.4719E-10
1.3492E-10
1.4020E-10
1.1831E-10
Find the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 60 .

Answer
Example
0 60 0 00 60 0 60
Find the temperature

given an
ITS-90
resistance of 60 .

0
60PT100
6
Answer
60
60

73
60
60
73
Sensor
Diode equation vs. temperature

V
nkT
I
nkT
I
n
n
q
I
q
I
(100) Diode(95)
voltage
Diode voltage

Where
Where
vs. nkT
temperature
and current
VD = diode
nkT voltage
I
I
VV
dioden
voltage
vs.temperature
and1 current

n from
D=
n
=diode
factor
(ranges
to 2)
q ideality
I-23
q
I
1.38 xideality
10 J/K,
Boltzmanns
constant
n k==diode
factor
(ranges from
1 to 2)
T = temperature
in Kelvin
k Where
= 1.38 x 10-23
-19 J/K, Boltzmanns constant
q
x 10
C, charge
of an electron
diode
voltage
vs. temperature
and current
VD= =1.60
TI==temperature
in current
Kelvin in amps
forward
diode
n = diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
-19
-23 C, charge
saturation
of an electron
qkIS===1.60
xx10
1.38
10 current
J/K, Boltzmanns
constant
(95)
Diode voltage
T forward
= temperature
in Kelvinin amps
I=
diode current
qV
-19
x
q
=1.60
10
C, charge
of an electron
(96) Saturation current
T
IS = saturation current
nkT
I = forward diode current in amps
Where
qV
Saturation current
T
tothe cross sectional area
(96) current
I =constant
related
of the
junction
(101)
Saturation
nkT
VG = diode voltage vs. temperature and current
Where
-23
x 10 current
J/K, Boltzmanns constant
IkS == 1.38
saturation
Where
T=
= constant
temperature
in Kelvin
related
IS = saturation-19
currentto the cross sectional area of the junction
q = =1.60
x 10
C, charge
of an electron
V
diode
voltage
vs. temperature
and current
G
= constant related to the cross sectional area of the junction
-23
VkG == 1.38
diodex voltage
vs.Boltzmanns
temperatureconstant
and current
10 J/K,
temperature
in Kelvin
n T= =diode
ideality factor
(ranges from 1 to 2)
-19
q = 1.60 x 10-23 C, charge of an electron
k = 1.38 x 10 J/K, Boltzmanns constant
q = 1.60 x 10-19 C, charge of an electron
74

74
Sensor
Diode voltage versus temperature

Figure 50 shows an example of the temperature drift for a diode.
Depending on the characteristics of the diode and the forward current
versus temperature
the Diode
slopevoltage
and offset
of this curve will change. However, typical diode drift
is about
2mV/C.
A forward drop of about 0.6V is typical for
Figure 50 shows an example of the temperature drift for a diode. Depending on the
room
temperature.
characteristics
of the diode and the forward current the slope and offset of this curve
will change. However, typical diode drift is about 2mV/C. A forward drop of about
0.6V is typical for room temperature.
Figure 50: Diode voltage

vs. temperature
Figuredrop
50: Diode
voltage drop vs. temperature
75
75
Sensor
Type J thermocouples translating temperature to voltage

(ITS-90 standard)
Type J thermocouples translating temperature to voltage (ITS-90 standard)
(102) Thermoelectric voltage
(97)
Thermoelectric
voltage

Where
Where
T = thermoelectric voltage
VV
T = thermoelectric voltage
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
ci = translation coefficients
Table 24: Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage
Table 25: Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
219 to 760
760temperature
to 1,200to voltage
Type J thermocouple
c0
c1
c0
c2
c
1
c3
c2
c4
c3
c5
c4
c6
c
c75
c6
c8
c7
c8
76
0.0000000000E+00
219C to 760C2.9645625681E+05
5.0381187815E+01
1.4976127786E+03
0.0000000000E+00
760C to 1,200C
2.9645625681E+05
3.0475836930E-02
3.1787103924E+00 1.4976127786E+03
5.0381187815E+01
8.5681065720E-05
3.1847686701E-03
3.0475836930E-02
3.1787103924E+00
1.3228195295E-07
1.5720819004E-06
8.5681065720E-05
3.1847686701E-03
1.7052958337E-10
3.0691369056E-10
1.3228195295E-07
1.5720819004E-06
2.0948090697E-13
-1.7052958337E-10
3.0691369056E-10
1.2538395336E-16
-2.0948090697E-13
1.5631725697E-20
--
1.2538395336E-16
1.5631725697E-20

