CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 1

CEMENT

M. Irfaan Mungroo
Civil Engineering Department
JSS ATE, Mauritius

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
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Cement

VTU SYLLABUS

Cement,
Chemical composition,
hydration of cement,
Types of cement,
manufacture of OPC by wet and dry process (flow charts only)
Testing of cement - Field testing, Fineness by sieve test and Blaine's air
permeability test, normal consistency, testing time, soundness,
Compression strength of cement and grades of cement,
Quality of mixing water.

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CEMENT
Cement can be defined in many ways as follows:
i.

It is any material that hardens and becomes strongly adhesive after application.

ii.

It is a manufactured substance consisting of gypsum plaster, or Portland cement.

iii.

It hardens and adheres after being mixed with water.

HISTORY OF CEMENT
The term Portland cement was first used in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, a British cement-maker,
because of the resemblance between concrete made from his cement and Portland stone, which
was commonly used in buildings in Britain.
At that time cements were usually made in upright kilns where the raw materials were spread
between layers of coke, which was then burnt.
The first rotary kilns were introduced about 1880. Portland cement is now almost universally used
for structural concrete.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist mainly of:
i)

Lime (CaO)

ii)

Silica (SiO2)

iii)

Alumina (Al2O3)

iv)

Iron oxide (Fe2O3)

Portland cement also contains small amount of:

i)

magnesia (MgO),

ii)

alkalies (Na2O and K2O)

iii)

sulfuric anhydrite (SO3).

These oxides interact with one another at high temperature to form more complex compounds.
The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are responsible for influencing the various
properties of cement in addition to the rate of cooling and fineness of grinding.

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Oxide

Name

% Content

CaO

Lime

60 67

SiO2

Silica

17 25

Al2O3

Alumina

38

Fe2O3

Iron Oxide

0.5 6

MgO

Magnesia

0.1 4

Na2O and K2O

Alkalies

0.4 1.3

SO3

Sulfuric anhydride

1.3 3.0

As mentioned earlier, the oxides present in the raw materials when subjected to high temperature
combine which each other to form complex compounds. The identification of the major compounds
is largely based on R.H Bogues work and hence it is called Bogues Compounds.
The four compounds usually regarded as major compounds are:
Name of compound

Formula

Abbreviated Formula

Tricalcium silicate

3CaO. SiO2

C3S

Dicalcium silicate

2CaO.SiO2

C2S

Tricalcium aluminate

3CaO.Al2O3

C3A

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite

4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

C4AF

It is to be noted that for simplicitys sake, abbreviated notations are used. C stands for CaO, S stands
for SiO2, A for Al2O3, F for Fe2O3 and H for H2O.
The equations suggested by Bogue for calculating the percentages of major compounds are given
below:
i.

C3S = 4.07(CaO)-7.6(SiO2)- 6.72(Al2O3)-1.43(Fe2O3 ) 2.85( SO3 )

ii.

C2S = 2.87 (SiO2) - 0.75(3CaO. SiO2)

iii.

C3A = 2.65(Al2O3) 1.69 (Fe2O3 )

iv.

C4AF = 3.04 (Fe2O3 )

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The oxide composition of a typical Portland Cement and the corresponding Composition are
calculated below:
For CaO = 63%, SiO2 = 20%, Al2O3 = 6%, Fe2O3 = 3%, MgO = 1.5%, SO3 = 2% and K2O and Na2O = 1%,
the calculated compound composition using Bogues equation are:
C3S = 54.1
C2S = 16.6
C3A = 10.8
C4AF = 9.1

HYDRATION OF CEMENT
When Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound constituents undergo a series of
chemical reactions that cause it to harden. This chemical reaction with water is called "hydration".
Each one of these reactions occurs at a different time and rate. Together, the results of these
reactions determine how Portland cement hardens and gains strength.
Hydration starts as soon as the cement and water are mixed. Each compound produces different
products when it hydrates.
a) Tricalcium silicate (C3S) hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial
set and early strength. Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher
early strength.
b) Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) hydrates and hardens the quickest. It liberates a large amount of
heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added to
Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause
Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.
c) Dicalcium silicate (C2S) hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for strength
increases beyond one week.
d) Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength.
Its use allows lower kiln temperatures in Portland cement manufacturing. Most Portland
cement color effects are due to C4AF.

