SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 19 - 22, 2012, Seattle, WA

Preprint 12-039
MINING DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
K. Oraee, Univ. of Stirling, Stirling, UK.
S. Siasirad, Iranian Minerals Production and Supply Company (IMPASCO), Tehran, Iran.
M. Tavassoli, Organization of Industries and Mines, Bushehr, Iran.

development and the lands natural historical characteristics (Sheng

and Li-zhong, 2009).

ABSTRACT
A comprehensive, harmonic and sustainable development has
always been a real concern of state policy makers. To reach such
development, regional planning is an approach which is widely applied.

The purpose of this paper is as to how adapt and implement the

sustainable development policies pertinent to mining activities in order
to poverty is alleviated. For this, first, the terms land use planning,
regional planning and their relationship with mining operations are
defined. Then some worldwide experiences which help decision
makers take lessons in practice are considered. Finally a model for
recognition of best places for mining investment is suggested, in a way
that the following objectives are simultaneously satisfied, firstly
optimizing performances of mining sector; and secondly decreasing
regional inequalities and increasing welfare in poor areas.

This paper deals with policies adopted by a given country with

rich mineral deposits, in order to accomplish a mining growth as well as
economic development in relatively poor regions. In this regards, first,
some worldwide experiences belonging to China, with large scale
mining operations and Nigeria with a small scale mining industry, are
studied. The mining industry in Iran is then considered as a case study.
The study continues by categorizing and prioritizing Iranian regions
based on their mining potential and the degree of development, using
statistical analysis and Taxonomy and AHP techniques. Results
obtained serve to provide recommendations as to where capital
investments in the mining industry would produce highest returns.

Such study is significant in local and national scale for supporting

sustained, rapid and sound economic growth, for optimizing economic
structure and promoting a reasonable layout of minerals production, for
relieving poverty, and for achieving coordinated economic and social
development at undeveloped and less developed areas.

The approach used, together with the practical policies suggested

in this paper, can be used to adapt appropriate strategies for mining
development in a way that contributes to regional development and a
more effective income distribution.
Keywords: Mining development,
development, mining investment

regional

planning,

LAND USE PLANNING AND REGIONAL PLANNING IN MINING

AREA

regional

The terms land use planning and regional planning are often
used interchangeably. Despite confusing nomenclature, the essential
function of those remains the same whatever term is applied.

INTRODUCTION

The Canadian Institute of Planners offers a definition that land

use planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of
land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the
physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of
urban and rural communities (Canadian Institute of Planners, 2011).
The American Planning Association states that the goal of land use
planning is to further the welfare of people and their communities by
creating convenient, equitable, healthful, efficient, and attractive
environments for present and future generations (American Planning
Association, 2011).

Many governments have finally recognized the merits of

sustainable development and are now using it as a guiding principle in
policy-making activities. A major weakness of many sustainability
interpretations and assessments is that sustainable development is
used interchangeably with environmental management or
environmental protection. In such cases, there is the propensity to
resolve only one type of problem environmental deterioration
while ignoring the importance of economic and social goals, two
equally important pillars of sustainable development (De Graaf et al.,
1996). Therefore, sustainable development extends beyond simply
committing to improving environmental performance. Principle I of the
Rio Declaration proclaims that Human beings are at the center of
concerns for sustainable development and are entitled to a healthy
and productive life in harmony with nature (Epps, 1997).

Regional planning is the science of efficient placement of

infrastructure and zoning for the sustainable growth of a region. A
region in planning terms can be administrative or at least partially
functional, and is likely to include a network of settlements and
character areas. In most European countries, regional and national
plans are spatial directing certain levels of development to specific
cities and towns in order to support and manage the region depending
on specific needs. In another words, regional planning is defined as the
integrated management of the economic, social, and physical
resources of a spatially bounded area (Steiner, 1983 and Johnson,
2004).

When it comes to mining and minerals industry, sustainable

development is becoming increasingly more important; because
minerals are essential to everyday life and vital raw materials in a large
number of industries. In addition, extraction and processing of minerals
are associated with a number of sustainable development challenges,
including various economic, environmental and social issues
(Azapagic, 2004). These and the other issues have prompted the
mining and minerals industry to engage in the sustainability debate and
start devising strategies for responding to the challenge of sustainable
development.

In regional planning, the first step is selection of criteria for

zoning. A country divides to different regions based on several factors
such as: natural conditions, area, cultural compatibility, degree of
development, income level, etc.

