OPERATION BASIC APPLIED COURSE

PRINCIPLES OF HYDROCARBON PROCESSING

Prepared by: Fathi CHAKROUN

INDEX

1
2

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 4
Gas/Condensate/Water Separation ....................................................................... 6
2.1 General .............................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Principles of Separation ..................................................................................... 6
2.3 Primary Separation............................................................................................. 7
2.4 Coalescence ...................................................................................................... 7
2.5 Secondary Separation ........................................................................................ 9
2.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 9
2.5.2 Mist Extraction ............................................................................................. 9
2.5.3 Dissolved Gas Separation ........................................................................... 9
Separator Construction ........................................................................................ 12
3.1 Types of Separator ........................................................................................... 12
3.1.1 General ...................................................................................................... 12
3.1.2 Two-phase Separators ............................................................................... 12
3.1.3 Three-phase Separators ............................................................................ 12
3.1.4 Vertical Separators .................................................................................... 13
3.2 Separator Internal Devices ............................................................................... 13
3.2.1 General ...................................................................................................... 13
3.2.2 Deflector Plates.......................................................................................... 17
3.2.3 Weirs.......................................................................................................... 17
3.2.4 Centrifugal Devices .................................................................................... 17
3.2.5 Demister Pads ........................................................................................... 17
3.2.6 Coalescing Plates ...................................................................................... 20
3.2.7 Vortex Breakers ......................................................................................... 20
3.2.8 Horizontal Baffles ....................................................................................... 20
Separator Controls ............................................................................................... 22
4.1 General ............................................................................................................ 22
4.2 Pressure Control .............................................................................................. 22
4.3 Three-Phase Separator Level Control .............................................................. 22
Condensate Treatment ......................................................................................... 24
5.1 Operation ......................................................................................................... 24
5.2 Stabilizer Construction ..................................................................................... 24
5.2.1 General ...................................................................................................... 24
5.2.2 Tower Trays ............................................................................................... 25
5.2.3 Tower Packing ........................................................................................... 25
Gas Dehydration ................................................................................................... 27
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 27
6.2 Dehydration by Absorption (Glycol Dehydration) ............................................. 27
6.2.1 General ...................................................................................................... 27
6.2.2 Process Flow Overview .............................................................................. 28
6.2.3 Glycol Contactor ........................................................................................ 29
6.2.4 Gas/Glycol Heat Exchanger ....................................................................... 33
6.2.5 Glycol Skimmer/Flash Tank ....................................................................... 33
6.2.6 Stripper Column and Reboiler .................................................................... 36

6.2.7 Surge Tank ................................................................................................ 36

6.2.8 Lean/Rich Glycol Heat Exchanger ............................................................. 36
6.2.9 Glycol Filters .............................................................................................. 37
6.3 Dehydration by Adsorption (Molecular Sieve Dehydration) .............................. 37
6.3.1 General ...................................................................................................... 37
6.3.2 Process Flow Overview .............................................................................. 41
6.3.3 Feed Gas Chiller ........................................................................................ 42
6.3.4 Feed Dryer Separator ................................................................................ 42
6.3.5 Molecular Sieve Beds ................................................................................ 42
6.3.6 Regeneration Gas Heater .......................................................................... 42
6.3.7 Regeneration Gas Coolers ........................................................................ 42
6.3.8 Regeneration Gas Knock-out Drum ........................................................... 43
Pipelines ................................................................................................................ 45
7.1 History .............................................................................................................. 45
7.2 Types of Pipeline .............................................................................................. 45
7.3 Pipeline Materials ............................................................................................. 46
7.4 Pipeline Protection ........................................................................................... 46
7.5 Pipeline Operation ............................................................................................ 47
Pipeline Pigs ......................................................................................................... 48
8.1 General ............................................................................................................ 48
8.2 Pig Launching and Receiving ........................................................................... 48
Liquid Product Storage ........................................................................................ 52
9.1 General ............................................................................................................ 52
9.2 Cone Roof Tanks ............................................................................................. 52
9.3 Floating Roof Tanks ......................................................................................... 52
9.4 Tank Construction ............................................................................................ 53

Introduction
Refer to Figure 1.1.
Due to the impurities present in natural gas and hydrocarbon condensate when
initially recovered from the reservoir, they are not immediately saleable products.
The gas and condensate require separation then further treatment to remove or
convert the impurities before they can be sold as product. The type of treatment
depends on the type of impurities present and the final use to which the products
are to be put.
Typical impurities present in natural gas and condensate include:
hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
carbon dioxide (CO2)
water
nitrogen.
H2S and CO2 when mixed with water form weak acids and are thus termed 'acid
gases'. These acid gases are highly corrosive to pipelines and equipment and
need to be removed from the gas stream. In addition, H 2S has the potential to
cause hydrogen embrittlement of steel and is highly toxic even at low
concentrations. H2S and CO2 can be removed by absorption, the specific
absorption process being determined by the amount of unwanted constituents
present in the gas.
Natural gas and condensate recovered from the reservoir are often saturated
with water and the absorption processes used for acid gas removal can also
cause the gas to be water saturated. Corrosion of pipelines and equipment is
accelerated in the presence of water and when water is present in a gas stream
at certain conditions of temperature and pressure, hydrates can form. Hydrates
are a loosely linked crystalline compound of water and hydrocarbons. The
crystals cause plugging of flowlines, valves, exchangers and instrument lines and
can be extremely troublesome in plant operation. Since hydrates only form in the
presence of water, removing the water from the gas can prevent their formation.
Dehydration processes can reduce the water content of the gas (measured as
dewpoint) and these generally involve the use of a solid or liquid desiccant.
Having essentially no calorific value, nitrogen lowers the heating value of the gas,
reducing the sales value. Where there exists a high proportion of nitrogen in the
gas stream it can be removed using permeable membranes or low temperature
separation processes. Both techniques are costly and complex and are not
discussed in this module.
The hydrocarbon condensate from the reservoir may contain high proportions of
methane and ethane, depending on the reservoir pressure. To achieve the
correct specification for shipping or transfer of the condensate by pipeline, ethane
and methane must be removed. This stabilization can be achieved by a series of
'flashes' where a series of pressure drops allows light ends to flash out of solution
in the condensate. Alternatively, a distillation system can be used to stabilize
condensate.