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Compounds

Reaction Time

Strength

Heat Liberated

C3S

Moderate

High

High

C2S

Slow

Low initially, high later

Low

C3A

Fast

Low

Very High

C4AF

Moderate

Low

Moderate

HEAT OF HYDRATION
The reaction of cement with water is exothermic and liberates a considerable amount of heat. This
liberation of heat is called heat of hydration.
On mixing cement with water, a rapid heat evolution occurs lasting a few minutes. This is probably
due to the reaction of solution of aluminates and sulphates. This initial heat evolution ceases
quickly when the solubility of aluminate is depressed by gypsum.
Heat of hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C3S and C3A in the cement but it is also
influenced by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature.
For usual range of Protland cements, about 50% of the total heat is liberatedd between 1 and 3
days, about 75% in 7 days and nearly 90% in 6 months.
The table below shows the heat hydration of the four major compounds of cement.

Compound

Heat of hydration at the given age (cal/g)

3 days

90 days

13 years

C3F

58

104

122

C2F

12

42

59

C3A

212

311

324

C4AF

69

98

102

CALCIUM SILICATE HYDRATES

When C3S and C2S reacts with water, calcium silicate hydrate, (C-S-H) and Calcium
hydroxide Ca(OH)2 are formed.

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Calcium silicate hydrates are the most important products as they determine the good
properties of concrete.

They make up around 50 60 % of the volume of solids in a completed hydrated cement

paste.

The product of hydration of both C3S and C2S are the same.
2 (3CaO. SiO2) + 6 H2O 3 CaO. 2SiO2. 3H2O + 3 Ca (OH)2
2C3S + 6 H C3S2H3 + 3 Ca (OH)2

Or it can be written as
The corresponding weights are:

100 + 24 75

49

Similarly,
2 (2CaO. SiO2) + 4 H2O 3 CaO. 2SiO2. 3H2O + Ca (OH)2
Or it can be written as
The corresponding weights are:

2C2S + 4 H C3S2H3 + Ca (OH)2

100 + 21 99

22

C3S reacts readily with water and produces more heat on hydration. It is responsible for
early strength of concrete. A cement with more C3S content is better for cold weather
concreting. The quality and density of calcium silicate hydrate formed out of C3S is slightly
inferior to that formed by C2S.

C2S hydrates slowly. It is responsible for later strengths of concrete. It produces less heat of
hydration. The calcium silicate formed is rather dense and the quality of the product of C2S
is better than that produced in the hydration of C3S.

CALCIUM HYDROXIDE

The other product of hydration of C3S and C2S is calcium hydroxide Ca (OH)2. It constitutes
20 25 % of the volume of solids in the hydrated paste.

The presence of Ca (OH)2 affects the durability of concrete. It also reacts with sulphates
present in soils and water to form calcium sulphate with further reacts with C 3A and causes
deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack.

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To reduce the quantity of Ca (OH)2 in concrete and its bad effects, it is concerted into
cementitious product by using blending materials such as fly ash, silica fumes.

CALCIUM ALUMINATE HYDRATES

The reaction of pure C3A is very fast and this may lead to flash set. To prevent flash set,
Gypsum is added at the time of grinding.

Hydrates aluminates do not contribute to the strength of concrete.

Their presence is harmful to the durability of concrete especially where the concrete is
vulnerable to concrete attack.

On hydration, C4AF is believed to form a system of CaO Fe2O3 H2O.

The amount of gypsum added has significant bearing on the quantity of aluminate in the
cement. The maintenance of aluminate to sulphate ratio balances the normal setting
behaviour of cement.

TYPES OF CEMENT
The rapid increase in sophistication of design and construction techniques and the greater
attention to variations in regional and job conditions have created demand for modifications of
certain properties of concrete. This has resulted in the development of several "types" of Portland
cement and a greater use of concrete admixtures1.
The production of a different type of Portland cement involves certain adjustments in the
manufacturing process; mainly the selection of raw materials, chemical proportions, special
additives, and degree of grinding.
The following are the common types of cement:
TYPES OF CEMENT
Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC)
1

i)
ii)
iii)

OPC 33 Grade
OPC 43 Grade
OPC 53 Grade

INFORMATION

This is the most important type of cement.

It is classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43 grade and

53 grade depending upon the strength of the cement at 28 days
when tested.

Admixtures will be discussed in unit 4

If the 28 days strength is not less than 33 N/mm 2, it is called 33

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grade cement, if the 28 days strength is not less than 43 N/mm2,
it is called 43 grade cement and if the 28 days strength is not less
than 53 N/mm2, it is called 53 grade cement.