To accomplish such development in mining area, land use

planning and regional planning are useable tools. Land use planning is
a comprehensive technical economical measure which servers for
distribution of land resources and reasonable organization of land use
in the space and time according to the regional socio-economical

Land use planning in mining area is a new concept, which is

proposed based on the land utilization plan. On the basis of socioeconomic development in the mining area and the request of
environmental improvement and possible providing condition of natural
resources, it is a land utilization system which is established on the

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combination of essential factors of land in the space and strategic

arrangement to realize this combination in the time (Sheng and Lizhong, 2009).

Here, a region for mining development is defined as several

provinces and areas which have the similar mining potential and
performances and relatively the same share into the national mining
sector.

WORLDWIDE EXPERIENCES
Policy transplantation, in which elements from the policy of a
given country are transplanted to another, is often difficult if not
impossible because of the very different and special conditions and
goals of each country. However, the heuristic value of policy practices
in other countries should not be neglected. Countries could adopt
policy from other countries in order to achieve better success. Some
practices, even if they are debated in the system they belong to, can
be helpful in other contexts with supportive features.

Furthermore, some other policies and strategies have been taken

to develop the national mining industry by integrating small-scale
miners into the formal sector, as follow:

In this part, we are going to take a look at strategies which

Nigerian government has chosen to develop its Small-Scale Mining
(SSM), and Chinese state has adapted to accomplish a development in
especially large-scale mining (Ziran, 2002) at the some regions which
are relatively undeveloped (Lawal, 2002).

Development of Small-Scale Mining in Nigeria

The mining industry in Nigeria is one of the great potential. It is
however only just developing. Small-scale mining is an integral part of
mining in Nigeria, which can contribute to local and foreign exchange
earnings, encourage foreign direct investment and boost the countrys
economy. However, SSM industry is threatened by a number of factors
as follow:

level of development: due to the military rule over the past

decades and the lack of Nigerias economic development,
along with other factors such as over-dependence on oil;
Inadequate legal framework: prior to the Minerals and Mining
Decree of 1999, all mining activities were guided by the
Mineral Act of 1946 which was based on government-led
development of the sector, hardly given enough
consideration for development;
State control of mines: poor investment conditions (low
returns on investment, bad management practices and so
on) that usually accompanied state owned companies, led to
inadequate investment in the sector;
Securing finance: provisions for short and long term finance
and long-term saving instruments attractive to the local
market are lacking;
Illegal mining: as a result of the constraints mentioned above
as well as the constant allocation, revocation and
reallocation process of mining licenses in Nigeria;
Lack of policies and awareness: these include policies
guiding documentation of mining practices, code of conduct
and mining practice, child labor and women miners, training
and development of miners, mining research, financial
guidelines and environmental regulation;
Lack of technology and machinery.

Credit and loan schemes; by more commercial and merchant

banks, credit and loan houses and other financial institutions
to assist small-scale miners;
Reviewing legislation; since the present legislation to a large
degree still restricts private sector involvement as well as the
development of SSM. Penalties and punishment dealing with
illegal mining and environmental pollution via mining
activities are derisory and as such, fines and prison terms
should be reviewed (raised depending on damage, mineral
type, location, quantity and so on) in order to substantially
discourage illegal mining. In addition, the structure of
allocating mining permits and leases should be evaluated.
Strict guidelines for competence should be drawn out, with
particular attention made to lowering financial requirements
for small-scale miners, giving consideration to the banking
schemes being put in place.
Development of specific mining engineering and
management courses (and eventually schools) by local
universities in collaboration with foreign institutions;
Proper documentation of all SSM activities;
Minerals market: local markets for end products as well as
foreign markets for exports of the actual minerals should be
identified and also created.
Small-scale mining department and small-scale miners
association: The government should encourage and/or
create such national department and associations as a
forum for development. The body will be able to seek
adequate attention from the government and also guide
governing bodies on underdeveloped aspects and
insufficiencies. Mining companies should also consider
mergers, Joint Ventures (JVs), partnerships and the concept
of vertical integration.

Large-Scale Mining in China

In 2000, the Chinese Government launched the Western
Development Initiative (the WDI) mainly aimed at accelerating the
development of the western region and narrowing the gap between the
less developed western region and the developed eastern coastal
region.

This is changing with the efforts being made by the Nigerian

government and the private banking sector that have opened their
eyes to the potential of this sector.