76
Sensor
Type J thermocouples translating voltage to temperature

(ITS-90 standard)
Type J thermocouples translating voltage to temperature (ITS-90 standard)
(103) Temperature
(98)
Temperature
Table 25: Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients

Table 26: Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients
Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature
Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage
219C to 0C
0C to 760C
760C to 1,200C
219C to 0C
0C to 760C
760C to 1,200C
c0
0.000000000E+00
0.000000000E+00
3.113581870E+03
0.000000000E+00
0.000000000E+00
3.113581870E+03
c0
c1
1.952826800E-02
1.978425000E-02
3.005436840E-01
c1
1.952826800E-02
1.978425000E-02
3.005436840E-01
c2
1.228618500E-06
2.001204000E-07
9.947732300E-06
1.228618500E-06
2.001204000E-07
9.947732300E-06
c2
c3
1.075217800E-09
1.036969000E-11
1.702766300E-10
1.075217800E-09
1.036969000E-11
1.702766300E-10
c3
c4
5.908693300E-13
2.549687000E-16
1.430334680E-15
5.908693300E-13
2.549687000E-16
1.430334680E-15
cc5
4
1.725671300E-16
3.585153000E-21
4.738860840E-21
cc6
5
cc7
6
1.725671300E-16
2.813151300E-20
2.813151300E-20
2.396337000E-24
3.585153000E-21
5.344285000E-26
5.344285000E-26
5.099890000E-31
cc8
7
8.382332100E-29
2.396337000E-24
-5.099890000E-31
c8
8.382332100E-29
4.738860840E-21
---
--
77
Sensor
Type K thermocouples translating temperature to voltage

(ITS-90
standard) translating temperature to voltage (ITS-90 standard)
Type K thermocouples
Thermoelectric
voltage
(99)
(104) Thermoelectric
voltage for
T<0C
for T<0
V e
voltage forT>0C
voltage
forT>0
Where
VT = thermoelectric voltage
Where
in degrees
VTT==temperature
thermoelectric
voltage Celsius
translation coefficients
Tci == temperature
in degrees Celsius
0, 1 = translation coefficients
26: Type K thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
Table
0, 1 = translation coefficients
219C to 760C
760C to 1,200C
0.0000000000E+00
1.7600413686E+01
c0 27: Type
Table
K thermocouple temperature
to voltage coefficients
3.9450128025E+01
3.8921204975E+01
c1
219C to 760C
760C to 1,200C
2.3622373598E-02
1.8558770032E-02
c2
0.0000000000E+00
1.7600413686E+01
c0
3.2858906784E-04
9.9457592874E-05
c
3
cc41
3.9450128025E+01 3.1840945719E-07 3.8921204975E+01

4.9904828777E-06
2.3622373598E-02 5.6072844889E-10 1.8558770032E-02
6.7509059173E-08
cc6
5.7410327428E-10
3.2858906784E-04 5.6075059059E-13 9.9457592874E-05
3.1088872894E-12
3.2020720003E-16
4.9904828777E-06
3.1840945719E-07
1.0451609365E-14
9.7151147152E-20
6.7509059173E-08
5.6072844889E-10
1.9889266878E-17
1.2104721275E-23
5.7410327428E-10
5.6075059059E-13
1.6322697486E-20
--
cc52
c7
c4
c8
c9 5
cc
106
c07
c1
8
78
3.1088872894E-12
-1.1859760000E+02 3.2020720003E-16
-1.1834320000E-04 9.7151147152E-20
1.0451609365E-14
c9
1.9889266878E-17
1.2104721275E-23
c10
1.6322697486E-20
1.1859760000E+02
1.1834320000E-04