This module examines:

three-phase separation (gas/condensate/water)
condensate stabilization
gas dehydration
pipelines
pigging operations
liquid storage.

Figure 1.1 - Wellstream Components

2.1

Gas/Condensate/Water Separation

General
A field production separator is a pressure vessel in which a mixture of well fluids
that are not soluble in one another are separated from one another.
Well stream fluids include gas, condensable and non-condensable vapours,
water vapour, hydrocarbon condensate, water and solids. When well fluids reach
the surface where the pressure is lower than in the reservoir, the capacity of the
liquid to hold gas in solution is reduced and gas separates out of the condensate.
Additionally, the temperature at the surface is lower than the reservoir
temperature and therefore some wellstream vapours condense and combine with
the liquid.
Production separators are used to separate and segregate gas from liquid and
lighter liquid from heavier liquid, e.g. condensate from water.
The main functions of a field production separator are:
to effect a primary separation of gas from liquid
to continue this process by removing entrained liquid from the gas.
Additionally, the separator must have the following characteristics:
allows sufficient time for gas to be released from the condensate
allows sufficient time for the separation of condensate from water
provides controls to prevent gas escaping with the liquids
discharges the separated components in such a way as to render it
impossible for them to be remixed.

2.2

Principles of Separation
Four physical factors are necessary for separators to function:
gravity
fluid insolubility
difference in fluid densities
reduced pressures.
Separation depends upon the effect of gravity to separate the fluids. For efficient
separation to take place, the fluids must not be soluble in one another. For
example, gasoline, diesel oil and crude oil cannot be separated in a separator
vessel because they dissolve in each other. A distillation process must separate
them.
Because a separator depends upon gravity to separate fluids, the ease with
which separation takes place depends upon the difference in the weight of the
fluids. Gas is very much lighter than condensate, and in a separator these

separate in just a few seconds. However, condensate, which weighs only about
two thirds of the weight of the same volume of water, will take between 30 and 60
seconds to separate from water
The density of a fluid is the mass of unit volume of a substance expressed in
units such as kg/m3.

2.3

Primary Separation
Refer to Figure 2.1.
Because of the difference in density between gas and condensate, approximately
90% of gas/liquid separation takes place instantly. This is known as primary
separation or flash separation.
However, some liquid remains in the gas in the form of droplets or fine mist and
this entrained liquid must be removed before separation is complete. If the mist
is not removed from the gas phase in the separator, liquid settles out in the gas
outlet flowline, causing operating problems in downstream treating units. An
amount of condensate product will also be lost.

2.4

Coalescence
The most difficult function of a field production separator is to extract mist from
the gas. Mist consists of liquid droplets suspended in the gas flow (just as water
droplets occur in air as fog). Mist will not fall out of the gas unless the droplets
are forced together to form larger drops that are heavy enough to fall. The
process of combining many droplets into larger drops is known as coalescence.
Coalescing devices are installed in separator vessels to perform this function.
Examples of coalescing devices include:
demister pads
vane type mist extractors
coalescing plates.
The efficiency of mist extraction devices depends largely upon the amount of
coalescing surface area available in the separator.

KIO-4-0127.CDR

PRIMARY
SEPARATION

VAPOUR
DISENGAGING
SPACE

SECONDARY
SEPARATION

GAS
OUTLET

WELLSTREAM
INLET

LIQUID
SETTLING
SPACE
LIQUID
OUTLET

Figure 2.1 - Gas Separation and Liquid Settling

2.5

Secondary Separation

2.5.1 General
In the field production separator there are two stages of secondary separation:
separation of liquid mist from the gas phase (mist extraction)
separation of dissolved gas from the liquid phase.

2.5.2 Mist Extraction

Liquid mist separates from the gas phase provided the following conditions are
met:
the gas stays in the separator long enough for the mist to dropout
the flow of gas through the separator is slow enough to prevent turbulence
(turbulent gas flow inhibits efficient mist extraction).
The difference between gas and liquid density determines the maximum flowrate
of gas that allows the mist to separate efficiently. For example, mist separates
from gas at 15 kg/cm2 if the gas is flowing through the separator at less than
1 m/second. This means that the vessel needs to be large enough for the gas to
flow from the inlet nozzle to the outlet nozzle at 1 m/second or less. This time
factor is known as the gas residence time (the time required for mist extraction
from gas).
Pressure has an important effect on mist extraction efficiency. Because gas
density is lower at lower pressures, the liquid droplets separate faster due to the
greater difference in weight between the low-pressure gas and liquid. The gas
flowrate can thus be increased if the separator operates at a lower pressure.

2.5.3 Dissolved Gas Separation

Refer to Figure 2.2.
Due to the lower operating pressure in the separator, gases dissolved in the
condensate phase expand to form bubbles. This bubble formation often results
in foam on top of the condensate phase. The pressure at which gas bubbles
foam in condensate is called the bubble point pressure.
In most field production separators, gas bubbles in the liquid breakout of the
condensate phase in about 30 to 60 seconds. The separator, therefore, is
designed so that the liquid stays in the vessel for 30 to 60 seconds. This period
that the liquid remains inside the vessel is known as the liquid residence time (the
time required for gas to bubble out of the liquid).

Liquid residence time can be calculated as follows:

Liquid Residence time

Liquid Volume of Vessel

Inlet Flowrate

For example, a field production separator with a liquid volume of 50 m3 and an

inlet flowrate of 50 m3 /minute has a liquid residence time of 1 minute.

KIO-4-0127.CDR

GAS
OUTLET

WELLSTREAM
INLET

FLOWRATE
50m3/MINUTE

CONDENSATE
VOLUME
3
50m

RESIDENCE
TIME 1 MIN

Figure 2.2 - Liquid Residence Time

LIQUID
OUTLET

3.1

Separator Construction

Types of Separator

3.1.1 General
Field production separators are classified by the number of fluids, which are
separated in the vessel, i.e. two-phase or three-phase. They can be further
categorized as vertical or horizontal.

3.1.2 Two-phase Separators

Figure 3.1 shows a horizontal two-phase separator. The wellstream fluids enter
at the side or end and are routed through a cyclone separator. This centrifugal
device assists in separating the lighter and heavier components in the stream by
imparting a circular motion to the fluids. Heavier material drops out and settles in
the bottom of the separator. Further separation is effected by mist in the fluid
being coalesced in contact with the coalescing plates. The York mesh demister
pad removes the final droplets from the lighter (gas) fluid as it leaves the
separator. Heavier (liquid) components are removed from the bottom of the
separator.