For western development, there were a number of advantages

which were taken into account, especially:

Aside from reviewing mining laws and privatizing mining

companies, the Nigerian government has over the recent years,
adjusted its annual macro economic and fiscal policies to encourage
investment in the solid minerals sector. It has also created programs
and incentives for the mining sector which are also directed at
encouraging SSM. These include:

Capitalization of pre-investment expenditure such as

exploration and surveys with 20% tax deductible benefit on
such expenditure;
Deferred royalty payments;
Extension of infrastructure such as roads and electricity to
mining sites;
Additional capital allowance of 5%;
Insurance cover by the Multi-lateral Investment Guarantee
Agency (MIGA) against political risk, risk of transfer
restriction, breach of contract, civil strife, expropriation, etc;
Import duty waiver on imported machinery;
Grants of business permits and expatriate quota;
Free repatriation of profits.

100 % foreign ownership of mining companies;

Tax holidays of 3 5 years;
Withholding tax of 5%;

Abundant energy and mineral resources;

Abundant agricultural and husbandry resources;
Outstanding tourism resources;
Low labor costs;
The basis for industry development; because a series of
projects were carried out in the WDI region during the last
planning periods.
Location; because the WDI region borders over ten countries
and regions.

However, the economic and social development in the WDI region

was very different to the eastern region of China.

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To implement the WDI, the following four tasks were given
highest priority: Infrastructure construction, Ecological reconstruction
and environmental protection, Industrial restructuring, and Technology
and education development.

The fees for the use of mining rights may be exempted during the
period of mine construction and in the first year in which the mine is put
into operation. Half of the rates apply in the second and third years of
mine production.

Agriculture, tourism and mineral industries were the pillar

industries in the WDI region. The mineral resources with comparative
advantages and market potential were encouraged to develop. It was
planned to gradually construct key mining, development and
processing bases.

4)

Exploration expenses may be amortized as a carryover asset in

tax treatment during mining.

Mineral resources in the WDI region could serve as a base for

developing unique and pillar industries. One hundred and thirty eight
kinds of mineral resources have been identified with proven reserves in
the region. Of the 45 types of major mineral resources, the proven
reserves of more than 20 minerals in the WDI region account for over
50% of the national total.

5)

To support WDI in mining and minerals industry, a number of

preferential mineral policies were applied to the mineral projects
invested by domestic and international corporations, as follow:
1)

2)

3)

An exploration licensee has the right to obtain the mining

right to a viable mineral deposit within the exploration area
designated under its exploration right.

The new circle of the National Geological Survey Program

initiated in 1999, which was funded by the Central
Government budget and implemented by the Ministry of
Land and Resources (the MOLAR), has been given high
priority to the WDI region.
The reimbursement fees for exploration rights or mining
rights to a mineral deposit discovered or/and identified at the
states expense can, upon approval, be partly or wholly
converted into the states capital of the state-owned mining
enterprise or exploration unit that holds the exploration right
or mining right if one of the following conditions are met:
a) Exploration is for, or exploitation is of, oil, natural gas,
coal-bed methane, high-grade iron ores, high quality
manganese, chromium, copper, nickel, gold, silver,
potash, platinum group metals, and underground water;
b) Exploration is for, and exploitation is of, mineral
resources in the poverty-alleviation-oriented areas or
the key mineral resources concentrated areas;
c) Exploration is for the succeeding resources for
prolonging the life of a large or medium mine that is
close to resource depletion;
d) A state-owned capital-held unit takes its exploration
rights or mining rights as stocks to joint venture when it
has been authorized to conduct joint stock restructuring
or establish a joint venture with a foreign investor; or
e) A state-owned mining enterprise finds it hard to pay the
reimbursement fees for exploration rights or mining
rights to a mineral deposit discovered or/and identified
at the states expense because of force majeure.
The fees for the use of exploration rights or fees for the use
of mining rights may be reduced or exempted if one of the
following requirements is met:
a) Exploration is for, or exploitation is of, oil, natural gas,
coal-bed methane, uranium, high-grade iron ores, high
quality manganese, chromium, copper, potash,
platinum group metals, and underground water;
b) Exploration is for, or exploitation is of, the succeeding
resources for prolonging the life of a large or medium
mine that is close to resource depletion;
c) New techniques and methods are applied to raise the
recovery of the valuable minerals, including the
recovery of low grade and refractory minerals and the
utilization of the tailings and residuals at the old
diggings; or
d) Other requirements as prescribed by the MOLAR.

