Analogue realisation of fractional-order integrator,

differentiator and fractional PIlDm controller

A. Charef
Abstract: The fractional-order differentiator s m, integrator s 2m (0 , m , 1) and the fractional
PIlDm controller are studied. A very simple method, useful in system and control theory, which
consists of approximating, for a given frequency band, these fractional-order operators by a rational
function, is presented. Simple analogue circuits that can serve as analogue fractional-order integrator and fractional-order differentiator are also obtained. A rational function and an analogue circuit
realisation of the fractional PIlDm controller are also derived. Illustrative examples are presented to
show the usefulness of the method.

Introduction

Since the first work on fractional-order derivatives a few

centuries ago, the theory of fractional-order derivatives
and integrals has mostly been developed by mathematicians. In recent years, considerable interest in fractionalorder derivatives and integrals has been stimulated by the
application of these concepts in different areas of engineering [1 6]. Because of their representation by irrational
transfer functions, the fractional-order operators were
studied marginally in the theory and practice of systems.
However, a great effort has been made to put into practice
some of the established results. Only in the last few
decades can one find significant progress in theoretical
works that serve as a foundation for an increasing
number of applications in the electrical engineering field
[4, 7 10]. Much intensive research work still continues in
many electrical engineering areas towards the application
of these fractional-order concepts.
In this article, an effective and easy-to-use method is presented for the approximation by a rational function, for a
given frequency band, of the fractional-order differentiator
s m, integrator s 2m (m is a real positive number), and the
fractional PIlDm controller. First, the fractional-order integrator s 2m (0 , m , 1) was modelled by a fractional
power pole (FPP) in a given frequency band of practical
interest. Next, this FPP is approximated by a rational function, using the method given in Charef et al. [11]. The above
idea was used to model the fractional-order differentiator s m
(0 , m , 1) by a fractional power zero (FPZ). Then, the
approximation method of the FPP was extended to the
FPZ to obtain its rational function approximation.
Therefore, with this method, one can achieve any desired
accuracy over any frequency band, a rational function
approximation of the fractional-order differentiator and
integrator. The rational function approximation of the
# The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2006
IEE Proceedings online no. 20050019
doi:10.1049/ip-cta:20050019
Paper first received 23rd January and in revised form 19th May 2005
The author is with the Laboratoire de Traitement du Signal, Departement
dElectronique, Universite Mentouri de Constantine, Route Ain El-bey,
Constantine 25011, Algeria
E-mail: afcharef@yahoo.com

714

fractional PIlDm controller is just an application of the

above method. Using the rational function approximations
of these fractional-order operators, simple analogue circuits
have been derived, which can serve as fractional integrators,
differentiators and fractional PIlDm controllers. Illustrative
examples are also presented to show the usefulness of the
method.
2
2.1

Fractional-order integrator
Rational approximation

The transfer function of the fractional-order integrator is

represented in the frequency domain by the following
irrational transfer function
GI s

1
sm

where s jv is the complex frequency and m is a positive

real number such that 0 , m , 1.
In a given frequency band of practical interest (vL , vH),
this fractional-order operator can be modelled by an FPP
whose transfer function is given as follows
Gs

KI
1 s=vc m

Suppose that for v [ (vL , vH), v
vc . Therefore

Gs

KI
KI vm
1
c
m GI s
m
s
s=vc
sm

with KI (1/vm
c ); vc is the 23m dB frequency corner of
the FPP,pwhich is obtained from the low frequency vL , as
vc vL (10(1/10m) 2 1), where 1 is the maximum permitted error between the slopes of the fractional-order integrator of (1) and the FPP of (2) in the given frequency band
of interest (vL , vH).
In order to represent the FPP of (2), and consequently the
fractional-order integrator, by a linear time-invariant system
model, it is necessary to approximate its irrational transfer
function by a rational one. The method of approximation
consists of approximating the 220m dB/dec slope on the
Bode plot of the FPP by a number of alternate slopes of
220 and 0 dB/dec corresponding to alternate poles and
zeros on the negative real axis of the s-plane such that
IEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006

p0 , z0 , p1 , z1 , . . . , zN21 , pN [11]. Hence, the

approximation is given by
QN1
KI
i0 1 s=zi

K
4
Gs
I QN
1 s=vc m
i0 1 s=pi
Using a simple graphical method that began with a specified error y in decibels and frequency band vmax , which can
be 100vH , the parameters a, b, p0 , z0 and N can be calculated as [11]