It is possible to upgrade the qualities of cement by using high

quality limestone, modern equipments, closer control of
constituents, better particle size distribution, finer grinding and
better packing.

The manufacture of OPC is decreasing all over the world due to

the popularity of blended cement on account of lower energy
consumption, environmental pollution, economic and other
technical reasons.

It is similar to Ordinary Portland Cement.

As the name suggests, it develops strength rapidly and hence, it is

also called high early strength cement.

Rapid hardening cement develops at the age of three days, the

same strength as that is expected of OPC at seven days.

The rapid rate of development of strength is attributed to the

higher fineness of grinding, higher C3S content and lower C2S
content.

A higher fineness of cement particles expose greater surface area

for action of water and also higher proportion of C3S results in

Rapid Hardening Cement

quicker hydration. As a result, rapid hardening cement gives out

much heat of hydration during the early period.

It is recommended for the following situations:

i)

Pre-fabricated concrete construction

ii)

Where formwork is to be removed early for re-use

elsewhere

iii)

Road repair works

iv)

In cold weather concrete where the rapid rate of

development of strength reduces the vulnerability of
concrete to frost damage.

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It is obtained by inter-grinding calcium chloride with rapid

hardening Portland cement.

The addition of calcium chloride should not exceed 2% by weight

of the rapid hardening cement.

Extra Rapid Hardening

Cement

It is necessary that the concrete made by using extra rapid

hardening cement should be transported, placed and compacted
and finished within about 20 minutes.

It is also necessary that this cement should not be stored for more
than a month.

Extra rapid hardening cement accelerates the setting and

hardening process.

OPC is susceptible to attack of sulphates, in particular magnesium

sulphate.

Sulphate reacts with free calcium hydroxide to form calcium

sulpahte and with hydrate of calcium aluminate to form calcium
sulphoaluminate.

The expansion of these products within the cement paste tends to

cause cracks and disruption.

Sulphate Resisting
Cement

To remedy the sulphate attack, the use of cement with low C3A
content is found to be effective.

Such cement with low C3A and low C4AF content is known as
sulphate resisting cement. It usually has a high silicate content.

The use of sulphate resisting cement is recommended for:

i)

Concrete used in marine condition

ii)

Concrete used in foundation and basement where soil is

infested with sulphates

iii)

Concrete used to fabricate pipes which will be buried in

marshy regions or sulphate bearing soils

iv)

Concrete to be used in sewage treatment works

Portland slag cement is obtained by mixing portland cement

lumps (clinkers), gypsum and granulated blast furnace slag in

Portland Slag Cement

suitable proportions and grinding the mixture to get a thorough

mixture.

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The result is a cement which has physical properties similar to

those of OPC but in addition, it has a low heat of hydration and is
more resistant to chlorides, soils and water containing excessive
amount of sulphates or alkali metals and acidic water.

As the name suggests, this cement sets very early.

This early setting time is brought about by reducing the gypsum

content at the time of lump (clinker) grinding.

Quick Setting Cement

This cement requires to be mixed, placed and compacted very

early.

It is used mostly in under water construction where pumping is

involved as this cement reduces the pumping time and makes it
more economical.

This is manufactured by grinding together a mixture of 80 - 85%

granulated slag, 10 - 15 % hard burnt gypsum and about 5%
portland cement clinker.

Super Sulphated Cement

The product is a cement finer than OPC.

It has a low heat of hydration and a high sulphate resistance.

Hence it is used in marine works, foundations, etc..

When cement reacts with water, heat of hydration is released.

This heat can cause formation of cracks in large concrete bodies
(dams). Hence a type of cement was produced which produces
less amount of heat

Low Heat Cement

This is achieved by increasing C2S reducing the C3S and C3A

content as these two compounds release maximum heat.

This cement will have a lower heat of hydration, hence a lower

hardening process and therefore, has a low rate of gain of
strength.

Portland Pozzolana Cement is obtained by grinding OPC clinkers

with 10 15 % of pozzolanic materials.

Portland Pozzolana
Cement

A pozzolanic material is essentially a silicious or aluminous

material which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
water, react with calcium hydroxide liberated in the hydration

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process, at ordinary temperature, to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.

Pozzolanic materials usually used are calcined clay or fly ash.

Fly ash is a waste material, generated in thermal power station

when powdered coal is used as fuel.

Portland pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and

offers greater resistance to attack of aggressive waters than OPC.

It is useful in marine and hydraulic construction.