78
Sensor
Type K thermocouples translating voltage to temperature

(ITS-90 standard)
Type K thermocouples translating voltage to temperature (ITS-90 standard)
(106) Temperature
(101)
Temperature
Table 27: Type K thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients
Table 28: Type K thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients
219C to 0C
219C to 0C
0C to 760C
760C to 1,200C
0C to 760C
760C to 1,200C
0.0000000E+00
0.0000000E+00
1.3180580E+02
2.5173462E-02
2.5083550E-02
4.8302220E-02
7.8601060E-08
1.6460310E-06
1.0833638E-09
8.9773540E-13
2.5031310E-10
8.3152700E-14
5.4647310E-11
9.6507150E-16
8.9773540E-13
3.7342377E-16
8.3152700E-14
1.2280340E-17
9.6507150E-16
8.8021930E-21
c5c6
3.7342377E-16
8.6632643E-20
1.2280340E-17
9.8040360E-22
8.8021930E-21
3.1108100E-26
c6c7
1.0450598E-23
8.6632643E-20
4.4130300E-26
9.8040360E-22
-3.1108100E-26
5.1920577E-28
1.0450598E-23
1.0577340E-30
4.4130300E-26
--
1.0527550E-35
1.0577340E-30
1.0527550E-35
c0
0.0000000E+00
c1
2.5173462E-02
c2
1.1662878E-06
c0
c1
c2c3
c3c4
c4c5
c7c8
c9
1.1662878E-06
1.0833638E-09
c8
-5.1920577E-28
c9
0.0000000E+00
2.5083550E-02
7.8601060E-08
2.5031310E-10
1.3180580E+02
4.8302220E-02
1.6460310E-06
5.4647310E-11
--
79
Sensor
Table 29: Seebeck coefficients for different material

Material
Seebeck
coefficient
Material
Seebeck
coefficient
Material
Seebeck
coefficient
Aluminum
Gold
6.5
Rhodium
Antimony
47
Iron
19
Selenium
900
Bismuth
72
Lead
Silicon
440
Cadmium
7.5
Mercury
0.6
Silver
6.5
Carbon
Nichrome
25
Sodium
2.0
Constantan
35
Nickel
15
Tantalum
4.5
Copper
6.5
Platinum
Tellurium
500
Germanium
300
Potassium
9.0
Tungsten
7.5
Note: Units are V/C. All data at temperature of 0C
80
A/D Conversion
A/D conversion
ti.com/adcs
81
A/D conversion
Binary/hex conversions
A/D and D/A transfer function
Quantization error
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD)
Total harmonic distortion (THD)
Effective number of bits (ENOB)
Noise-free resolution and effective resolution
A/D Conversion
Numbering systems: Binary, decimal, and hexadecimal

Binary (Base-2)
0
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Decimal (Base-10)
Hexadecimal (Base-16)
2(1000) + 3(100) + 4(10) + 1(1) = 2,341
MSD
= Most significant digit
2(1000) + 3(100) + 4(10) + 1(1) = 2,341
MSD = Most significant

digit
Example
conversion:
todecimal
decimal
Example
conversion: Binary
Binary to

Example conversion: Binary to decimal
Binary
Decimal
Decimal
Binary
=
=
LSD
LSD
8+4+0+1
8+4+0+1
Example conversion: Decimal to binary
Example conversion:
Decimal
to binary
Example
conversion:
Decimal
to binary
Decimal
Binary
Binary
Decimal
LSD
=
=
A/D conversion
LSD
128+64+32+8+4=236
MSD
128+64+32+8+4=236
LSD = Least Significant Digit
MSD = Most Significant Digit
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82
A/D Conversion
Example conversion:
Binary
to hexadecimal
Example
conversion:
Binary to hexadecimal
Binary
Example conversion: Binary

MSD to hexadecimal
LSD
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
Hexadecimal
Conversion
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
8 + 4 + 1 = 13 (D)
8 8++14=+91 = 13 (D)
161 160
161 160
Hexadecimal
8+1=9
D 9
D 9
MSD LSD
MSD
208 + 9 = 217
208 + 9 = 217
Example Conversion: Hexadecimal to decimal

Example Conversion:
Hexadecimal
binary

and
decimal totohexadecimal
Decimal (Base-10)
Hexadecimal (Base-16)
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A BCDE F
Decimal
Hexadecimal
x16 3 x16 2 x16 1 x16 0
16 9903 R = 15 (F)
=
2 6 A F
MSD
LSD
LSD
16 618 R = 10 (A)
16 38 R = 6 (6)
16 38 R = 2 (2)
LSD
MSD
2(4096) + 6(256) + 10(16) + 16(1) = 9903
LSD = Least Significant Digit