-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70

a 10y=101m ;
z0 ap0

b 10y=10m ; p0 vc 10y=20m ;



logvmax =p0
and N Integer
1
logab

The poles (pi) and the zeros (zi) of (5) are found to be in a
geometric progression form. They can then be derived from
the above parameters as pi p0(ab)i for i 0, 1, . . . , N and
zi z0(ab)i for i 0, 1, . . . , N 2 1. Hence, the fractionalorder integrator can be approximated by a rational function
in a given frequency band of interest as
QN1
i
1
KI
i0 1 s=z0 ab 

K
5
GI s m
Q
I
N
i
s
1 s=vc m
i0 1 s=p0 ab 

2.2

Illustrative example

The transfer function of a fractional-order integrator is

represented as
GI s

1
s0:65

Suppose that the frequency band of practical interest

(vL , vH) (1000, 100 000 rad/s); for 1 1025, vc
1.8821 rad/s and KI 0.6629; then, the FPP model for
this fractional-order integrator is given by
Gs

The approximation error of the FPP is chosen by a

rational function y 1 dB and the approximation frequency
band vmax 100vH 107 rad/s; the values of a, b, p0, z0
and N are 1.9307, 1.4251, 2.2469 rad/s, 4.3380 rad/s and
16, respectively. Then, the poles and the zeros of the
rational function approximation are given by
for i 0; 1; . . . ; 16

zi 4:33802:7514i

for i 0; 1; . . . ; 15

-90
-100
1
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Fig. 1 Magnitude Bode plot of the integrator s20.65 and of its

rational function approximation

where the ki are the residues of the poles that can be easily
calculated as [11]
QN 1
1  abij =a
ki KI QJN0
for i 0; 1; . . . ; N 7
ij

j0;i=j 1  ab
It can be seen that (6) is analogous to the impedance Z(s)
of the N 1 parallel RC cells connected in series as shown
in Fig. 3, which is given as

N 
X
Ri
8
Zs
1 sRi Ci
i0
Hence, from (6) and (8), and for i 0, 1, . . . , N
R i ki

and

Ri Ci

1
abi p0

The resistors and the capacitors values of the analogue

circuit realising the fractional-order integrator in a given
frequency band of practical interest are given by

0:6629
1 s=1:88210:65

pi 2:24692:7514i

-80

Ri k i

and Ci

1
abi p0 ki

for i 0; 1; . . . ; N

-50

and
-55

Figs. 1 and 2 show the Bode plots of the fractional-order

integrator transfer function and its rational approximation.
It can be easily observed that they are quite overlapping
over the frequency band of interest.
-60

2.3

Analogue circuit realisation

By partial fraction expansion of the rational function of (5),

it is possible to represent the fractional-order integrator in
the frequency band of interest as
GI s

N
X
i0

ki
1 s=abi p0 

IEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006

-65
1
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Fig. 2 Phase Bode plot of the integrator s20.65 and of its rational
function approximation
715

Fig. 3 Analogue RC circuit realisation of the fractional-order

integrator

Fractional-order differentiator

3.1

3.2

Rational approximation

The transfer function of the fractional-order differentiator is

represented in the frequency domain by the following
irrational function
GD s sm

10

where s jv is the complex frequency and m is a positive

real number such that 0 , m , 1. In a given frequency
band of practical interest (vL , vH), this fractional-order
operator can be modelled by an FPZ whose transfer function
is given as follows