This cement is made by mixing a small amount of an airentraining agent with ordinary Portland cement clinker at the
time of grinding.

10

Air Entraining Cement

It will modify the properties of plastic concrete with respect to

workability, segregation and bleeding and will modify the
properties of hardened concrete with respect to its resistance to
frost action.

Coloured cement consists of Portland cement with 5 10 % of

pigment.

The cement and pigment are grinded together for better

distribution of the pigment in the cement.

11

Coloured Cement: White

Cement

The pigment must be such that the coloured cement produced

from it should be durable in terms of colour under exposure to
light and weather.

The process of manufacturing white Portland cement is similar to

that of OPC.

The raw materials used are high purity limestone, china clay and
silica sand.

Other types of cement which are not covered are:

1. Hydrophobic Cement
2. Masonry Cement
3. Expansive Cement
4. Oil Well Cement
5. Rediset Cement

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6. Concrete Sleeper Grade Cement

7. High Alumina Cement
8. Very High Strength Cement

MANUFACTURE OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

The raw materials needed for the manufacture of Portland cement are calcareous
materials such as limestone or chalk and argillaceous material such as shale or clay.

The main process of manufacture of cement consists of:

i.

grinding the raw materials,

ii.

mixing them intimately in certain proportions,

iii.

burning them in a kiln2 at a temperature of about 13300 to 1500 0C at which the

material partially fuses to form nodular shaped clinker,

iv.

cooling the clinker and grinding to fine powder with addition of about 3 5 %
gypsum.

There are two processes known as wet and dry processes depending on whether the mixing
and grinding of raw materials is done in wet or dry conditions.

WET PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF OPC

1) Limestone brought from quarries is first crushed to smaller fragments.
2) These fragments are taken to a ball mill where it is mixed with clay or shale and ground to a
fine consistency of slurry (paste) with the addition of water.

It is a long cylinder rotating about its axis once every minute or two. The axis is inclined at a slight angle, the
end with the burner being lower. The rotation causes the raw material to gradually pass along from where it
enters at the cool end, to the hot end where it eventually drops out and cools.
2

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3) The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency with water content of around 35 50 %.

4) The slurry is pumped to slurry tanks or basins where it is kept in an agitated condition by
means of rotating arms with chains or blowing compressed air from the bottom to prevent
settling of the limestone and clay particles.
5) The composition of the slurry is tested to give the required chemical composition and
corrected if needed in the tube mill or in the slurry tank.
6) The corrected slurry is then sprayed on to the upper end of a rotary kiln against hot heavy
hanging chains.

7) The rotary kiln is a thick steel cylinder of diameter ranging from 3m to 8m, lined with
refractory materials, mounted on rollers and capable of rotating on its own axis.
8) When the slurry is sprayed on the hot surface of the flexible chains, it loses moisture and
becomes flakes. These flakes peel off and fall on the floor.
9) The rotation of the rotary kiln causes the flakes to move from the upper end towards the
lower end of the kiln subjecting itself to higher and higher temperature.
10) In the hottest part of the kiln, the raw materials get combined to form small masses of size 3
20 mm known as clinkers.
11) The clinker drops into a rotary cooler where it is cooled under controlled conditions and is
stored in silos and bins.
12) The cooled clinker is then ground in a ball mill with the addition of 3 5 % gypsum to
prevent flash setting of the cement.
13) The particles are crushed to the required fineness, separated by currents of air and stored
in storage silos where the cement is bagged or filled in barrels.

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DRY PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF OPC

1) In the dry process, the raw materials are crushed dry and fed in proportions into a grinding
mill where they are crushed to a very fine powder.
2) The dry powder, called the raw meal is then further blended and corrected to its right
composition and mixed by means of compressed air.
3) The blended meal is further sieved and feed into a rotating disc, called granular, whereby a
quantity of water (about 12% by weight) is added to make the blended meal into pellets.
This is done to allow flow of air for heating into the rotary kiln.
4) The dry process kiln is smaller and the process is quite economical as compared to wet
process.
5) The remaining procedures are similar to that of wet process.

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TESTING OF CEMENT
Testing of cement can be divided into two categories:
i)

Field Testing

ii)

Laboratory Testing

1) FIELD TESTING
It is sufficient to subject the cement to field tests when it is used for minor works. The following are
the field tests:
a) Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not be any visible lumps and
the colour of the cement should normally be greenish grey.
b) Thrust your hand into the bag. It must give you a cool feeling and there should not be any
lump inside.