3.1.3 Three-phase Separators

Figure 3.2(A) shows a three-phase separator with a weir. In this type of vessel
the wellstream fluids enter at the vessel end. Gas flows out of the top of the
vessel under pressure control.
The water and liquid hydrocarbon settle out at the left bottom section. The
hydrocarbon material, being lighter, floats on top of the water and as the level
rises, it overflows the weir into the hydrocarbon compartment from where it
leaves the separator under level control.
The water phase remains in the left side of the separator and is also disposed of
under level control.
In this type of separator difficulties can be encountered due to emulsions and
foams forming in the separator. These interfere with the efficient operation of the
level controllers.
Figure 3.2(B) shows an improved design of three-phase separator where level
control of the water and hydrocarbon phases are not affected by foaming or
emulsion formation. The hydrocarbon phase overflows a weir and enters a

hydrocarbon 'bucket' compartment.

separator under level control.

From this compartment it leaves the

The water phase flows along the bottom into a chamber on the right where it
leaves under level control.

3.1.4 Vertical Separators

Refer to Figure 3.3.
The vertical separator may be either two-phase or three-phase depending on the
type of operation. This type of separator is used where large liquid slugs are
expected and where liquid level control is not critical to unit operation.
Incoming well fluids meet an inlet deflector plate on entry to the separator. This
deflector plate spreads the incoming fluids inside the separator shell and imparts
a centrifugal motion to the gas which allows gas and liquid to disengage. The
liquid falls to the bottom of the separator while the smaller liquid particles are
swept upward to coalesce on the outlet demister pad.
A vertical separator occupies less area that the horizontal separator and is easier
to clean. The natural upward flow of gas opposes the falling liquid droplets;
therefore the vertical separator is larger than a horizontal separator of the same
capacity. However, vertical separators have less tendency for revaporization of
liquid than horizontal separators.

3.2

Separator Internal Devices

3.2.1 General
Internal devices are used in production separators to:
improve separation efficiency
accelerate the separation process
reduce the size of the vessel.
The internal devices used in vertical and horizontal separators are virtually
identical.
A number of internal devices are commonly used, as described in Sections 3.2.2
to 3.2.8 below.

Figure 3.1 - Two-phase Horizontal Separator

KIO-4-0130.CDR

PC
GAS
OUTLET

WELLSTREAM
INLET

WEIR

LC

LC

CONDENSATE
OUTLET

WATER OUTLET

(A) WEIR TYPE

PC
GAS
OUTLET

WELLSTREAM
INLET

LC

WATER
OUTLET

BUCKET
LC

CONDENSATE
OUTLET

(B) BUCKET TYPE

Figure 3.2 - Three-phase Horizontal Separators

KIO-4-0131.CDR

GAS
OUTLET

DEMISTER
PAD

WELLSTREAM
INLET

DEFLECTOR
PLATE

WEIR

VERTICAL 2-PHASE
PRODUCTION
SEPARATOR WITH
SAND REMOVAL
GAS
OUTLET

HYDROCARBON
LIQUID
OUTLET

VORTEX
BREAKER

DEMISTER
PAD

WATER OUTLET

WELLSTREAM
INLET

VERTICAL 3-PHASE
PRODUCTION
SEPARATOR

DEFLECTOR
PLATE

LIQUID
OUTLET
PRESSURIZED
WATER INLET

SAND
CONE

BLOWDOWN
INLET

Figure 3.3 - Vertical Separators

SAND
OUTLET

3.2.2 Deflector Plates

Refer to Figure 3.4.
These are fitted in front of the inlet to the separator and can be flat or dishshaped. They absorb the impact of the incoming wellstream and create a rapid
separation of gas and liquids. They also slow the flowrate of fluids through the
vessel.

3.2.3 Weirs
Refer to Figure 3.5.
This is a wall installed inside the vessel. The weir increases the liquid residence
time. Condensate overflows the weir to enter the hydrocarbon chamber. Weirs
are also used to form a bucket arrangement inside the separator.

3.2.4 Centrifugal Devices

Refer to Figure 3.6.
Also known as cyclone separators, these are an assembly of concentric cylinders
used at the wellstream inlet for gas-liquid separation. The device imparts a
swirling motion to the incoming well fluids. Centrifugal force causes the heavier
liquids to travel outwards to contact the outer cylinder wall and fall to the bottom.
The gas adheres to the centre cylinder wall, travels downwards, and turns to
enter and flow up the centre annulus to exit the device at the top. This is a highly
efficient method of separation.

3.2.5 Demister Pads

Refer to Figure 3.7.
Demister pads are coalescing devices used to extract the mist from gas. The
pad is made from knitted wire forming a close mesh usually 10 to 20 cm thick.
The mesh pad is contained in a strong support frame to prevent it from being
damaged by sudden surges of gas.

Figure 3.4 - Deflector Plate

Figure 3.5 - Weir/Bucket Arrangement

Figure 3.6 - Centrifugal Device (Cyclone Separator)

Figure 3.7 - Demister Pad

3.2.6 Coalescing Plates

Refer to Figure 3.8.
These are used to remove liquid from gas and assist in the separation of water
from oil in oil field emulsions. The emulsion is forced to follow a path that
constantly changes direction; this causes the water droplets in the emulsion to
coalesce and fall to the bottom of the separator.

3.2.7 Vortex Breakers

Refer to Figure 3.9.
Vortex breakers are fitted above the liquid outlet nozzles in all separators to
prevent a vortex from forming, which would otherwise allow gas to flow out of the
liquid lines.

3.2.8 Horizontal Baffles

Horizontal baffles prevent wave action in the liquid phase.

Figure 3.8 - Coalescing Plates

Figure 3.9 - Vortex Breaker

4.1

Separator Controls

General
Refer to Figure 4.1.
Oil production separators have two major operating control points: pressure
control and level control. Separator temperature is usually fixed by the
wellstream inlet temperature.

4.2

Pressure Control
The gas capacity of a separator increases as the operating pressure increases.
The separator operating pressure is controlled as high as possible to achieve
efficient separation. Increasing the pressure reduces gas volume, and decreases
gas flow velocity in the vessel. The operating pressure of a separator is
controlled by a backpressure controller, which regulates the flow of gas leaving
the vessel.