MSD = Most Significant Digit83
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83
A/D Conversion
A/D Converter with PGA

5V
FSR
0 to 2.5V
VREF
PGA
x2
ADC
12 bits
ADC in
0 to 5V
Digital
I/O
Figure 51: ADC full-scale range (FSR) unipolar
Full Scale Range (FSR) Unipolar

VREF
FSR =
PGA
1LSB =
FSR
2n
Example calculation for the circuit above.
FSR =
VREF
1LSB =
PGA
FSR
2n
=
=
5V
= 2.5V
2
2.5V
= 610.35V
212
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84
A/D Conversion
A/D Converter with PGA

2.5V
FSR
0 to 1.25V
VREF
PGA
x2
ADC
12 bits
ADC in
0 to 2.5V
Digital
I/O
Figure 52: ADC full-scale range (FSR) Bipolar
Full Scale Range (FSR) Bipolar

FSR =
VREF
PGA
1LSB =
FSR
2n
Example calculation for the circuit above.

FSR =
VREF
2.5V
=
= 1.25V 2.5V
PGA
2
1LSB =
FSR
2n
2.5V
= 610.35V
212
ti.com/adcs
85
A/D Conversion
Table 30: Different data formats

Code
Straight binary
Offset binary
2s complement
Decimal value
Binary
Decimal value
Decimal value
11111111
255
127
11000000
Code
192
Straight binary
Table 29: Different data formats
Binary
10000000
128Decimal value
Table
29: Different data formats
11111111
255
127
11000000
192
Code
Straight
binary
01000000
64Decimal
10000000
128value
Binary
01111111
127
11111111
255
00000000
0
01000000
64
11000000
192
00000000
0
10000000
128
01111111
01111111
64
Offset binary
64
2s complement
Decimal
0 value
127
1
Offset 64
binary
640value
Decimal
1
127
128
64
64
128
0
Decimal 128
value
1
127
64
2s complement
64
128
Decimal
value
127 0
1
64
64
0
128
127
64
0
127
Converting twos complement to decimal:

01000000
64
64
Convertingtwoscomplementtodecimal:
Negative
number example
00000000
0
128
Negativenumberexample
SIGN x4 x2 x1
Negativenumberexample
Step 1: Check sign bit
This case is negative
Step 1: Check sign bit

This case is negative
Step 2: Invert all bits
1 x40
SIGN
MSD
1 x11
x2
LSD
1 0 1 1
MSD
0 1 0 0
Step 2: Invert all bits

Step 3: Add 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
Step
: Add 1
Final3result
0(4+1)=
1 0 51
(4+1)= 5
Positivenumberexample
Converting twos complement to decimal:
Positive
number example
PositivenumberexampleSIGN x4 x2 x1
Final result
Just add bit weights
SIGN
0 x41
x2
0 x11
MSD
Just add bit weights

Final result
Final result
0 4+1=5
1 0 1
LSD
MSD
4+1=5
84
86
ti.com/adcs

84
A/D Conversion
Table 31: LSB voltage vs. resolution and reference voltage

voltage
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale
Range)
1.024V
1.25V
2.048V
2.5V
4 mV
4.88 mV
8 mV
9.76 mV
10
1 mV
1.22 mV
2 mV
2.44 mV
12
250 V
305 V
500 V
610 V
14
52.5 V
76.3 V
125 V
152.5 V
16
15.6 V
19.1 V
31.2 V
38.14 V
18
3.91 V
4.77 V
7.81 V
9.53 V
20
0.98 V
1.19 V
1.95 V
2.384 V
22
244 nV
299 nV
488 nV
596 nV
24
61 nV
74.5 nV
122 nV
149 nV
Resolution
Table 32: LSB voltage vs. resolution and reference voltage

