3

Power Transformers

Bob C. Degeneff
Department of Computer, Electrical,
and Systems Engineering,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, New York, USA

3.1
3.2
3.3

Introduction .......................................................................................
Transformers: Description and Use .........................................................
Transformers: Theory and Principle ........................................................

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3.3.1 Equivalent Circuits 3.3.2 Magnetizing C u r r e n t 3.3.3 Leakage Reactance

3.3.4 Magnetizing Inrush

3.4

Cooling Methods .................................................................................

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3.4.1 Liquid-Filled Transformers 3.4.2 Dry-Type Transformers

3.5
3.6

Transformer Applications ......................................................................

Cores and Windings .............................................................................

3.7

Transformer Performance ......................................................................

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3.6.1 Core F o r m T r a n s f o r m e r 3.6.2 Shell-Form T r a n s f o r m e r

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3.7.1 Losses a n d Efficiency 3.7.2 S o u n d 3.7.3 O v e r c u r r e n t

3.8

Acceptance Tests ..................................................................................

References ..........................................................................................

3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a very brief overview of the characteristics of a transformer. The basic theory and principles of application are introduced. A simple lumped-parameter equivalent
circuit is presented. Magnetizing current and leakage reactance
a r e introduced, and cooling methods are presented and compared. In addition, transformer applications are presented and
discussed. The basic core and winding arrangements are also
presented. Finally, transformer sound, overcurrent, and losses/
efficiency are presented, and acceptance tests are outlined.

3.2 Transformers: Description and Use

A transformer is a static device used for transforming electric
energy from one circuit to another magnetically (e.g., by
induction rather than conduction). Normally, this transformation is accomplished between circuits of different voltages of
the same frequency. A power transformer will have a magnetic
core surrounded by two or more windings. These windings a r e
insulated from each other and from the ground. The windings
Copyright 2005 by AcademicPress.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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are connected together in a manner to achieve the desired

voltage transformation ratio. The overall assembly of core
and coils is generally insulated and cooled by immersion in
mineral oil or other suitable liquid in an enclosing tank.
Connection to the windings is usually by means of insulated
bushings.
In a modern utility, electrical energy may undergo four or
five voltage transformations between the generation site and
the point of utilization. As such, a given system possesses
approximately five times the kilovoltamperes [kVA] of transformers compared to that of generators.

3.3 Transformers: Theory and Principle

3.3.1 Equivalent Circuits
Figure 3.1 is a cross section of a two-winding transformer.
Figure 3.1 illustrates how both windings are linked with the
same magnetic circuit. A sinusoidal voltage is induced in
the windings by a sinusoidal variation of flux E = 4.44 acBfN,
with ac as the area of the core in square meters, B as the peak
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Bob C Degeneff

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hN1 = hN2.

IH=I1

3.3.2 Magnetizing Current

FIGURE 3.1 Cross Section of a Two-Winding Transformer

flux density in tesla, E as the rms-induced voltage, f as the

frequency in hertz, and N as the numbers of turns in the
winding. With no load on the secondary circuit, a small exciting current flows in the primary, which produces the alternating flux in the core. This flux links both windings and induces
essentially the same volts per turn in each winding. To a close
approximation:
E1

E2

N~ N2'
where E1 and E2 are the primary and secondary voltages and
where N1 and N2 are the primary and secondary turns. If a
load is applied to the secondary of the transformer and the
exciting current is small with respect to the load current, the
currents in the primary and secondary are related by:

Figure 3.2 is a lumped-parameter model of the transformer

in Figure 3.1, with both the primary and secondary solidly
grounded. If the secondary is open-circuited, the only current
that flows is an exciting current in the primary winding. This
exciting current contains only odd harmonics and is composed
of a core loss component and a magnetizing component. The
core loss component is in phase with the induced voltage, and
the magnetizing component is lagging the induced voltage by
90 (i.e., in phase with the magnetizing flux). The core loss is
represented in Figure 3.2 by bin, and it is composed of both
hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses are directly
proportional to the frequency, and eddy current losses vary
proportionally to the square of frequency.

3.3.3 Leakage Reactance

If the secondary of the transformer is shorted, the impedance
of the transformer presented to the system is approximately
(R1 + j X a ) + (R2 + jXl2). This is generally referred to as the
impedance of a transformer or its leakage impedance. The R
is the effective resistance of the primary and secondary
winding and is composed of both dc and skin effect losses.
Generally, R is much smaller than X and normally can be
ignored in practical calculation.