4.3

Three-Phase Separator Level Control

The term water cut is used to describe the percentage of water to total liquid. A
20% water cut is 20% water and 80% condensate.
In the separator shown in Figure 4-1, the level in the liquid settling chamber if
fixed by the height of the weir. The volume of oil in the oil chamber is relatively
small, and changing the level of oil in this chamber has no effect on the liquid
settling volume, or residence time. Liquid residence time is determined by the
water level in the settling chamber. If the water level is increased, the water
residence time increases but the oil residence time decreases.
Liquid carryover in the outlet gas stream of three-phase horizontal separators is
not usually a level control problem. Commonly this problem is caused by
defective coalescing devices or an abnormally high gas flow.

KIO-4-0139.CDR

PSV

VENT TO
BLOWDOWN

RUPTURE
DISC
TI

PI

PC
GAS
OUTLET

WELLSTREAM
INLET

VAPOUR/GAS SPACE

LC

LC

CONDENSATE
CHAMBER

SETTLING CHAMBER

TI

WEIR

DRAIN

WATER
OUTLET

Figure 4.1 - Typical Separator Controls

CONDENSATE
OUTLET

5.1

Condensate Treatment

Operation
The hydrocarbon condensate separated from the gas stream in the separation
section of the plant requires further treatment to minimize its gas content. This
treatment is generally done in a condensate stabilizer system, which removes
residual light ends from the condensate, by conventional distillation.
In the example shown in Figure 5-1, condensate containing a high proportion of
light ends is fed to the condensate stabilizer. In the stabilizer the liquid falls
downwards in a process that results in many flashes at progressively higher
temperatures.
At the stabilizer bottom a proportion of the condensate is removed and passed to
a reboiler to provide the necessary bottoms temperature. The stabilized
condensate from the bottom of the stabilizer is cooled before being passed to
storage or export.
The vapours leaving the top of the tower are cooled to condense any
intermediate components leaving with the light ends, and the overhead product is
routed to a reflux drum. From the reflux drum the condensed intermediate
produce is pumped back to the top of the tower where it assists in stripping out
intermediate product vapour rising up the tower.
The gas evolved in the stabilizer is drawn off the reflux drum, either for recompression or for use as fuel gas.
The reboilers heat requirement depends on the amount of cooling done in the
overhead condenser. The colder the overhead product leaving the condenser,
the purer the liquid in the reflux drum.
The hotter the stabilizer bottoms temperature, the greater the proportion of light
components will be boiled out of the bottoms liquid and thus the lower the vapour
pressure of the bottoms liquid.

5.2

Stabilizer Construction

5.2.1 General
The number of flash stages required determines the number of trays required.
The more trays in the tower the more efficient the split of light ends from
condensate but this makes the tower taller and more costly.

A typical condensate stabilizer will have approximately 20 trays. These will

normally be arranged as 8 trays above the feed point and 12 trays below.

5.2.2 Tower Trays

The flow of gas through each tray is normally controlled by bubble caps,
perforations or valves.
The least expensive tower trays have perforations but this type of tray provides
less effective gas/liquid contact on the tray.
Where there is low gas velocity, the more expensive bubble cap trays or valve
trays are used. These provide more effective gas/liquid contact and help seal the
trays at low gas velocity.
Tower dimensions are determined by the manufacturers data for the particular
tray design selected. The distance between trays is typically between 50 and 75
centimetres depending on specific design and liquid flow rate.

5.2.3 Tower Packing

For smaller diameter towers, packing is often used, as it is less expensive.
Packing suffers from the disadvantage of poor performance at low flow rates and
can be prone to channelling.

Figure 5.1 - Condensate Stabilisation

6.1

Gas Dehydration

Introduction
Where gas is to be transported long distances by pipeline, or where it is to be
chilled to very low temperatures, there is a requirement to reduce the water
content of the gas. This is to obviate the problems of corrosion within pipelines
and the problem of hydrate formation and, in the case of low temperature
applications, to prevent water freezing out in pipelines or equipment. In addition,
free water, produced by condensation in a pipeline, can give rise to two-phase
flow and reduce the capacity of the pipeline.
This water removal, known as gas dehydration, can be achieved either by an
absorption process where the gas is contacted with a hygroscopic absorption
medium such as glycol, or by an adsorption process where water removal is
achieved by contact between the gas and a solid dehydration medium such as a
molecular sieve.

6.2

Dehydration by Absorption (Glycol Dehydration)

6.2.1 General
The most common field process for gas dehydration to normal pipeline
requirements is by dehydration using a liquid desiccant (desiccants are
substances, available in either liquid or solid state, having a great affinity for
water). A commonly used liquid desiccant is tri-ethylene glycol (TEG).
The dehydration process may be regarded as comprising two phases:
Phase One
Phase Two

is the absorption process, i.e. the removal of water vapour from

the gas by TEG.
is the regeneration process, i.e. the reconditioning or
reconcentration of the glycol (which absorbed the water from
the gas in Phase One) for re-use in the absorption process.

The process is a continuous one with Phases One and Two running concurrently.
Absorption takes place in a vessel called a contactor. In this vessel the wet gas
and the liquid glycol desiccant flow in opposite directions. The gas flows up and
the glycol flows down. The gas exits at the top and the used desiccant (glycol)
exits at the bottom to flow into a skimmer/flash tank, which separates any liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbons from the used glycol. These two items of plant
comprise Phase One, the absorption phase. The used glycol desiccant from

Phase One is referred to as rich glycol (the glycol has been enriched with
absorbed water from the gas).
The rich glycol flows next to the regenerator system, which comprises Phase
Two.