voltage
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale
Range)
Resolution
3V
3.3V
4.096V
5V
11.7 mV
12.9 mV
16 mV
19.5 mV
10
2.93 mV
3.222 mV
4 mV
4.882 mV
1.221 mV
12
732 V
806 V
1 mV
14
183 V
201 V
250 V
305 V
16
45.77 V
50.35 V
62.5 V
76.29 V
18
11.44 V
12.58 V
15.6 V
19.07 V
20
2.861 V
3.147 V
3.91 V
4.768 V
22
715 nV
787 nV
976 nV
1.192 V
24
179 nV
196 nV
244 nV
298 nV
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87
A/D Conversion
DAC definitions
DAC definitions
Resolution = n
The number of bits used to quantify the output
n
Resolution
The number
of bits used
quantify the output
The
number
of input
codetocombinations
Codes == 2n
Number of Codes = 2n
The number of input code combinations
Sets the LSB voltage or current size and
Reference voltage = V
Full-Scale Range output = FSRREF
Sets the converter output range and the LSB voltage
converter
rangestep size of each LSB
n
The voltage
LSB = FSR / 2
n
2
The output
voltage
or current
LSB = V
REF / voltage
Full-scale
output voltage
of thestep
DAC size of each
Full-scale
output
= (2n 1) 1LSB
code Largest code that can be written
Full-scale input code = 2n 1
n
n
) largest
Relationship
between
output
and input code
Transfer
Function:
Vout==2Number
Full-scale
code
1 of Codes (FSR/2
The
code
that can
bevoltage
written
Full-scale voltage = VREF 1LSB
Full-scale output voltage of the DAC

n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
FSR = 5V
Output voltage (V)
Full-scale
voltage = 4.98V
Resolution
1LSB = 19mV
Full-scale
code = 255
Number of codes = 2n
Resolution
= 8bits
Figure
53: DAC transfer function
Figure 51: DAC transfer
function
ti.com/adcs
88
86
A/D Conversion
ADC definitions
Resolution = n
The number of bits used to quantify the output
n
ADC
Codesdefinitions
=2
The number of input code combinations
Sets theThe
LSB
voltage
current
sizethe
and
Reference
Resolution
= nvoltage = VREF
number
of bitsorused
to quantify
input
converter
Therange
number of output code combinations
Number of Codes = 2n
n
Full-Scale
input
= FSR
Sets the
converter
input
rangecode.
and the
LSB voltage
1)
LSB = VRange
The voltage
step
size of
each
Note
that
REF / (2
n
n
The voltage step
of 2
each
LSB = FSR / 2
some topologies
maysize
use
asLSB
opposed to
input voltage of the ADC
Full-scale input voltage = (2n 1) 1LSB 2n 1 inFull-scale
the denominator.
n
Largest code that can be read
Full-scale output code =
n 2 1
The largest code that can be written.
Full-scale code = 2 1
Transfer Function: Number of Codes = Vin / (FSR/2n) Relationship between input voltage and output code
Full-scale output voltage of the DAC. Note that
Full-scale voltage = VREF
the full-scale voltage will differ if the alternative
definition for resolution is used.
n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
Full-scale
code=255
Input voltage (V)
Figure
54: ADC transfer function
Figure 52: ADC transfer
function
ti.com/adcs
Full-scale
Range
FSR = 5V
87
89
A/D Conversion
Quantization error of ADC

Quantization error of ADC
Quantization error
Figure 53: Quantization error of an A/D converter
Figure 55: Quantization error of an A/D converter
Quantization error
The error introduced as a result of the quantization process. The amount of this error
is a function of the resolution of the converter. The quantization error of an A/D
Quantization
error
converter is LSB. The quantization error signal the difference between the actual
The error
introduced
result
of the
quantization
The amount
voltage
applied andas
theaADC
output
(Figure
53). The rmsprocess.
of the quantization
signal of
is
this error
is
a
function
of
the
resolution
of
the
converter.
The
quantization
1LSB12
error of an A/D converter is LSB. The quantization error signal is the

difference between the actual voltage applied and the ADC output
(Figure 55). The rms of the quantization signal is 1LSB 12
88
90
ti.com/adcs
A/D Conversion
Signal-to-noise
ratio
(SNR)
from quantization
Signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR)
from quantization
noise only noise only
MaxRMSSignal
RMSNoise
SNR
FSR/2
1LSB
12
1LSB 2
(102)
(107)
(103)
(108)
from quantization only
MaxRMSSignal 1LSB 2 /2
2 6
RMSNoise
1LSB12
SNRdB 2logSNR 2 log2N 2log