~
Im ~

jll

~ ILR2 "JILXr2

I1

(A) Voltage and Current Vector Diagram

R 1-I-jXfl

R 1+JXf2

(B) Lumped Parameter Model

FIGURE 3.2 Lumped-Parameter Equivalent

XPl

3 Power Transformers

3.3.4 M a g n e t i z i n g I n r u s h
When a transformer is energized, the amount of current that
flows will depend on the amount of residual flux that resides in
the core. This residual is typically between 50 and 90% of the
peak operating flux. In extreme cases, the peak flux in the core
upon energization will be greater than twice the peak design
limit, and, as such, the inrush current can be 3 to 40 times the
load current (Grigsby, 2001). The actual inrush experienced
depends on the point on the voltage wave during energization,
the residual flux, air core inductance of the winding, and losses
of the transformer and system.

3.4 Cooling Methods

3.4.1 Liquid-Filled Transformers
A liquid-immersed transformer consists of a magnetic core
and coil assembly immersed in a fluid, normally mineral oil.
The fluid must possess both good heat transfer characteristics
and electrical insulating characteristics. An advantage of a
liquid-immersed transformer is that it permits compact
design. Generally, transformers above 10 MVA and/or 34.5 kV
are liquid-filled. Since oils are flammable, liquid-immersed
transformers must be applied with adequate precautions recognizing the flammability of oil. This has presented challenges
for indoor applications.
Mineral oil used in transformer insulation systems degrades
with prolonged exposure to oxygen. Moreover, mineral oil has
a fairly large thermal expansion coefficient. In recognition of
this disadvantage, several systems are used to minimize degradation. Liquid-filled transformers normally protect insulating oil with one of three types of preservation systems: sealed
tank system, nitrogen blanked, or conservator.

3.4.2 Dry-Type Transformers

Dry-type transformers are generally more expensive per kVa
than liquid-filled transformers but address the concern for indoor applications. Dry-type transformers use solid insulation
systems or film coatings and/or paper tapes. A variation is the
resin-encapsulated system (or cast coil). Dry-type transformers
have less of an ability to withstand impulse voltages than corresponding liquid-filled designs. Dry-type transformers are
offered in ventilated and nonventilated, totally enclosed systems
for use in hostile industrial environments. Dry-type transformers are routinely offered up to 34.5 kV and 10 MVA.

3.5 Transformer Applications

The most common arrangement of a power transformer is two
or more isolated windings wound around a common core. The
advantage is complete electrical isolation between electrical

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circuits. These units can be of the step-down or step-up
configuration. A step-down is designed to decrease the incoming voltage to a lower level more suitable for distribution.
Power transformers of this type are frequently located in substations or at large industrial consumer locations. Transformers that perform this reduction in voltage from a primary
feeder to the utilization level are referred to as distribution
transformers. A step-up transformer takes the input voltage
and raises it to a higher lever suitable for transmission. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards require the
nameplate to indicate the transformer is suitable for this type
of operation. A generator step-up transformer is an example of
this type of power transformer. The majority of these type
power transformers are three-phase units.
It is often more economical to transfer energy between two
circuits of similar voltage using an autotransformer rather than
a conventional two-winding transformer. Figure 3.3 provides
an illustration of this arrangement. Most autotransformers are
Y-connected with a delta tertiary (used to provide a path for
third harmonic currents required for excitation). The autotransformer does not afford electrical separation between the
two circuits but is a more economical transformer on a $/kVA
basis. In addition, the autotransformer is not inherently selfprotecting and typically will be subjected to higher short
circuit currents and forces than a corresponding two-winding
transformer. The autotransformer can also be used to increase
or decrease voltage in a system. By using suitable on-load tapchanging equipment, it is possible to regulate the voltage of a
system within desired limits. An autotransformer used in this
manner is referred to as a voltage-regulating transformer. Typically, the range of the regulation is 4-10% of the system voltage
in 5/8% steps.
It may be desirable to create an electrical connection
between systems that have different phase angles. These
systems may also be at different voltages. The function of
the phase-angle regulator is to provide this interconnection
between systems possessing different phase angles and voltages. Figure 3.4 illustrates one method to accomplish this
transformation.
In power system applications, there are two types of instrument transformers: current transformers and voltage trans-

/H=/1
+ T

+I
-L

-o

-O

FIGURE 3.3 Autotransformer

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and footprints. The form should also allow convenient removal

of heat, sufficient mechanical strength to withstand forces
generated during system faults, acceptable noise characteristics, and an electrical insulation system that meets both the
system steady-state and transient requirements. There are two
common transformer structures in use today for power transformers. When the magnetic circuit is encircled by two or
more windings, the transformer is referred to as a core-type
transformer. When the primary and secondary windings are
encircled by the magnetic material, the transformer is referred
to as a shell-type transformer. Refer to Figure 3.6 for an
illustration of each.