The leasing and transfer of an exploration right or mining

right are promoted. The scope applied to leasing mineral
rights will be the mineral deposits explored and identified
with state funds, and the mineral deposits acquired by the
state, etc. In addition to the mode of application-approval,
mineral rights may also be obtained through public bidding,
auction, etc. An exploration licensee or mining licensee may
transfer its exploration right or mining right in the modes of
selling, using as input of capital investment, equity to joint
venture, listing on the stock markets, and may rent or
mortgage its mineral rights.

In general, there were high priorities of WDI in national program

for exploration and development of mineral resources, and also new
programs for promoting foreign investment; In August 1999, the State
Council issued the regulations on further encouraging foreign
investment, which declares that:

Exploration rights and mining rights shall be further opened

to foreign investors;
A series of taxes and royalty policies shall be applied to
support foreign mineral investment;
Foreign investors are encouraged to make investment on
exploration and development of mineral resources in the
WDI region;
The government management and services related to
foreign investment on exploration and development of
mineral resources shall be further regulated and improved.
CASE STUDY: IRAN

As it can be vividly seen from the national principle policies and

strategies mentioned in the Fundamental Act of Iran Islamic Republic,
the Act of Third Five-Year Development Planning Period, the Act of
Forth Five-Year Development Planning Period, the General Policies of
Iran Islamic Republic in Mining Sector, the National Criteria of Land
Use Planning and the Industrial Development Road Map of Iran (13851404), Iranian policy makers have been striving to accomplish a
coordinated development throughout the country over the last two
decades. They have been attempting to provide a balance between the
different regions of country based on their various potential which can
be led to economic growth.
In this regards, mining and minerals industry because of its
considerable role in Iran's economy is being increasingly taken into
consideration. As it is clearly stated in the Act of Decentralization of
Industries and Mines and the Plan of Strategic Development for Mining
Sector, both established by Ministry of Industries and Mines, the
government has been trying to plan on mining industry and develop
policies and strategies for this sector.
With no doubt, developing efficient policies and strategies by
government for mining industry not only is crucial for the growth of this
sector but also can consequently improve livelihood circumstances in
especially less developed regions of country which enjoy rich mineral
resources. To implement such policy, in this part, firstly less developed
regions in Iran, considering different aspects, are specified and then
regions with the most magnificent mineral potential, considering
various criteria, are identified in order to recommendations about the
best places, which have the highest mining potential and
simultaneously suffer from a deep poverty, for investment on their
mining industry are made. Such study can help government to develop
and prioritize its strategies for mining growth which is the key to the

The fees for the use of exploration rights may be exempted in the
first year. Half of the rates are charged during the second and the third
year. Twenty-five percent of the rates are charged during the fourth to
seventh years.

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overall development of mining sector in Iran as well as national
economy.
Mining Industry in Iran
Iran with the total mineral production of 222.8 million tons in 2009
is an important mineral producer in the world. It possesses some 68
types of minerals and 14.7 billion tons of proven reserves (Iranian
Statistic Centers Report, 2009). The most important mines in Iran
include coal, metallic minerals, sand and gravel, chemical minerals and
salt. Iran enjoy the large deposits of iron (1.6% of world total), copper
(3.04% of world total), zinc (9% of world total) and lead (6.3% of world
total) (USGS, 2010).
The minerals industry in Iran is a great potential which
significantly contribute to countrys economy. Although mineral
production has constituted a mere 0.5-0.8% of Irans GDP over recent
years, it directly and indirectly has a one-third share in the national
economy (Oraee, 2009).
Iranian mining industry suffers from some drawbacks such as
countrys high dependence on oil, lack of suitable infrastructure, legal
barriers, and the underdeveloped mining sector, primarily resulting
from inadequate and inefficient policies for mineral exploration
development.
Recognition of Less Developed Regions in Iran
Here, the less developed regions in Iran are presented by Arc GIS
9.2 software in order to make a relationship between these places and
those with high mineral potential. For this, the result of study on the
evaluation of the development level of Iranian regions, which the
government issued on 8/20/2002, is considered. In this study, various
features of regions were taken into account by the government,
namely, social, environmental, educational, cultural, entertainment,
tourism, and economical criteria.
As it is shown in figure 1, six less developed regions, called C1, C2
and C6, were recognized:

C1: with the area total of 2,056,160 km and consists of parts

located in Sistan va Baluchestan, Kerman and Hormozgan
provinces.
2
C2: with the area total of 42,470 km and is comprised of
areas situated in Sistan va Baluchestan and Southern
Khorasan provinces.
2
C3: with the area total of 27,923 km and includes parts
placed in Razavi Khorasan province.
2
C4: with the area total of 35,464 km and consists of parts
located in Kerman and Fars provinces.
2
C5: with the area total of 35,803 km and is comprised of
areas situated in Lorestan, Ilam and Kermanshah provinces.
2
C6: with the area total of 19,078 km and includes parts
placed in Kordestan, western and eastern Azarbayejan
provinces.