6.2.2 Process Flow Overview

Refer to Figure 6.1.
An inlet gas scrubber, either integral in the bottom section of the contactor tower
or a separate vessel located upstream of the contactor, is used to remove free
liquids from the gas stream. Free liquids (water and hydrocarbon condensate)
which have condensed in the pipeline can cause the following operational
problems:
a) Extra water puts an unnecessary load on the glycol and can overload the
absorber section of the contactor such that the specified outlet gas dewpoint
is not achieved.
b) Hydrocarbon liquid causes glycol to foam, thereby reducing the gas handling
capacity in the absorber section of the contractor and high glycol losses from
the tower top and regeneration system.
After gas scrubbing, the wet gas flows upwards through a series of bubble cap
type trays, where the gas is contacted with glycol flowing downwards across the
trays. Each tray has many bubble caps fitted to provide efficient dispersion of the
gas across the tray and through the glycol liquid level. Bubble caps provide the
means of contact, mixing and absorption for the countercurrent flow of gas and
liquid glycol. Some water vapour is absorbed from the gas stream by the glycol
on each tray. The gas leaving the top tray has most of the water content
removed and passes through a mist extractor to remove entrained glycol before
leaving the tower.
The lean glycol enters the contactor at the top bubble cap tray and flows across
the tray to a downcomer, which directs the glycol to the tray below. The glycol
flows across this tray to another downcomer; this flow sequence is repeated until
the glycol exits from the bottom tray into the bottom section of the contactor.
Rich glycol, which accumulates in the bottom of the contactor, contains the water
it absorbed from the gas. This rich glycol now flows under pump level control to
the regeneration system.
The lean glycol entering the top tray must be cooled down to 8oC to 10oC higher
than the gas stream to allow more efficient absorption of water vapour. To
accomplish this, the lean glycol (at approximately 140oC on the discharge of the
glycol pump) is heat exchanged with the outlet gas in the gas/glycol heat
exchanger.
The wet rich glycol from the contactor bottom flows through the reflux coil in the
top of the stripper column. The cool rich glycol is used as a heat transfer medium
to cool the hot vapours leaving he stripper column. This condenses as much of
the glycol from the vapours as possible before releasing the water vapour to the

atmosphere. A manual valve controls the rich glycol reflux flowrate through the
coil.
For the final regeneration of the rich glycol, the glycol is heated to 240C to
270C in the reboiler.
After regeneration, the lean glycol is cooled to
approximately the temperature of the gas before contacting. To minimize the
amount of energy used in the reboiling operation, it is economical to conserve the
heat from the hot lean glycol solution by heat transfer with the cold rich glycol
solution. This also reduces the solution temperature of the lean glycol to the
pump and into the contactor. The lean/rich glycol exchanger decreases the
temperature of the lean glycol solution to 140C.
After being pre-heated in the lean/rich glycol exchanger, the rich glycol flows to
the stripper column. On entering the stripper the rich glycol flows downward
through a packed section where it contacts and mixes with hot vapours rising
from the reboiler below. On contact the rich glycol becomes heated and some of
the water boils and is released from the solution as water vapour. This water
vapour leaves the stripper column from the atmosphere vapour outlet or vent
located at the top of the column section. From the stripper the glycol enters the
reboiler where further heating to 240oC to 270oC takes place to obtain the
required dry lean glycol concentration or purity. The reboiler glycol level is
maintained above the top of the heater by a standpipe, and the glycol
temperature is controlled by a temperature controller.
The hot regenerated lean glycol overflows the reboiler standpipe and enters the
integrated surge tank, then flows through the shell side of the lean/rich glycol
exchanger to the glycol pump. The glycol pump raises the lean glycol solution
pressure slightly above that of the contactor. The lean glycol is pumped through
the gas/glycol exchanger where it is cooled against outlet gas, and enters the top
tray of the contactor tower.

6.2.3 Glycol Contactor

Refer to Figure 6.2.
The contactor is a high-pressure vessel containing a number of bubble cap trays
on which the up-flowing gas bubbles through down-flowing glycol solution. The
number of trays in the contactor affects the amount of water vapour removed
from the gas by the glycol.
The untreated wet gas flows into the base section of the vessel and passes up
the absorber trayed section. Lean glycol enters above the top tray and flows
down the vessel against the rising gas. The lean glycol absorbs water vapour
from the gas during this contra-flow. Treated dry gas leaves the contactor at the
top nozzle and the wet rich glycol exits at the bottom. The operating conditions of
flow, pressure and temperature affect the rate of water absorption and contactor
efficiency. Tower operating conditions also affect the amount of hydrocarbons
dissolved in the glycol solution. More gas is dissolved in the glycol when the
pressure is increased or the temperature decreased. The rich glycol solution
flows from the lower section of the contactor under pump level control to the

skimmer/flash tank where any dissolved hydrocarbons are separated from the
glycol.
A mist extractor section above the top tray removes any glycol entrained in the
outlet gas stream. This reduces the losses of glycol solution from the circulation
system.
The bubble cap trays cause the rising gas to disperse through the glycol and
allow the required contact and mixing for absorption to take place. The gas flows
through a riser such that the gas diverts from the top of the cap down through the
annulus formed between the riser and the cap. The gas then disperses through
slots in the bottom of the cap rim and bubbles up through the glycol liquid. The
level of glycol is maintained near the top of the caps by weirs on the tray decks.
The deeper the glycol level around each cap, the more intimate the glycol/gas
contact, and the greater the absorption efficiency. Glycol flows in an alternating
flow path from one tray down on to the tray below via a series of weirs and
downcomers; this tray arrangement is called single pass.
The intimate contact on the trays allows the glycol, with its high hygroscopic
ability, to absorb the water vapour from the gas stream. The largest amount of
water is removed on the bottom tray, where the gas contains the most water.
Progressively the gas contains less water as it moves through each successive
tray; therefore, the glycol absorbs less water and is more hygroscopic higher up
the tower. On the last few trays, the glycol is at its leanest and only trace
amounts of water vapour remain in the gas. These top trays remove the last
trace amounts of water in the gas to meet the specified outlet gas dewpoint or
water content.
Rate of gas and glycol flow is crucial in the contactor. If the gas velocity is too
high it may result not only in the gas having too little contact time (exposure) with
the glycol, but also cause the bubble caps to lift off. The caps on some
contactors are, therefore, tack welded into place on the tray.

Figure 6.1 - Glycol Dehydration, Process Flow

Figure 6.2 - Glycol Contactor Tower

6.2.4 Gas/Glycol Heat Exchanger

Refer to Figure 6.3.
The final stage of lean glycol solution, cooling, is accomplished in an exchanger
that cools the glycol to a temperature about 3 oC above that of the wet gas
entering the contactor. In this heat exchanger the dry outlet gas leaving the
contactor cools the lean glycol flowing from the glycol pump to the contactor.
The outlet gas line from the contactor is finned and has a larger diameter pipe
welded around it, through which the lean glycol flows.

