MarciaZilli

Finaldiscussion:Basedonclasses,seminarsandpapers,pleasediscussthefollowingquestions:

1)Whatistheoverallimpactofwatervaporandparticles(aerosols)onthetransmissivity
coefficientoftheatmosphere?Discussthedependenceonaltitude.

Watervaporistransparenttoshortwaveradiationbutisagoodabsorberoflongwave.Additionally,any
particleintheatmosphere,includingwatervapormolecules,contributeswithshortwavescattering.Due
toitsdiameter,watervaporscattersradiationthroughMiescatteringprocess,wheretheparticlesare
aboutthesamesizeastheradiationwavelength.Thusatmosphericwatervaporreducestheatmospheric
transmissivitybyabsorbinglongwaveandscatteringbothlongandshortwaveradiation.Asthewater
vaporconcentrationreduceswithaltitude,itseffectsalsoreducewithheight.
Thelargesteffectofaerosolonradiationisthroughscattering.Aerosolsparticlesalsoscatterthe
radiationthroughMiescatteringprocess,affectingallwavelengthsequally.Aerosolscanalsoabsorb
radiationorreflectitbacktospace,contributingwiththeatmosphericalbedo.Similarlytowatervapor,
aerosolsconcentrationalsodecreaseswithheight,reducingitseffect.
2)ExplainseasonaleffectsonshortwaveandUVradiationwithaltitude

MostoftheUVradiationisabsorbedbythestratosphericozone.Itcanalsobescatteredbythe
atmosphere,withtheamountofscatteringreducingwithheightduetoreducedatmosphericdensitywith
altitude.Thus,theUVradiationincreaseswithheightwitharateof3to7%/kmforanideal
atmosphere.Seasonally,UVradiationislargerduringsummercomparedtowinter.
Incomingsolarshortwaveradiationcanalsobescatteredbytheatmosphere,withlargerscatteringon
loweraltitudes,wheretheairdensityislarger.Thus,incomingsolarradiationincreaseswithheight
consideringclearskyconditions.Italsovariesseasonallyaccordingtothesolarinclination.Usuallyin
winterthesolarangleissmallerandtheradiationbeamisdistributedoveralargerarea.When
accountingtheclodeffects,solarradiationreduceswithheightinlowerelevationsduetoincreased
probabilityofcloudcover.Onhigherelevations,abovethecloudtop,thesolarradiationwillincrease
withheight.Inhigherelevationswheresnoworiceispresentalmostallyear,thealbedoreflectssolar
radiation,offsettingthebalance.
3)Explaintheeffectsofcloudsonsolarradiationasafunctionofaltitude.Discusspossible
implicationsoftheseeffectsontheregionofyourinterest(sameregionyouhavepickedupforthe
analysisofwindsandcontinentality).

Ascloudsareformedbyliquidwaterdropletandicecrystals,theyreflectallwavelengths,contributing
withtheplanetaryalbedobyreflectingbacktospacepartoftheincomingsolarradiation.Additionally,
liquidwaterisagoodabsorberandconsequentlygoodemitter.Highcloudsaregenerallythinandcold,
emittingsmalleramountsoflongwavebothtospaceandbacktothesurface,withanoveralleffectof
warmingtheatmosphere.Lowcloudsarewarmerandemitmorelongwaveradiation.However,thick
cloudsalsoreflectmoreradiation,reducingtheamountofradiationreachingthesurface.Theneteffect
isnotclear,butcanbeeitherofneutralorcoolingeffect.InSEBrazil,thepresenceofcloudsearlyin
therainyseasonreducestheincomingshortwave,reducingthewarmingandcreatinganomalous
anticycloniccirculation,inhibitingprecipitationlaterontheseason.Theyalsoincreasethemechanical

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upliftofmoistairfromtheocean,favoringtheoccurrenceofprecipitationevents.Duringwinter,when
thesurfaceiscooler,themoistliftedairfavorstheoccurrenceoflightrains.Urbanheatislandand
atmosphericpollutionareinterferingwiththismechanism,reducingthedropletsizebutincreasingtheir
number.Consequentlythedropletsdonotgrowenoughtofallasprecipitation.Duringsummer,warmer
temperaturesincreasetheamountofmoisturetransportedoverthetopography.Whenthismoistureair
reachesurbanareas,localheatislandsfurthersupporttheuplift,creatinglargeconvectivestormsthat
canproducelargeprecipitationrates.
4)Explaintheseasonalvariationofskyradiationandthedependenceonaltitude.

Clearskyradiationdecreaseswithaltitudeduetothereductioninairdensityandconsequentlya
reductioninscattering.Also,duetoareductionintheincomingsolarradiationduringwinter,clearsky
radiationissmallerthanduringsummer.Allskyradiationhasamorecomplexdependenceonaltitude
andseasonssinceitalsoincludesradiationemittedbytheatmospherebacktothesurfaceaswellas
radiationscatteredbackfromthesky.Inlowerelevations,summerallskyradiationdecreaseswith
heightduetothepresenceofclouds.Eventhoughcloudsmightemitlongwaveradiation,italsoreflects
theshortwaveradiationbacktospace,reducingthenetradiationreachingthesurface.Onhigher
elevations,allskyradiationincreaseswithheightduetolessshortwaveabsorptionandrefractiononthe
atmosphere.Abovethesnow/iceline,allskyradiationshouldaccountalsothefractionreflectedbyhigh
albedosurfaceslikesnowandice.Duringwinterandspring,directincomingsolarradiationissmaller
duetoalargersolarinclination.Also,thecontributionofradiationreflectedbysurroundingsurfacesto
allskyradiationislargerduetolargersnow/icecoverage.
5)ExplainvariationsinnetradiationRnwithaltitude(pleasestartbyexplainingeachcomponent
ofthebudgetandthenexplainhowRnvarieswithaltitudeandwhy).Thisisaveryimportant
reviewforeveryoneinclass.Makesureyouunderstandhowtoevaluatethesebudgetsin
mountainregions.

