RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

MECHANISMS OF GAS EXCHANGE

Gas exchange is the interchange of O2 and

CO2 between an organism and its

environment.
It is also called respiration
Gas exchange is essential because energy

metabolism requires O2 and produces CO2

RESPIRATION
Four Distinct Events
1. Breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
2. External respiration: exchange of O2

and CO2 between lungs and

bloodstream
3. Transport of gases via the cardiovascular

system
4. Internal respiration: exchange of CO2

and O2 between cells and bloodstream

ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

UPPER RESPIRATORY
TRACT
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea

LOWER RESPIRATORY
TRACT
Bronchial tree
Alveoli
Lungs

 Bronchi (singular

bronchus) - left and

right
Bronchioles - smaller

divisions of the
bronchi
Bronchioles end in

small air sacs called

alveoli - 500 million;
one squamous cell
layer thick

 Lungs: 2 unequal

lobes
Covered in a

membrane called the

pleura

Pulmonary
artery

Pulmonary
vein

Capillaries

O2
CO2

Capillary
Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

 Breathing = ventilation
Two stages:
1. Inspiration
2. Expiration
Diaphragm and

intercostal muscles
contract, thoracic cavity
enlarges

Breathing Ventilates the Lungs

Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts (moving

downwards); causing rib cage, chest cavity,

and lungs to expand.
Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes (moving

upwards); causing rib cage, chest cavity, and

lungs to contract.

Breathing is controlled by centers in the

nervous system to keep up with bodys
demands.

INHALATION

EXHALATION
Air Exhaled

Rib cage
lowers

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

How breathing is controlled?

Breathing is controlled by
the medulla oblongata monitors carbon dioxide in
the blood.
As carbon dioxide

increases, nerve impulses

make the diaphragm
contract, bringing air into
the lungs.
The higher the carbon

dioxide level, the stronger

the impulses.
Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells

carries most of the oxygen in the blood
buffers the pH of blood and carries some CO2

Heme
group

Iron
atom

O2 loaded
in lungs
O2 unloaded
in tissues

O2

O2

Polypeptide chain
Figure 22.10B

TISSUE CELL
CO2 produced

Most CO2 in the blood

combines with water to
form carbonic acid
The H2CO3 (carbonic
acid) breaks down to
form H+ and HCO3(bicarbonate ions)

INTERSTITIAL CO
2
FLUID

BLOOD
PLASMA
WITHIN
CAPILLARY

CO2

CO2
H2O
RED
BLOOD
CELL

H2CO3
Carbonic acid

HCO3
+
Bicarbonate

HCO3
Figure 22.11A

Capillary
wall

H+

Hemoglobin
picks up
CO2 and H+

ALVEOLAR SPACE IN LUNG

CO2

Most CO2 is transported

to the lungs in the form
of bicarbonate ions

CO2

CO2

CO2
H2O
Hemoglobin
releases
CO2 and H+

H2CO3

HCO3

HCO3
Figure 22.11B

H+

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Controls and coordinates all the functions of the body
D I V I S I O N S:

I. Anatomical Divisions
A. Central Nervous System (CNS) brain and spinal cord
B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) nerves and sensory
receptors

II. Functional Divisions carries impulses

A. Sensory sensory receptors to CNS
B. Motor CNS to effectors, glands, muscles
1. Somatic - voluntary
2. Autonomic involuntary; either sympathetic or
parasympathetic

NEURON

Synapse

synapse

Types of Neurons
Sensory (or afferent) neurons: send information

from sensory receptors (e.g., in skin, eyes, nose,

tongue, ears) TOWARD the central nervous
system.
Motor (or efferent) neurons: send information

AWAY from the central nervous system to

muscles or glands.
Interneurons: send information BETWEEN

sensory neurons and motor neurons. Most

interneurons are located in the central nervous
system.

http://inside.salve.edu/walsh/cns_pns.jpg

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Protections for the CNS

MENINGES
Dura Mater (outer layer) - consists of connective

tissues, blood vessels, and nerves.