Figure 1. Less developed regions in Iran.

Table 1.
Factors applied for assessment of provinces' mining
development level.
No.
Factor
R1
Add value
R2
Employment
R3
Minerals export value
R3
Minerals production value
R5
Experts (engineers) in mining field
R6
Minerals production volume
R7
Metallic minerals production volume
R8
Nonmetallic minerals production volume
R9
Construction minerals production volume
R10
Number of large metallic mine
R11
Number of large nonmetallic mines
R12
Number of large construction minerals mines

Assessment and Ranking of Irans Provinces based on Their

Mining Development
In this part, Iran's provinces, based on their mineral potential
which is assessed through some criteria, are ranked. For this,
considering the availability and reliability of data gathered from all
provinces, twelve factors, shown in table 1, are chosen and calculated.

These factors include:

Then, to prioritize the provinces based on their mineral potential,

Taxonomy method (considering factors with the same weight) and
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) (considering factors with different
weights which mining experts had suggested) were utilized. The results
are very similar as presented in tables 2 and 3. Finally, using the
cluster analysis, the provinces are categorized in four regions as it is
shown in figure 2.

Environmental conditions;
Water resources;
Roads, rails;
Airports and ports;
Electricity, gas and telephone connections; and
Basic metals and precious metals.

After the combination of all data, the north west of region C1 and
2
the region C4, with the area total of 86,554 km , and the region C6 with
2
the area total of 19,078 km were introduced as the regions in which
mining investment will enjoy high profitability in terms of social,
economical and environmental aspects (Figure 3).

Best Investment Targets for Mining development

Now, along with the combination of two layers of data, namely
less developed regions and regions with high mineral capability, some
other factors are considered.

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contributed to the national economic growth and regional poverty
alleviation. In this regards, some global experiences belonging to
Nigeria and china were studied. Finally, as a case study with the aims
of both mining development and regional development, the best
choices for mining investment in Iran were suggested.

Table 2. Ranking of Irans provinces based on mining development

using Taxonomy method.
No.
Province
Score
1
Kerman
0.605
2
Isfahan
0.412
3
Yazd
0.389
4
Khorasan
0.383
5
Fars
0.326
6
Tehran
0.285
7
Semnan
0.265
8
Eastern Azarbayejan
0.258
9
Mazandaran
0.234
10
Lorestan
0.226
11
Khuzestan
0.220
12
Markazi
0.202
13
Hamedan
0.197
14
Western Azarbayejan
0.182
15
Bushehr
0.174
16
Kordestan
0.170
17
Hormozgan
0.168
18
Zanjan
0.160
19
Ghom
0.156
20
Ghazvin
0.146
21
Golestan
0.145
22
Sistan va bluchestan
0.144
23
Gilan
0.144
24
Chaharmahal Va Bakvtiari
0.143
25
Ardabil
0.136
26
Ilam
0.130
27
Kermanshah
0.128
28
Kohkiloye Va Boirahmad
0.126
Table 3. Ranking of Irans provinces based on mining development by
AHP method.
No.
Provinces name
Score
Range
Region
1
Kerman
0.160
2
Yazd
0.099
0.04< Region 1
3
Isfahan
0.073
4
Khorasan
0.066
5
Fars
0.045
6
Mazandaran
0.037
7
Tehran
0.034
8
Semnan
0.034
0.02
9
Eastern Azarbayejan
0.027
Region 2
10
Lorestan
0.027
0.04
11
Zanjan
0.024
12
Markazi
0.024
13
Khuzestan
0.021
14
Hamedan
0.017
15
Hormozgan
0.016
16
Western Azarbayejan
0.015
0.01
17
Ghom
0.015
Region 3
18
Kordestan
0.013
0/.02
19
Bushehr
0.012
20
Golestan
0.012
21
Ghazvin
0.011
22
Gilan
0.009
23
Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari
0.007
24
Sistan va Baluchestan
0.006
25
Ardabil
0.005
<0/01 Region 4
26
Ilam
0.004
27
Kermanshah
0.004
28
Kohkiloyeh Va Boirahmad
0.004
CONCLUSION

Figure 2. The level of mining development in Iran's provinces and less

developed regions.
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SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 19 - 22, 2012, Seattle, WA
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Figure 3. Best regions for mining investment in Iran.

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