\.

A/

3.6.1 Core Form Transformer

FIGURE 3.4 Phase-Angle Regulator

formers. Both are used to secure information about the condition and operation of the system. Typically, this information
is used in relaying information and in operational control of
the system. The current transformer is a series transformer. Its
primary winding is connected in series with the circuit in
which the current is to be measured, and the secondary
winding supplies a current output that is proportional to the
primary current (Figure 3.5). The voltage transformer primary
winding is connected to the terminals of the circuit where the
voltage is to be measured, and the secondary winding supplies
a voltage proportional to the primary voltage.

3.6 Cores and Windings

The successful design of a commercial transformer requires the
selection of a simple structure so that the core and coils are
easy to manufacture. At the same time, the structure should be
as compact as possible to reduce materials, shipping concerns,

HI

H2

,, Primary
current

x2

Characteristics of the core-form transformer are a long magnetic path and a shorter mean length of turn. Commonly used
core-form magnetic circuits are single-phase transformers
with a two-legged magnetic path with turns wound around
each leg, a three-legged magnetic path with the center leg
wound with conductor, or a four-legged magnetic path with
the two interior legs wound with conductors (Bean et aL, 1959;
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1943). Three-phase
core-form designs are generally three-legged magnetic cores
with all three legs possessing windings or a five-legged core
arrangement with the three center legs possessing windings.
The simplest winding arrangement has the low-voltage
winding nearest the core and the high-voltage winding on
top of the low. Normally, in the core form construction, the
winding system is constructed from helical, layer, or disk-type
windings (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1943; Franklin, 1998). The disk-type winding itself can be constructed on
several different winding configurations (i.e., continuous,
interleaved, and internally shielded), all of which affect the
transient voltage response and this insulation design. Often
the design requirements, such as impedance or shipping size
limitations, call for a core and winding arrangement that is a
more complex arrangement (e.g., interleaving high- and lowvoltage windings, interwound taps, and entry and exit points
other than the top or bottom of the coil). All of these variations have an effect on the transformer's transient voltage

Xl

Primary
voltage

Secondary
current

t42
(A) Current Transformer

x2

(B) Voltage Transformer

FIGURE 3.5 Instrument Transformers

Power Transformers

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Windings

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1943). Typically the

no-load losses are 25 to 35% of the total losses and are 2.5 to
3.5 times the $/kVA of load losses.

3.7.2 S o u n d

(A) Simple Core-Type

(B) Simple Shell-Type

FIGURE 3.6 Core-Form and Shell-Form Transformers

response. To ensure an adequate insulation structure, each

possible variation must be explored during the design stage
to evaluate the variation's effect on the transient overvoltages.

3.6.2 Shell-Form Transformer

The sheU-form transformer construction features a short
magnetic path and a longer mean length of electrical turn.
Bean et al. (1959) point out that this results in the shell-form
transformer having a larger core area and a smaller number of
winding turns than the core-form of the same output and
performance. In addition, the shell-form will generally have
a larger ratio of steel to copper than an equivalently rated
core-form transformer. The most common winding structure
for shell-form windings are the primary-secondary-primary
(P-S-P), but it is common to encounter a shell form winding
of P-S-P-S-P. The winding structure for both the primary and
secondary windings are normally of the pancake-type winding
structure (Bean et al., 1959).

3.7 Transformer Performance

Transformers are static devices; however, they vibrate due to a

number of causes and because of the radiate sound. There are
two distinct sources of sound: auxiliary cooling equipment
and magnetostriction. The sound produced by the fans and
pumps of a cooling system generally possesses a broadband
frequency spectrum of approximately equal magnitude (white
noise). The major source of a transformer's audible noise is
caused by the dimensional change of the core laminations
from the variation of flux density in each voltage cycle, referred
to as magnetostriction. The core will radiate noise at the even
harmonics of the voltage (e.g., for a 60-Hz system, the noise
radiates at 120-, 240-, 360-, 480-Hz, and so on). The magnitude of this noise is measured by determining the soundpressure level given in decibels:
F
P = 20 log 0.0002'
with P the sound pressure in decibels and F the sound pressure
in rms dynes. IEEE C57.12.90, Test Code for Liquid-Immersed
Transformers, specifies the method for measuring the average
sound level of a transformer. The goal is to avoid a transformer
design and installation that produces noise at a level that is an
annoyance. Sound reduction can be accomplished at the transformer design stage and/or by judicious application. During
design, the most basic modification effecting noise production
is to reduce the core's flux density. In addition, barriers or
structural changes in the tank enclosure will reduce emitted
noise. Upon installation, the erection of sound barriers is very
effective in reducing noise levels. With proper design, reductions of 10 to 30 dB are possible; with the application of sound
barriers at a site, an additional 10-dB reduction is achievable.