6.2.5 Glycol Skimmer/Flash Tank

Refer to Figure 6.4.
Some gases dissolve in the rich glycol solution in the contactor; liquid
hydrocarbon may also be carried out of the bottom of the tower in the rich glycol.
Large quantities of liquid hydrocarbon carryover to the downstream regeneration
equipment is troublesome and dangerous to unit operations, and can cause:
flooding in the stripper column
foaming in the stripper column and increased glycol losses to atmosphere
excessive flashing in the reboiler
fire hazard on the reboiler firetube due to glycol level disturbance uncovering
the firetube surface.
Dissolved gas and liquid hydrocarbon are removed from the rich glycol in the
glycol skimmer/flash tank. The skimmer is a separator in which gas, liquid
hydrocarbon and glycol are separated from one another. The gas separates
from the liquid by flashing and passes out of the top of the vessel to enter the fuel
gas system. A pressure control system regulates the flow of gas leaving the
2
skimmer vessel and usually set at 2.5 to 3.5 kg/cm .
The separated lighter liquid hydrocarbon overflows into a trough or bucket
assembly located across the centre of the vessel and is removed by manual
draining.
The heavier and denser glycol liquid forms a lower level in the vessel and leaves
under level control to enter the charcoal filter.

Figure 6.3 - Gas/Glycol Heat Exchanger

Figure 6.4 - Glycol Skimmer/Flash Tank

6.2.6 Stripper Column and Reboiler

Refer to Figure 6.5.
The stripper column removes the water that the glycol has absorbed in the
contactor, operating at pressures close to atmospheric. It contains packing
material such as stainless steel rings or ceramic saddles.
To improve efficiency a reflux coil can be fitted in the top of the unit. Cool rich
glycol flows through the coil and condenses some of the glycol vapour flowing
around it. This reflux system reduces the amount of glycol lost to atmosphere in
the vapour phase.
The heat requirement for the stripper system is supplied by the reboiler. This
supplies energy to boil water out of the rich glycol solution. A temperature control
system maintains the temperature in the region of 240 oC to 270oC. The water
boiled out of the rich glycol in the stripper flows out of the top vapour vent to
atmosphere.
An important factor affecting the amount of water removed from the gas by the
lean glycol solution is the purity of the solution. Most glycol units operate with a
lean glycol purity of 98% to 99.5% by weight. A high purity glycol will remove
more water than glycol solution of lower purity.
Glycol purity is controlled in the stripper. At the reboiler temperature, glycol purity
is approximately 98.5% by weight. A higher purity could be obtained by
increasing the reboiler temperature but the higher temperature would result in
degradation of the glycol. Sometimes a flow of dry gas, known as stripping gas,
is sparged into the reboiler. This has the effect of further reducing the water
content of the glycol in the reboiler.

6.2.7 Surge Tank

Refer to Figure 6.6.
Glycol is lost in the outlet gas stream from the contactor and also in the water
vapour vent from the stripper. Typical glycol losses are about 1 litre/100 m 3 of
gas. The surge tank provides storage for the lean glycol so that there is no
requirement to continually make up losses. Surge tanks are generally designed
to contain a sufficient supply for one month.

6.2.8 Lean/Rich Glycol Heat Exchanger

Refer to Figure 6.7.

In this exchanger approximately 65% of the heat in the hot lean glycol leaving the
stripper column is transferred to the cool lean glycol entering the contactor. The
temperature of the lean glycol leaving this exchanger is around 110 oC. Typically
rich glycol will flow through the tubeside of the exchanger and lean glycol through
the shell side.

6.2.9 Glycol Filters

Refer to Figures 6.8 and 6.9.
Gas entering the contactor may have lime scale, rust, sand, iron sulphide or other
solid foreign bodies in it. This material, if allowed to remain in the system, can
cause foaming, a condition which adversely affects the efficiency of the glycol
absorption process. Solids can also cause mechanical damage to the glycol
pumps or plug stripper packing. To remove this material, glycol filters are used.
A high-pressure cartridge type filter, known as a sock filter, is used between the
contactor and the glycol pump. This removes solids of up to 5 microns in size.
The filter element (the sock) is easily removed for cleaning or replacement.
The glycol solution is further filtered using a charcoal filter. This filter is located
between the skimmer/flash tank and the stripper column. This filter removes
hydrocarbons; well treating chemicals and other agents that may promote
foaming in the contactor and regeneration systems.
The charcoal filter is filled with an activated carbon substance, which removes
impurities, by an adsorption process.

6.3

Dehydration by Adsorption (Molecular Sieve Dehydration)

6.3.1 General
Adsorption is the process of removing an unwanted constituent from a fluid
stream by contacting the fluid stream with a solid desiccant.
In molecular sieve dehydration units, multiple beds are used on a continuous
basis in cyclic operation. Such units may employ two or more molecular sieve
dryers; typically one will be in service, one on regeneration and one or more on
standby.