Netradiationisthebalancebetweenincomingsolarradiation S (1 ) ,outgoinglongwaveradiation I
andlongwaveradiationemittedback I :
Rn = S (1 ) + (I I )
Outgoinglongwaveradiation I reduceswithheightduetocoldertemperaturesinhigheraltitudes.Itis
alsolargerduringsummerthanwinterduetowarmertemperatures.Longwaveradiationemittedback
fromthesky I alsoreduceswithheightduetocolderatmospherictemperatureandlesswatervaporin
theatmosphericcolumn.Onaverage,netlongwaveradiationisgenerallynegativesinceonaveragethe
surfaceiswarmerthanthesurroundingaircausingthesurfacetoemitradiationthatwillbeabsorbedby
theatmosphere.Thecomponentofnetradiationthathaslargervariabilityistheincomingshortwave.
Netincomingradiationincreaseswithheightduetolargerdirectsolarradiationandlessscattering.In
lowerlevels,thisbalancecanbeaffectedbythepresenceofcloudsshadowingthesurfaceand
decreasingtheincomingradiation.Onhigherelevations,theincreaseddurationofsnowcoverincreases
theradiationreflectedbyhighalbedosurfaces,reducingtheamountofshortwaveabsorbedand
decreasingthenetradiationwithelevation.

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6)Describesomeofthemainmechanismsthatexplaintopographicinducedlowleveljets

Asthewindflowsagainstanorographicbarrier,itcaneitherflowaboveitorbedeflected.Toflow
aboveit,thekineticenergyhastobelargeenoughtoovercomethebarrier.Additionally,ifthelocal
atmosphereisstable,theairwouldneedextraenergytoascent.Whentheseconditionsarenotmet,the
flowtendstobedeflectedalongthebarrier,butinonepreferentialdirection.Wecanimaginethat,
beforereachingthebarrier,theflowisapproximatelygeostrophic,withalowpressuretotheleft(right)
oftheflowintheNorthern(Southern)Hemisphereandahighpressuretotheright(left).Astheair
flowsagainstthebarrier,itcreatesalocalhighpressureareaatthefootoftheslope,disturbingthe
geostrophicbalanceandforcingtheflowtobedeflectedtowardthelowpressureregion.OverSouth
America,thelowpressuredirectingthejetistheChacoLow,deflectingthenortheasterliestradewinds
southandsouthwestward.Alongthediurnalcycle,surfaceradiativewarmingproducesturbulent
momentumtransport,deceleratingthewindsonthetopoftheboundarylayer,producingsubgeostrophic
balance.LatentheatreleasedduringdeepconvectiveprocessesovertheAmazoncanfurtherincrease
theverticalturbulenttransport,increasingtheboundarylayercoupling.Duringthenight,whenthe
radiativecoolingstabilizesthenearsurfacelayer,theturbulentmixingisreducedandthewindsinthe
residuallayerdecouplesfromthesurface.Thisremovestheeffectsoffrictionandacceleratesthewind,
producingsupergeostropicbalance.Thisoccurswhenthesynopticpressuregradientisfavorable,with
theChacolowinfluencingthelowlevelcirculation.(OK,good)
7)Discussthemainmechanismsthatexplaingravitywavesandwindstormsassociatedwithflow
overmountains(consideronlycasesoflongmountainchains).

Toflowoverthemountainbarrier,thekineticenergyassociatedwiththewindspeedhastobestrong
enoughtoovercomethepotentialenergyofascendingovertheslope.Localatmospherestabilityisalso
important,increasingtheenergynecessaryfortheflowtosurpassthemountain.Iftheflowhasenough
energytoclimbupthemountain,itwillascendadiabaticallybyeitheradryoramoistprocess.Chances
arethatasitgetstothetop,itiscolderthanthesurroundingairandthusforcedtoflowdowntheslope
ontheleeside.Whenthestratificationissufficientlystrong,gravitywavescanbeexcited.Inthiscase,
thephasewillpropagateupwardtiltingupwindwithheightandtheenergywillpropagateupwardand
downwind.Whenthestratificationisnotsostrong,thewaveswillbetrapped,withnoupward
propagationofenergyorphase.BothcasesoccurwhenFroudenumber,whichcomparesthewindspeed
withlocalstability,isclosetoone.Verticalwindshearorthepresenceofaninversionlayeraloftcan
leadtoacriticallevelthatinhibittheupwardenergypropagationofthegravitywaveanddeflectsitback
towardtothesurface.Thissituationcandeveloporstrengthendownslopewindstorms.Windstormsform
whentheflowisforceddownwardontheleesideofthemountain,warmingadiabatically.Extreme
conditionsoccurwhentheascentonthewindsideofthebarrierwasthroughamoistadiabaticprocess.
Inthiscase,thedescentontheleewillbedryadiabatic,withtheairwarming10C/km.(OK,much
improved!)