SNRdB 62N 16
(109)
(104)
(110)
(105)
(111)
(106)
Where
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D converter
Where
n
1LSB = the voltage of 1LSB, VREF/2
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D
converter
N = the resolution of the A/D converter
MaxRMSSignal
= the
rms equivalent
1LSB
= the voltage
of 1LSB,
VREF/2n of the ADCs full-scale input
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
NSNR
= the= resolution
thesignal
A/D converter
the ratio ofofrms
to rms noise
MaxRMSSignal = the rms equivalent of the ADCs full-scale input
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
Example
SNR = the ratio of rms signal to rms noise
What is the SNR for an 8-bit A/D converter with 5V reference, assuming only
quantization noise?
Answer
Example
SNR is2
2
314 A/D converter with 5V reference,
What
the6
SNR
for6
an8-bit
assuming only quantization noise?
SNRdB 2log314 4 dB
Answer
SNRdB
628
16
4 dB
SNR
= 2N-1
6 = 28-1
6 =314
SNR(dB) = 20log(314) = 49.9 dB
SNR(dB) = 6.02(8) + 1.76 = 49.9 dB
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89
91
A/D Conversion
Total harmonic distortion (Vrms)

THD dB
RMSDistortion
MaxRMSSignal
100
RMSDistortion
MaxRMSSignal
V
V
100
(112)
(107)
(113)
(108)
Where
RMSDistortion
V
V
V
V
100rms(107)
%
THD = total harmonic
distortion, the 100
ratio of the rmsVdistortion to the
signal
MaxRMSSignal
Where
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
THD
= total harmonic
the
ratio
of the
rms distortion to the rms signal
RMSDistortion
MaxRMSSignal
= thedistortion,
rms value
of the
input
signal
THD dB
(108)
MaxRMSSignal
generally
input signal
V1 = the fundamental,
RMSDistortion
= the rms
sum
of the
all harmonic
components
V2, V3, V4, Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
MaxRMSSignal
= the rms value of the input signal
Where
THD = total harmonic distortion, the ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
V1 = the fundamental,
generally
signal components
RMSDistortion
= the rmsthe
suminput
of all harmonic
MaxRMSSignal = the rms value of the input signal

V2, V3, V4, V
= harmonics of the fundamental
V n= the fundamental, generally the input signal
1
V2, V3, V4, Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
Figure 56:and
Fundamental
harmonics in Vrms
Figure 54: Fundamental
harmonicsand
in Vrms
Figure 54: Fundamental and harmonics in Vrms
92
90
ti.com/adcs

90
A/D Conversion
Total
harmonic distortion (dBc)
Total harmonic distortion (dBc)
Total harmonic distortion (dBc)
THD(dBc)

(114)
(109)
(109)
Where
Where
THDWhere
= total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
THD D
= total
harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
1 = the fundamental, generally the input signal. This is normalized to 0 dBc
THD = total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
D
,
D
,
D
of the
fundamental
relative
the
2
3
4, Dn = harmonics
D1 = the D
fundamental,
generally the
input
signal. Thismeasured
is normalized
to 0to
dBc
1 = the fundamental, generally the input signal. This is normalized to 0 dBc
fundamental
D
2, D3, D4, Dn = harmonics of the fundamental measured relative to the
D2, D3, D4, Dn = harmonics of the fundamental measured relative to
fundamental
the fundamental
Figure 57: Fundamental

andin
harmonics
in dBc
Figure
55: 55:
Fundamental
andand
harmonics
dBc
Figure
Fundamental
harmonics
in
dBc
Example
Example
Determine
THDTHD
for the
example
above.
Determine
for the
example
above.
Example
Answer
Answer
Determine THD for the example above.