Figure 6.5 - Glycol Stripper Column

Figure 6.6 - Glycol Reboiler with Integral Surge Tank

Figure 6.7 - Lean/Rich Glycol Heat Exchanger

Figure 6.8 - Glycol Sock Filter

Figure 6.9 - Glycol Charcoal Filter

6.3.2 Process Flow Overview

Refer to Figure 6.10.
Feed gas is routed to the gas dehydration unit by way of a chiller where the gas
temperature is reduced to 21 to 25oC in a feed gas chiller. Temperature control
of the chiller is critical at this stage. If the temperature of the gas leaving the
chiller is too low, hydrates can form blocking pipework and equipment. If the
temperature is too high, not enough liquids will condense in the feed dryer
separator and the molecular sieve beds will become overloaded.
Chilled fluids are routed to the feed dryer separator where water and liquid
hydrocarbon condense out. These are disposed of under level control and the
gas is passed forward to the on-line molecular sieve gas dryer.
In the molecular sieve gas dryer the gas passes downward over the molecular
sieve bed. Water molecules are attracted on to the surface of the molecular
sieve and gas molecules are allowed to pass through. At the exit of the gas dryer
there is an after-filter, which removes molecular sieve fines from the dry gas
stream.
After a time in service, the molecular sieve becomes exhausted and attracts no
more water on to its surface. At this point the molecular sieve requires to be
regenerated. This is done by passing a stream of hot dry gas over the molecular
sieve bed, driving off the water, which has accumulated, on its surface. The hot
dry gas is obtained by heating a dry gas stream in a direct fired heater, a steam
heated exchanger or by heating it against a medium such as the exhaust from a
gas turbine.
The spent regeneration gas is recovered for use in fuel gas systems or re-used in
the process.
When all the moisture has been driven off the molecular sieve bed, the bed
needs to be cooled to ambient temperature before being returned to service. A
cold dry gas stream is used to achieve this cooling and this spent gas stream is
also used as fuel gas or elsewhere in the process. Following cooling the bed
can be returned to service or put on standby.
For a three dryer system the regeneration and changeover cycle comprises the
following steps:
I.
(i) Depressurization
30 minutes
II.
(ii) Hot Regeneration
3 hours 30 minutes
III.
(iii) Bed Cooling
2 hours 30 minutes
IV.
(iv) Repressurization
30 minutes
V.
(v) Standby
45 minutes
VI.
(vi) 3 Bed Operation
15 minutes
Control of the valves associated with the dryer regeneration and changeover
sequence can be done using either an automatic timer program or a dedicated
microprocessor program on the plant control system.

6.3.3 Feed Gas Chiller

This is typically a kettle-type exchanger where the feed gas is chilled to between
21oC and 25oC against refrigerant under level control in the shell side.

6.3.4 Feed Dryer Separator

Liquids (water and heavier hydrocarbons) are condensed and separated in this
vessel. Water and liquid hydrocarbon are disposed of separately from this vessel
and gas passes forward for further drying in the molecular sieve gas dryers.

6.3.5 Molecular Sieve Beds

Molecular sieve (mole sieve) is an alumino-silicate material with a very small pore
size. This pore size is such that hydrocarbon gas will pass through while water
will be attracted on to the surface of the mole sieve. The mole sieve is generally
in pellet form, supported on a clay binder.
The mole sieve beds are contained within a pressure vessel and to ensure
efficient distribution of the gas through the mole sieve, a gas distributor nozzle is
supplied at the gas inlet. A similar distributor nozzle is provided at the
regeneration gas inlet.
A series of inert ceramic balls is used to support the mole sieve at inlet and outlet
and further increase the efficiency of gas distribution and help to prevent
channeling.

6.3.6 Regeneration Gas Heater

A heater is required to supply the necessary heat to the regeneration gas. This
heater can be direct fired, a conventional tube and shell exchanger using a
suitable heat transfer medium or, in some specialist applications, the exhaust
from a combustion gas turbine system.
In all cases the heater must be sized to provide heating for all the required
regeneration gas at the required temperature. Regeneration gas temperatures
are generally in the range 250C to 260C.

6.3.7 Regeneration Gas Coolers

Typically, spent regeneration gas is disposed of to a fuel gas system or to
elsewhere in the process. In either case this regeneration gas needs to be
cooled to condense the water driven off and picked up by the regeneration gas in
the regeneration process.

This is most efficiently accomplished in two stages: by using an air cooler

followed by a water-cooled tube and shell exchanger.

6.3.8 Regeneration Gas Knock-out Drum

Water condensed in the regeneration gas air and water coolers is knocked out in
the regeneration gas knockout drum.
This vessel is fitted with a level control valve, which disposes of liquid to a
separator or dirty sewer system. A demister pad prevents water droplets being
carried over in the gas.

+
Figure 6.10 - Three Dryer System

7.1

Pipelines

History
For many centuries pipelines have been used to carry water for industrial and
domestic use. Oil and gas pipelines are a much more recent development and
although it is reported that the Chinese used bamboo lines to transport gas from
seepages around the year 900 CE, modern hydrocarbon-carrying pipelines date
only from the latter part of the 19th Century.
In 1876 a pipeline was laid to carry natural gas from Kane, Pennsylvania to
Buffalo, New York. This pipeline was 20 centimetres in diameter and some 140
kilometres long.
An oil pipeline 15 centimetres in diameter and 170 kilometres long was laid from
Bradford, Pennsylvania to Allentown, Pennsylvania in 1879.
These early pipelines were made from threaded lengths of steel pipe and were
screwed together by workers using large tongs. It was not until the 1920s that
welding pipelines become common construction practice. Also, in the 1920s,
oxy-acetylene welding was introduced, only to be superseded by electric welding
later in the decade.
Welding technology and inspection techniques have since developed to keep
pace with the demands of new pipeline materials, vastly increased pipeline
distances, greater pipeline diameters and the demands of off-shore and Arctic
environments.
In the early 1950s major pipelines were built in Canada and the Trans Arabia
Pipeline (the Tapline) was built to carry crude oil from the Persian Gulf to the
Mediterranean Sea.
As it became apparent that oil and gas could be moved economically and
efficiently using pipelines, the expansion of the worlds pipeline system expanded
rapidly. Significant pipelines now include the Trans-Alaska pipeline and the
pipeline system carrying gas from Siberia to Europe.

7.2

Types of Pipeline
Pipelines can be categorized in three main groups:
gathering
transmission
distribution.
Other pipelines are required in oil and gas fields to inject water, gas or other
fluids into the reservoir to enhance hydrocarbon recovery.

Smaller diameter pipelines called flowlines are used to gather oil and gas and to
transport them to processing facilities in the field.
These field facilities export product through larger diameter transmission
pipelines to refineries or processing centres.
Distribution networks made up of smaller diameter pipelines and metering
facilities are used to finally deliver product to domestic or industrial users.

7.3

Pipeline Materials
While steel is the most common material used for the construction of pipelines in
hydrocarbon service, other materials such as PVC can be used in a limited
number of specialist applications.
Pipe thickness and diameter are determined by the pressure and flows required
through the pipeline. The selection of pipe thickness and diameter is always
made on economic grounds and pipe weight per metre is an important
consideration in this respect.