3.7.1 Losses and Efficiency

Total losses for transformer performance are made up of noload losses and load losses. No-load losses are primarily
hysteresis and eddy-current loss in the core. This loss is independent of load and exists whenever the transformer is connected to the system. The no-load loss is a function of the
voltage of the system. The core's eddy-current loss is proportional to the square of the system frequency, and the hysteresis
loss is proportional to the frequency. Load losses consist of I2R
loss in the windings, stray losses in the windings, and structural clamps and fittings. These losses are caused by the load
current. On large well-designed transformers, the total rated
losses are on the order of 0.3 to 0.5% of the rated kVA of the
transformer. The cost per kilovoltampere is different for load
and no-load losses and depends on a number of factors

3.7.30vercurrent
A transformer may at some point be subjected to current in
excess of its rated load current. Current up to approximately
2% of the rated load current can be anticipated from overload
conditions on the system. These currents may last only a few
minutes or several hours. Faults on the system will subject the
transformer to peak overcurrents that may be up to 40 times
the rated load current. These currents may produce either
mechanical or thermal damage to the transformer. Mechanical
forces are proportional to the square of the current and manifest themselves in a number of different failure mechanisms.
These failure mechanisms include loosening of coils, conductor tipping, radial and axial conductor buckling, winding
deformation, core deformation, and telescoping of windings.

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3.8 Acceptance Tests

The desire of the purchaser is to obtain a transformer at a
reasonable price that will achieve the required performance
for an extended period of time. The desire of the manufacturer
is to construct and sell a product, at a profit, that meets the
customer's goals. The specification and purchase contract combines both the purchaser's requirements and manufacturer's
commitment in a legal format. The specification will typically
address the transformer's service condition, rating, general construction, control and protection, design and performance
review, testing requirements, and transportation and handling.
Since it is impossible to address all issues in a specification, the
industry uses standards that are acceptable to purchaser and
supplier. In the case of power transformers, the applicable
standard would include IEEE C57, IEC 76, and NEMA TR-1.
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00 defines routine and optional test and
testing procedures for power transformers. The following are
listed as routine tests for transformers larger than 501 kVA:
winding resistance, winding turns ratio, phase-relationship
tests, polarity, angular displacements, phase sequence, noload loss and exciting current, load loss and impedance voltage, low-frequency dielectric tests (applied voltage and induced voltage), and leak test on a transformer tank.
The following are listed as type tests to be performed on
only one of a number of similar design units for transformers
501 kVA and larger: temperature rise tests, lightning-impulse
tests (full and chopped wave), audible sound tests, mechanical
test from lifting and moving of transformer, and pressure tests
on tank.
Other tests include short circuit forces and switching surge
impulse tests.

The variety of transient voltages a transformer may experience in its normal useful lifetime are virtually unlimited. It is
impractical to test each transformer for every conceivable
combination of transient voltage. However, the electrical industry has found that it is possible, in most instances, to assess
the integrity of the transformer's insulation systems to withstand transient voltages with the application of a few specific
aperiodic voltage waveforms (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1943), illustrating the full, chopped, and switching
surge waveforms. Each of these tests is designed to test the
insulation structure for a different transient condition. The
purpose of applying this variety of tests is to substantiate
adequate performance of the total insulation system for all
the various transient voltages a transformer may see in service.

References
Bean, R.L., Crackan, N., Moore, H.R., and Wentz, E. (1959). Transformers for the electricpower industry. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Blume, L.F., Boyajian, A., Camilli, G., Lennox, T.C., Minneci, S., and
Montsinger, V.M. (1951). Transformer Engineering. (2d ed.). New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Fink, D.G., and Beat),, H.W. (1987). Standard handbook for electrical
engineers. (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Grigsby, L.L. (2001). The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. CRC
Press.
Heathcote, M., Franklin, A., Franklin, D. (1998). J&P Transformer
Book. London: Butterworth-Heinemann.
IEEE guide and standards for distribution, power, and regulating transformers. New York: IEEE Press, 1998.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical
Engineering (1943). Magnetic circuits and transformers. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.