-75
-95
-92
-110
Answer
10
10
10
10

=

THD(dBc)
10 log 10 +10
+10 + ... +10
THD(dBc) = -74.76 dB
ti.com/adcs
91
91
93
A/D Conversion
Ac
signals
Ac signals
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) and effective number of bits (ENOB)
SINADdB 20 log
SINADdB 20log 10
NB
MaxRMSSignal
RMSNoise RMSDisorion
10
SINADdB 1.76dB
6.02
(115)
(110)
(116)
(111)
(117)
(112)
Where
MaxRMSSignal = the rms equivalent of the ADCs full-scale input
Where
RMSNoise = the=rms
integratedofacross
the A/D
converters
MaxRMSSignal
the noise
rms equivalent
the ADCs
full-scale
input
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
RMSNoise
= the
noise
integrated
across the A/D
SINAD = the
ratiorms
of the
full-scale
signal-to-noise
ratioconverters
and distortion
THD = total harmonic
distortion.
ratio of the
rms distortion to the rms signal.
RMSDistortion
= the rms
sum of The
all harmonic
components
SINAD = the ratio of the full-scale signal-to-noise ratio and distortion
THD = total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal.
Example
Calculate the SNR, THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following information:
MaxRMSSignal = 1.76 Vrms
Example
RMSDistortion
50 Vrms
Calculate
the =
SNR,
THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following
RMSNoise = 100 Vrms
information:
MaxRMSSignal = 1.76 Vrms

Answer
RMSDistortion
= 50 Vrms
RMSNoise = 100 1.76 Vrms
Vrms
SNRdB 20 log
. dB
100 Vrms
Answer
THDdB
SNR dB 20 log
50 Vrms
1.76 Vrms
0. dB
1.76 Vrms
1.76V rms
SINADdB
. dB
THD dB 20 log
50 Vrms
100 Vrms
1.76
Vrms
.1.76V
.
rms
10
SINAD dB 20 log 10
SINADdB
.dB 1.76dB
NB
1.65
SINADdB
10
6.02
6.02
94
. dB
ti.com/adcs
92
A/D Conversion
Dcsignals
signals
Dc
Noise free resolution and effective resolution
Noisereeesotion o
PeaktoPeakNoiseinLSB
2
etieesotion o
rmsNoiseinLSB
PeaktoPeakNoiseinLSB 6.6 rmsNoiseinLSB

etieesotion Noisereeesotion 2.7
(118)(113)
(119)(114)
(120)(115)
(121)(116)
Note: The maximum effective resolution is never greater than the ADC resolution.
Note:
The maximum
resolution
is never
greater than
the ADC
resolution.
For
example,
a 24-biteffective
converter
cannot have
an effective
resolution
greater
than
Forbits.
example, a 24-bit converter cannot have an effective resolution greater
24
than 24 bits.
Example
Example
What
is the noise-free resolution and effective resolution for a 24-bit converter
What is the
resolution
effective resolution for a
assuming
the noise-free
peak-to-peak
noise is 7and
LSBs?
24-bit converter assuming the peak-to-peak noise is 7 LSBs?
Answer
2
Answer
Noisereeesotion
o 2.2
72
7
2
etieesotion o
2.
7
2
6.6
7
6.6
etieesotion 2.2 2.7 2.
ti.com/adcs
93
95
A/D Conversion
Time Constant
VIN A/D
VIN
Figure 58: Settling time for RC circuit-related to A/D converters
Figure 56: Settling time for RC circuit-related to A/D converters

Table 33: Conversion accuracy achieved after a specified time
Table 32: Conversion accuracy achieved after a specified time
Settling time in time
Settling time in time
Settling time
time in (NTC)
Accuracy in bits (N)Settling constants
Accuracy in bits
constants
(NTC)in
time constants
Accuracy in
time constants
Accuracy in
1 )
1.44
10
14.43
(N
bits
(NTC)
bits
TC
21
2.89
11
15.87
10
14.43
1.44
11
15.87
2.89
32
4.33
12
17.31
3
12
17.31
4.33
4
5.77
13
18.76
4
13
18.76
5.77
55
7.21
14
20.20
14
20.20
7.21
66
8.66
15
21.64
15
21.64
8.66
77
88
9
9
16
17
18
10.10
10.10
11.54
11.54
12.98
12.98
(122)
16
17
18
23.08
24.53
25.97
23.08
24.53
25.97
(117)
Where
Where
N = the number of bits of accuracy the RC circuit has settled to after NTC number of
N = the number of bits of accuracy the RC circuit has settled to after NTC number of
time constants.
time constants.
NTC = the number of RC time constants
NTC = the number of RC time constants
Note: For a FSR step. For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
ti.com/adcs
96
94
A/D Conversion
Table 34: Time required to settle to a specified conversion accuracy