7.4

Pipeline Protection
The huge investment in pipeline systems, which include pipe, pumps,
compressors and drivers as well as other equipment, makes protection of
pipelines of critical importance.
To protect pipelines internally, coatings are applied. The type of coating depends
on the service to which the pipeline is put and the length of time it is expected to
be in service.
A common method of protecting pipeline is to lay the pipeline underground.
Buried pipelines are usually externally coated to prevent corrosion and since
maintenance of underground pipelines is particularly costly, further steps are
taken to reduce corrosion.
One such method of protection is cathodic protection. Corrosion of underground
steel pipeline can result from the flow of electrical current between areas of
different electrical potential. This current flows from an area of higher potential
through an electrolyte to an area of lower potential. The area of lower potential
(the anode) will be corroded and the area of higher potential will not be corroded.
In the case of an underground pipeline, the soil is the electrolyte. These areas of
different potential exist along the full length of a pipeline. The magnitude of the
potential difference depends, among other factors, on the soil conditions.
In a cathodic protection system, anodes are installed and an electrical current is
made to flow between the pipeline and the anodes so that the pipeline becomes
more electronically negative. The pipeline becomes the cathode of the system
and its corrosion rate is decreased. The anodes (the part of the system to
become corroded) are sacrificed.

Power requirements for a cathodic protection system are very small and in
remote locations solar power is often used for this purpose.

7.5

Pipeline Operation
Oil and gas carrying pipelines have a good safety record and pipeline operations
are regarded among the safest of industrial operations. This is largely due to the
operation of pipeline leak detection systems.
Traditionally overground pipelines were inspected visually, often by aircraft. This
is not possible, however, in the case of underground or sub-sea pipelines. Leak
detection is accomplished in these cases using sophisticated instrumentation and
monitoring techniques.
Metering accuracy plays a key role in the leak detection; an important way to
detect leaks being direct monitoring of pressure drop and volume loss in a
pipeline.
Acoustic emission systems use the noise generated by fluid flow through
pipelines to detect and locate leakage. This system can be used to continuously
monitor for leaks. Detectors are installed at points in the pipeline, which pick up
noises in the pipeline. These are transmitted to a system, which compares the
noises to normal pipeline background noise. Differences in noise, indicating
leakage, generate an alarm.
Instrumented (intelligent) 'pigs' can also be used to detect pipeline leakage. A
leak-detecting pig can be moved to various positions in the pipeline by the fluid
flowing in the pipeline. When stopped at a test point, pressure is equalized in the
test segments. If a leak exists, fluid will flow through the pig in the direction of the
leaking segment.

8.1

Pipeline Pigs

General
Refer to Figure 8.1.
Pipeline pigs are used for a number of purposes in oil and gas pipelines,
including:
wax, water and dirt removal
product separation
pipeline inspection and leak detection
application of internal coatings.
Pigs and spheres are transported through the pipeline by the pressure of the
flowing liquid. A pig usually consists of a steel body with rubber or plastic cups
attached to seal between the pig and the pipe internal wall. Brushes and
scrapers can be attached to the pig for pipeline cleaning.
The brushes and scrapers on a pipeline pig remove dirt and wax from pipe
internals and several passes might be required to clean a section of pipe
adequately. This type of cleaning pig contains holes which allow fluid to bypass
the pig and to prevent build-up of debris in front of the pig which might cause
plugging.
Pipelines are often pigged initially after construction and prior to hydrostatic
testing to push out air and to prevent mixing of air with the test water.
Following testing, the test water is displaced by the pipeline fluid, a pig running
between the two to keep them separate.
Pigs can be fitted with instrumentation, which can detect leaks or construction
faults in a pipeline such as dents or buckles.
In pigging operations care must be taken to avoid foreign material or debris being
introduced into compressor pumping systems. Instrumentation lines must also
be protected during pigging operations.

8.2

Pig Launching and Receiving

Refer to Figure 8.2.
To introduce the pig into the pipeline and to recover the pig after pigging
operations, specialist equipment is required.
This equipment comprises a launcher at the upstream end and a receiver at the
downstream end. The allowable distance between launcher and receiver
depends on the service, local operating procedures, material used in the pig and
the location of pumping or compressor stations.

A key factor in determining the distance between launcher and receiver is the
amount of lubrication in the pipeline. Gas having lower lubricating properties than
oil or hydrocarbon condensate, the distance between traps is less for gas
pipelines.
In gas transmission pipelines the maximum distance between pigging stations
has been recommended as 160 kilometres.
In crude oil systems the recommended distance is 450 kilometres for pigs and
600 kilometres for spheres. These distances, however, represent extremes and
the actual distance depends on local conditions.

Figure 8.1 - Types of Pig

Figure 8.2 - Typical Scraper Pig Launcher (Liquid)

9.1

Liquid Product Storage

General
Constraints on the export of product by pipelines or other means dictates a
requirement for product storage. In addition, there is a need for storage for
various chemicals used in the process and for the storage of by-products prior to
disposal.
Typical of the above are produced water and condensate product. Gas storage,
either as liquefied petroleum gases or as liquefied natural gas, is highly
specialized and is not considered in this section of the training module.

9.2

Cone Roof Tanks

Refer to Figure 9.1.
A cone roof tank has a fixed sloping roof with a central apex. This type of tank is
used for storing low volatility liquids at atmospheric pressure. Typical uses for
the cone roof tank include storage for:
water
slops
caustic solutions
diesel.
The roof is fixed and so requires protection from over-pressure or vacuum
conditions. Breather vents or valves are used to provide this protection and are
particularly important during tank loading or discharging operations.

9.3

Floating Roof Tanks

Refer to Figure 9.2.
Floating roof tanks are the most common type of tank to be found in hydrocarbon
service. They are used for storing liquids with a high volatility such as:
crude oil storage
light naphtha
heavy naphtha
jet fuel
gasoline
kerosene
hydrocarbon condensate.
The tank comprises a tank shell and a roof supported by a pontoon, which floats
on the tank contents.

The shell of the tank is slightly larger than the circumference of the pontoon and
the space between is sealed with a flexible fabric. If this fabric is worn or not tight
fitting there is loss of vapour and a risk of fire at the tank rim.
The pontoon is designed with buoyancy compartments to allow the roof to float
on top of the tank contents and rise and fall with rising or falling tank contents.

9.4

Tank Construction
Most tanks are constructed on-site by welding steel plates to form a vertical
cylinder. Tank foundations must be capable of bearing the downward weight of a
fully laden tank for several years. The area should have good drainage to avoid
collection of water around the tank base, which might be a cause of corrosion.
A bund wall capable of containing liquid spillage and to prevent the propagation
of fire is used to separate tanks.

Figure 9.1 - Cone Roof Tank

Figure 9.2 - Floating Roof Tank