s m
11
Gs KD 1
vc
Suppose that for v [ (vL , vH), we have v
vc . Therefore
 m
s
KD
m sm sm GD s
12
Gs KD
vc
vc
with KD vm
c and vc is the 3m dB frequency corner of
the FPZ,pwhich is obtained from the low frequency vL , as
vc vL (10(1/10m) 2 1), where 1 is the maximum
permitted error between the slopes of the fractional-order
differentiator of (10) and the FPZ of (11) in the given
frequency band of interest (vL , vH).
In order to represent the FPZ of (11), and consequently
the fractional-order differentiator, by a linear time-invariant
system model, it is necessary to approximate its irrational
transfer function by a rational one.
The method of approximation consists of approximating
the 20m dB/dec slope on the Bode plot of the ZPP by a
number of alternate slopes of 20 and 0 dB/dec corresponding to alternate zeros and poles on the negative real axis of
the s-plane such that z0 , p0 , z1 , p1 , . . . , zN , pN .
Hence, the approximation is given by
QN


s m
1 s=zi
Gs KD 1
KD QNi0
13
vc
i0 1 s=pi
Using the same idea of the method used for the approximation of the FPP given in Charef et al. [11], the zeros and
the poles of the approximation are also found to be in a
geometric progression form. This graphical method of
approximation began with a specified error y in decibels
and an approximation frequency band vmax . Once the
error y and the frequency band vmax, which can be 100
vH, are confirmed, the parameters a, b, z0 , p0 and N can
be determined as follows
a 10y=101m ;
p0 az0
716

and

The zeros (zi) and the poles (pi) of (13) can then be derived
from the above parameters as zi z0(ab)i for i 0, 1, . . . , N
and pi p0(ab)i for i 0, 1, . . . , N.
Hence, the fractional-order differentiator can be approximated by a rational function in a given frequency band of
practical interest by
QN


s m
1 s=z0 abi 
KD QNi0
GD s sm KD 1
i
vc
i0 1 s=p0 ab 
14

b 10y=10m ; z0 vc 10y=20m



logvmax =z0
N Integer
1
logab

Illustrative example

The transfer function of a fractional-order differentiator is

represented as
GD s s0:35
Suppose that the frequency band of practical interest (vL ,
vH) (100, 10 000 rad/s); for 1 1025, vc 0.2565 rad/s
and KD 0.6211; then, the FPZ model of this fractionalorder differentiator is given by

s 0:35
Gs 0:6211 1
0:2565
The approximation error of the FPZ is chosen by a rational
function y 1 dB and the approximation frequency band
vmax 100vH 106 rad/s; the values of a, b, z0 , p0 and
N are 1.4251, 1.9307, 0.3564 rad/s, 0.5079 rad/s and 15,
respectively.
Then, the poles and the zeros of the rational function
approximation are given by
zi 0:35642:7514i

and

pi 0:50792:7514i

for i 0; 1; . . . ; 15

Figs. 4 and 5 show the Bode plots of the fractional-order differentiator transfer function and its rational approximation.
It can be easily observed that they are quite overlapping
over the frequency band of interest.
3.3

Analogue circuit realisation

By decomposition of the rational function of (14), it is possible to represent the fractional-order differentiator by a
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Fig. 4 Magnitude Bode plot of the differentiator s0.35 and of its

rational function approximation
IEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006

32

31

4.1

Fractional PIlDm controller

Rational approximation

The fractional PIlDm controller is a generalisation of the

PID controller. This type of controller was first proposed
by Podlubny [12]. The transfer function of this controller
is given in the frequency domain by the following irrational
function
TI
19
Cs KP l TD sm
s

30
29
28
27
26
25
24
0
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Fig. 5 Phase Bode plot of the differentiator s0.35 and of its

rational function approximation

linear combination of elementary, simple functions, that is

GD s G0

N
X
i0

ki s
1 s=abi p0 

15

with G0 KD and
ki 

QN
ij
KD

J 0 1  aab
Q
i
N
ij
p0 ab j0;i=j 1  ab 

for i 0; 1; . . . ; N
16

It can be seen that (15) is analogous to the admittance Y(s)

of a resistor and N 1 cascaded RC cells connected in
parallel as shown in Fig. 6, which is given as

N 
X
1
sCi

Y s
RP i0 1 sRi Ci

17

From (14) and (16), and for i 0, 1, . . . , N

G0 1=RP ;