Table in
33:
Time required
to settle
accuracy
Accuracyconversion
in bits
Settling
time in time
Accuracy
bits
Settling time
in timeto a specified
)
(N)
(NTC)
(N)
constants
(N
Settling timeconstants
in
Settling time inTC
Accuracy
8
in bits (N)
9
8
10 9
11 10
11
12
12
13 13
14 14
15 15
16
16
time constants
5.5
(NTC)
6.24
5.55
6.93
6.24
6.93
7.62
7.62
8.32
8.32
9.01
9.01
9.70
9.70
10.40
10.40
11.09
11.04
Accuracy
in bits (N)
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
17 time constants
(NTC)
18
11.78
19
12.48
13.17
20
13.86
21
14.56
22
15.25
23
15.94
16.64
24
17.33
25
11.78
12.48
13.17
13.86
14.56
15.25
15.94
16.64
17.33
(118)
(123)
Where
NTC = the number of time constants required to achieve N bits of settling
Where
N the
= the
number
bitsconstants
of accuracy
NTC =
number
ofof
time
required to achieve N bits of settling
N = the number of bits of accuracy
Note: For a FSR step. For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
ti.com/adcs
97

95
Notes
6
98
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issue. Buyers should obtain the latest relevant information before placing orders and should verify that such information is current and
complete. All semiconductor products (also referred to herein as components) are sold subject to TIs terms and conditions of sale
supplied at the time of order acknowledgment.
TI warrants performance of its components to the specifications applicable at the time of sale, in accordance with the warranty in TIs terms
and conditions of sale of semiconductor products. Testing and other quality control techniques are used to the extent TI deems necessary
to support this warranty. Except where mandated by applicable law, testing of all parameters of each component is not necessarily
performed.
TI assumes no liability for applications assistance or the design of Buyers products. Buyers are responsible for their products and
applications using TI components. To minimize the risks associated with Buyers products and applications, Buyers should provide
adequate design and operating safeguards.
TI does not warrant or represent that any license, either express or implied, is granted under any patent right, copyright, mask work right, or
other intellectual property right relating to any combination, machine, or process in which TI components or services are used. Information
published by TI regarding third-party products or services does not constitute a license to use such products or services or a warranty or
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Reproduction of significant portions of TI information in TI data books or data sheets is permissible only if reproduction is without alteration
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of any TI components in safety-critical applications.
In some cases, TI components may be promoted specifically to facilitate safety-related applications. With such components, TIs goal is to
help enable customers to design and create their own end-product solutions that meet applicable functional safety standards and
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Analog Engineers

Analog Engineers Pocket Reference

Special thanks for technical contribution and review:

Copyright 2014, 2015 Texas Instruments Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Message from the editors:

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

PCB and wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Standard decimal prefixes

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 1: Physical constants

2.997 924 58 x 108

8.854 187 817 620 x 10

Permeability of free space

1.256 637 0614 x 10-6

6.626 069 57 x 10-34

9.648 533 99 x 104

6.022 141 29 x 1023

1.660 538 921 x 10-27

Unified atomic mass unit

1.602 176 565 x 10

Rest mass of electron

1.672 621 777 x 10-27

Maximum density of water

Table 2: Standard decimal prefixes

Texas Instruments Analog Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 3: Imperial to metric conversions

5.067x10-4 mm2/cir mil

Table 4: Metric to imperial conversions

1974 cir mil/mm2

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 5: Temperature conversions

Table 6: Error conversions

Error in measured value

Error in measured value

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Resistor color code

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 7: Resistor color code

4 Band example: yellow violet orange silver indicate 4, 7, and 3 zeros.

Figure 1: Resistor color code

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Standard resistance values for the 10 to 100 decade

Table 8: Standard resistor values

Practical capacitor model and specifications

Figure 2: Model of a practical capacitor

Table 9: Capacitor specifications

The nominal value of the capacitance

Equivalent series resistance

Equivalent series inductance

Rp is a parallel leakage resistance (or insulation resistance)

The maximum voltage that can be applied to the capacitor

The change in capacitance with applied voltage in ppm/V

The change in capacitance with across temperature in ppm/C

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Practical capacitors vs. frequency

Practical capacitors vs. frequency

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 10: Capacitor type overview

Use in signal path, filtering, low distortion, audio, and precision

Use for decoupling and other applications where accuracy and