Arachnoid Layer (middle layer) - elastic and
weblike
Pia Mater (inner layer) - contains nerves and blood
vessels
Cerebrospinal fluid - a clear watery liquid, which separates
the middle and inner layers
Acts as shock absorber
Exchange of nutrients between blood and nervous
system

The Brain

A. Cerebrum
Largest part of the

brain
Thinking
Memory is stored
Movements are
controlled
Impulses from the
senses are
interpreted.

frontal

parietal

temporal

occipital

B. Cerebellum
Responsible for the

coordination of
muscles and is
the center of
balance

2003-2004

C. Medulla Oblongata
Center of heart

beat, respiration,
and other
involuntary
actions

C. Diencephalon
Thalamus receives messages from sensory

receptors; relays information to proper regions

of cerebrum
Hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst,

fatigue, anger
* Control of pituitary for endocrine function

Cerebrum
Thalamus
Pineal gland

Hypothalamus
Cerebellum

Pituitary gland
Pons
Medulla oblongata

Spinal cord

The Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects body to brain &

spinal cord
12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Bundles of sensory and motor

neurons held together by

connective tissue

Two Divisions
Somatic
Autonomic
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic

http://www.christopherreeve.org/Research/Research.cfm?ID=178&c=21

Divisions of the PNS

1. Somatic Nervous System
Controls voluntary actions
Made up of the cranial and spinal nerves that go

from the CNS to the skeletal muscles

2. Autonomic Nervous System
Controls involuntary actions (not under

conscious control) such as heart rate, breathing,

digestion, and glandular functions

SYMPATHETIC PARASYM

2003-2004

Endocrine System
- Hormones
- Homeostasis

Homeostasis
maintaining internal balance in the body
organism must keep internal conditions stable
even if environment changes
also called dynamic equilibrium
Example: body temperature
humans:
too cold = shiver
too warm = sweat

Maintaining homeostasis
hormone 1
lowers
body condition

gland

high
specific body condition
low
raises
body condition

gland

hormone 2

Animals rely on two systems for regulation:

Nervous System is a system of nerve cells called
neurons. Typical responses are fast and short lasting.

Endocrine System is a system of ductless glands

that secrete hormone into the blood. Hormones travel
to target tissues. Typical responses are slow and long
lasting.

Regulation
hypothalamus
master nerve control
center
receives information from
nerves around body
about internal conditions

communicates with

pituitary gland
master gland
releases many hormones
sexual development, growth,
milk production, pain-relief

hormones

hormones

Regulation by chemical messengers

Neurotransmitters released by neurons
Hormones release by endocrine glands
endocrine gland

neurotransmitter
axon

hormone carried
by blood

receptor proteins

receptor proteins

target cell

Endocrine System
Composed of glands which secrete

chemical signals (hormones) into blood

Hormones cause changes in other parts

of body
growth hormones
sex hormones
response hormones
metabolism hormones

Why are HORMONES needed?

COMMUNICATION:

chemical messages from one

body part to cells in other
parts of body
COORDINATION:

communication needed
to coordinate whole body
maintaining HOMEOSTASIS

growth hormones

GLANDS &
HORMONES
Pineal - melatonin
Pituitary - many

hormones: master
gland
Thyroid - thyroxine
Adrenal - adrenaline
Pancreas - insulin,
glucagon
REPRODUCTIVE:
Ovary - estrogen
Testes - testosterone

Pituitary gland hormones

Sex & reproductive hormones
FSH follicle stimulating hormone
stimulates egg & sperm production
LH luteinizing hormone
stimulates ovaries & testes
prepares uterus for fertilized egg
oxytocin
stimulates childbirth contractions
releases milk in nursing mothers
prolactin
milk production in nursing mothers
hormones

hormones

Pituitary gland and Hypothalamus serve to link the nervous

system other glands and metabolic functions.

2003-2004

2003-2004

Thyroid and Parathyroid help regulate calcium metabolism

Endocrine System Control: Blood sugar

insulin
liver stores
sugar

body
cells take
up sugar
from blood

pancreas

high

liver

blood sugar level

(90mg/100ml)

low
triggers
hunger

liver
releases
sugar

liver

pancreas

glucagon

reduces
appetite

Female Hormones
FSH & LH
released from pituitary
stimulates egg development & hormone release
peak release = release of egg (ovulation)
Estrogen
released from ovary cells around developing egg
stimulates growth of lining of uterus
decreasing levels causes menstruation
Progesterone
released from corpus luteum in ovaries
cells that used to take care of developing egg
stimulates blood supply to lining of uterus
decreasing levels causes menstruation

2003-2004

2003-2004

Pancreas helps regulate blood glucose

Insulin from Beta cells reduce blood sugar

Glucagon from Alpha cells increase blood sugar