Ci ki

and

Ri C i

1
abi p0

1
;
G0

Ri

1
abi p0 ki

Ci ki

and

for i 0; 1; . . . ; N

The poles (pIi), the zeros (zIi) and the parameters KI and NI
of the rational function approximation of the fractionalorder integrator can be calculated as described in Section
2.1. Also, the zeros (zDi), the poles ( pDi) and the parameters
KD and ND of the rational function approximation of the
fractional-order differentiator can be calculated as described
in Section 3.1.
Illustrative example

As a numerical example, the fractional PIlDm controller

obtained is considered to control a feedback control
system in Caponetto et al. [13], which is given as
Cs 2:4

18

Fig. 6 Analogue RC circuit realisation of the fractional-order

differentiator
IEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006

where (TI/s) is a first-order integrator, (1/s mI) is a fractionalorder integrator with 0 , mI , 1, (TDs) is a first-order differentiator and (s mD) is a fractional-order differentiator with
0 , mD, 1.
In order to represent the fractional PIlDm controller of
(19) by a linear time-invariant system model, it is necessary
to approximate its irrational transfer function by a rational
one. Hence, in a given frequency band of practical interest
(vL , vH), the fractional-order integrator can be modelled by
an FPP and the fractional-order differentiator by an FPZ. It
has also been shown how the FPP and the FPZ can be
approximated by rational functions. Hence, (20) becomes
!
QNI 1


TI
i0 1 s=zIi
K I QN I
Cs KP
s
i0 1 s=pIi
!
Q ND
i0 1 s=zDi
TD s KD QND
21
i0 1 s=pDi

4.2

Hence, the resistors and the capacitors values of the

analogue circuit realising the fractional-order differentiator
in a given frequency band of practical interest are given by
RP

where s jv is the complex frequency, KP is the proportional

constant, TI is the integration constant, TD is the differentiation constant and l and m are positive real numbers.
In general, these real numbers are such that 1 , l , 2
and 1 , m , 2. Hence, (19) can be rewritten as

 
TI
1
Cs KP
20
TD ssmD
s sm I

0:18
6s1:7
s1:7

From (20), C(s) can be rewritten as

 
0:18
1
Cs 2:4
6ss0:7
0:7
s
s
To obtain the rational function approximation of this fractional PIlDm controller, first, the fractional-order integrator
1/s 0.7 and the fractional-order differentiator s 0.7 have to be
approximated by rational functions.
For a given frequency band of practical interest,
(vL , vH) [0.1, 10 rad/s], 1 1025, y 1 dB and vmax
100vL 103 rad/s; the poles, the zeros and the parameters
of these rational functions can be calculated (as described in
717

90
80
70
60

Fig. 9 Structure of the fractional PIlDm controller

50
40

of the new controller is given as

30

Cs 2:4

20

0:18
6s1:35
s1:35

10

The Bode diagrams of the above new fractional-order

controller and its rational approximation are given in
Figs. 7 and 8.

0
-10
-2
10

-1

10

10

10

10

Fig. 7 Magnitude Bode plots of the fractional PI1.7D1.7 (solid

line) and PI1.35D1.35 (dashed line) controllers and of their rational
function approximations

Sections 2.1 and 3.1). Hence, C(s) is given as

4.3

Analogue circuit realisation

The structure of the fractional PIlDm controller consists of a

parallel connection of the proportional, integration and
derivative elements, as seen in Fig. 9. Hence
Cs


0:18
Cs 2:4
s
(
)
Q14
i
4
i0 1 s=4:6060  10 2:9936 
 415:9188 Q15
i
4
i0 1 s=2:1379  10 2:9936 
(
)
Q15
i
4
i0 1 s=2:1379  10 2:9936 
6s 0:0024 Q15
i
4
i0 1 s=4:6060  10 2:9936 
Figs. 7 and 8 show the Bode plots of this fractional PIlDm
controller transfer function and its rational approximation.
It can be easily seen that they are quite overlapping over
the frequency band of interest.
It is also interesting to show the effect of the parameters l
and m on the frequency behaviour of the fractional-order
PIlDm controller without any changes in the parameters
KP , TI and TD . To do so, the above numerical example
was used for l m 1.35. Hence, the transfer function
200
150

U s UP s UI s UD s

Es
Es
Es
Es

KP

TI
TD s m
sl

Each element of this fractional PIlDm controller can be

realised separately. The proportional element KP can be
realised by a simple analogue operating amplifier, as
given in Fig. 10. Hence
UP s
RP2
KP
Es
RP1
From (21), the integration element is given by
!
QNI 1


TI
TI
1

s=z

I
i

KI Qi0
NI
sl
s
i0 1 s=pIi

22

The rational function of the above equation can be decomposed into simple, elementary functions and this integration
element can then be rewritten as
!

 X
NI
TI
TI
kIi

23
sl
s
1 s=pIi
i0
where the kIis can be calculated as shown in Section 2.3.
From (23), the integration element can be realised by the
analogue circuit shown in Fig. 11. Hence

100
50

UI s TI ZI2
l
Es
s
ZI1

0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-2
10

-1

10

10

10

10

Fig. 8 Phase Bode plots of the fractional PI1.7D1.7 (solid line)

and PI1.35D1.35 (dashed line) controllers and of their rational function approximations
718

Fig. 10 Analogue realisation of the proportional element of the

fractional PIlDm controller
IEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006

Fig. 11 Analogue realisation of the integration element of the

fractional PIlDm controller

Fig. 13

Analogue realisation of the fractional PIlDm controller

Fig. 12 Analogue realisation of the derivative element of the

fractional PIlDm controller

is the impedance of a simple inductor such that LD TD ,

and
where

ND
X
1
kDi s
YD1 s GD
ZD1
1

s=pi
i0

 
1
s LI s
ZI1
TI


ND 
X
1
sCDi

RD i0 1 sRDi CDi

is the impedance of a simple inductor such that LI 1/TI ,

and
NI
X

Z I2

i0

is the admittance of the circuit of Fig. 6 with


NI 
X
k Ii
R Ii

1 s=pIi i0 1 sRIi CIi

RD

1
;
GD

RDi

1
;
pDi kDi

is the impedance of the circuit of Fig. 3 with

R Ii k Ii

and

1
C Ii
p Ii k Ii

for i 0; 1; . . . ; NI

Q ND

TD s TD s

KD QNi0
D
i0

1 s=zDi

1 s=pDi

24

The rational function of (24) can be decomposed into

simple, elementary functions and this derivative element
can then be rewritten as
TD sm TD s GD

ND
X
i0

kDi s
1 s=pDi

!
25

where the kDis and GD can be calculated as shown in Section

3.3. From (25), the derivative element can be realised by the
analogue circuit shown in Fig. 12. Hence
UD s
ZD
T D sm 2
Es
ZD1
where
ZD2 TD s LD s
IEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006

and

for i 0; 1; . . . ; ND

Therefore the fractional PIlDm controller that consists of a

parallel connection of the three elements can be realised
by the analogue circuit in Fig. 13. Hence

From (21), the derivative element is given by

m

CDi kDi

Cs

U s
TI
RP2 ZI2 ZD2
K P l T D sm

Es
s
RP1 ZI1 ZD1

Conclusion

In this article, a very simple and effective method has been

presented for approximating fractional-order integrators
and differentiators by rational functions in a given frequency
band of practical interest. Several illustrative examples have
been given to simulate these fractional-order operators.
It has also been shown that, from these rational function
approximations, simple analogue circuits can be designed to
model fractional-order integrators and differentiators.
Because its structure contains a fractional-order integration element and a fractional-order derivative element,
the fractional PIlDm controller is also considered here.
A rational function is derived to approximate the PIlDm
controllers irrational transfer function. An illustrative
example has been given to demonstrate the usefulness of
the method. An analogue circuit realisation is also obtained
to model this type of controller.
719

The results of this article may also be of help for

practical implementation of the fractional PIlDm controller.
6

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IEE Proc.-Control Theory Appl., Vol. 153, No. 6, November 2006