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c) Take a pinch of cement and feel between the fingers. It should give a smooth and not gritty
feeling.
d) Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water. The particles should float
for some time before they sink.
e) Take about 100g of cement and a small quantity of water and make a stiff paste. From the
stiff paste, pat a cake with sharp edges. Put it on a glass plate and slowly take it under water
in a bucket. See that the shape of the cake is not disturbed while taking it down the bottom
of the bucket. After some 24 hours, the cake should retain its original shape and at the same
time, it should also set and gain some strength.
If a sample of cement satisfies the above field tests, it may be concluded that the cement is not bad.
2) LAB TESTING
The following tests are usually conducted in the lab:
a) Fineness test
b) Consistency test
c) Setting time test
d) Strength Test
e) Soundness test

1. FINENESS TEST
Theory
The fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of hydration and hence, the rate of
gain of strength. Finer cement offers greater surface area for hydration and hence, faster
development of strength. The disadvantage of fine grinding is that it is susceptible to early
deterioration.
Test
Fineness of cement is tested in two ways:
i)

By sieving

ii)

By determining the specific surface Baines air permeability test

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a) Sieve Test
-

Weigh correctly 100g of cement and take it on a 90 microns (0.09 mm) standard sieve. (1
micron = 0.001 mm)

Break down any lumps in the sample with the fingers.

Continuously sieve the sample giving circular and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes.

Mechanical sieve devices may also be used.

Weigh the residue left on the sieve.

The weight shall rarely exceed 10% for ordinary cement.

Sieve test is rarely used.

b) Baines Air Permeability Test

-

Blaines air permeability apparatus consists essentially of a means of drawing a definite

quantity of air through a prepared bed of cement of definite porosity. The fineness is expressed
as a total surface area in cm2/g.

The procedures consists of 4 steps:

i)

Determination of the density of cement

ii)

Determination of the bed volume

Apply a very thin film of light mineral oil to the cell interior. Place the perforated disc on the
ledge in cell. Place two new filter paper discs on the perforated disc.

Fill the cell with mercury. Level the mercury to the top of the cell with a glass plate.

Remove the mercury from cell and it, M1.

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Cement

Remove the top filter paper from the permeability cell and compress a trial quantity of 2.80 g of
cement into the space above filter paper to the gauge line in the cell. Place the other filter paper
above the cement bed.

Fill the remaining space in the cell above the filter paper with mercury. Level the mercury to the
top of the cell with a glass plate and remove mercury from the cell and weigh it, M2.

Calculate the volume occupied by the cement bed in the cell from the following equation.
V = (M1-M2)/D,
Where D = Density of mercury (13.54 g/cm3)

Average at least two volume determinations that agree to within 0.005cm3 and record this
value.
iii)

Determination of apparatus constant

- Take an amount (W) of standard cement so as to give the cement bed of porosity e=0.500.
W = (1-e)V or W = 0.500V
-

Place the perforated disc on the ledge at the bottom of the cell and place on it a new filter paper
disc. Place the weighed quantity of standard cement, W, in the cell taking care to avoid loss.

Tap the cell to level the cement. Place a second new filter paper disc on the leveled cement.

Compress the cement with the plunger until the plunger collar is in contact with the top of the
cell. Slowly withdraw the plunger a short distance, rotate 900, repress the cement bed, and then
slowly withdraw.

Attach the permeability cell to the manometer tube with an air tight connection and slowly
evacuate the air in the manometer U-tube until the liquid reaches the top mark, then tightly
close the valve.

Start the timer when the bottom of the meniscus reaches next to the top mark and stop the
timer when the bottom of the meniscus reaches the bottom mark. Record the time t and temp.
of the test.

Repeat the whole procedure on two further samples of the same reference cement. Calculate
the average time of the three determinations. Then calculate the apparatus constant using the
formula given below.

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Where,
K=Apparatus constant
S0=Specific surface of reference cement
0=Density of reference cement
t0=Mean of three measured times
0=Air viscosity at the mean of the three temperatures.
iv)
-

Determination of fineness

Repeat the steps (1 to 6) as done in determination of apparatus constant, but this time using the
cement whose fineness is to be calculated.

Calculate fineness of cement using following formula.

Where,
S = Specific surface area
K = Apparatus constant
= Density of cement
t = Time

2. CONSISTENCY TEST
-

To find out the initial setting time, final setting time, soundness and strength of cement, a
parameter known as standard consistency has to be used.

The consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will allow a Vicat
plunger having 10 mm diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate to a depth of 33 35 mm from
the top of a mould.

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The apparatus is used to find out the % of water required to produce a cement paste of
standard consistency. The standard consistency is also called the normal consistency.

The following procedures are adopted:

i)

Take about 500 g of cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity of water
(about 24% by weight of cement) for the first trial.

ii)

The paste must be prepared in a standard manner and filled into the Vicat mould within
3 5 minutes.

iii)

After completely filling the mould, shake the mould to expel air.

iv)

A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and brought down to

touch the surface of the cement paste in the mould and quickly released, allowing it to
sink into the paste by its own weight.

v)

Take the reading by noting the depth of penetration of the plunger.

vi)

Conduct a 2nd trial (about 25% of water) and find out the depth of penetration of the
plunger.

vii)

Similarly, conduct trials with higher and higher water/cement ratio until the
penetration of the plunger reaches 33 35 mm.

viii)

That particular % of water which allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 3335 mm is known as the % of water needed to produce a cement paste of standard
consistency.

ix)

This percentage is usually denoted by P

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x)

The test is required to be conducted at a constant temperature of 27oC 2 oC and

constant humidity (90%)

3. Setting Time
The setting time of cement has been divided into initial setting time and final setting time.
The initial setting time of cement is regarded as the time elapsed between the moment that water is
added to the cement to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity.
The final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment water is added to the cement and the
time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient firmness to resist
certain definite pressure.

The Vicat apparatus used for the consistency test is used for the setting time test as well. The
following procedures are adopted:
i.

Take 500g of cement sample and mix it with 0.85 times the water required to produce
cement paste of standard consistency. (0.85 P)

ii.

The paste should be put into the Vicat mould in specified manner within 3 5 minutes.

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iii.

Start the stop watch the moment water is added to the cement. The temp. of water and
that of the room shall be within 27oC 2 oC.

Initial Setting Time

iv.

Lower the needle gently and bring it in contact with the surface of the test block and
quickly release. Allow it to penetrate into the test block.

v.

In the beginning, the needle will completely pierce through the test block. But after
some time, when the paste starts losing its plasticity, the needle may penetrate only to a
depth of 33 35 mm from the top.

vi.

The period elapsing between the time when water is added to the cement and the time
at which the needle penetrates the test block to a depth equal to 33 35 mm from the
top is taken as initial setting time.

Final Setting Time

vii.

Replace the needle of the Vicat apparatus by a circular attachment.

viii.

The cement shall be considered as finally set when, upon lowering, the attachment
gently covers the surface of the test block, the centre needle makes an impression while
the circular cutting edge of the attachment fails to do so.

ix.

In other words, the paste has attained such hardness that the centre needle does not
pierce through the paste more than 0.5mm.

4. STRENGTH TEST

The compressive strength of concrete is the most important properties.

Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties of excessive
shrinkage and subsequent cracking of neat cement.

The strength of cement is found on cement sand mortar in specific proportions.

Procedures:
i.

Take 555g of standard sand, 185 g of cement (cement to sand ratio is 1:3) in a nonporous enamel tray and mix them with a trowel for one minute, then add water of
quantity (0.25P + 3.0) % of combined weight of cement and sand and mix the three
ingredients until the mixture is uniform in colour.

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ii.

The time of mixing should not be less than 3 mins nor more than 4 mins.

iii.

Immediately after mixing, the mortar is filled into a cube mould of size 7.06 cm. The
area of the face of the cube will be equal to 50 cm2

iv.

Compact the mortar either by hand compaction in a standard manner or on a vibrating

equipment for 2 mins.

v.

Keep the compacted mould at a temperature of 27oC 2 oC and at least 90% relative
humidity for 24 hours.

vi.

After 24 hours, the cubes are removed from the mould and immersed in clean fresh
water until taken out for testing.

vii.

Three cubes are tested for compressive strength at 3, 7 and 28 days, the periods being
reckoned from the completion of vibration.

viii.

The compressive strength shall be the minimum force at which the cement cubes break
at 28 days.

5. SOUNDNESS TEST
The testing of soundness of cement is to ensure that the cement does not show any appreciable
subsequent expansion, else this will cause serious difficulties to the durability of the cement
structures.
The unsoundness of cement is due to the presence of excess lime, excess magnesia or excessive
proportion of sulphates.
Le chatelier apparatus is used to find the soundness of cement.

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Le Chatelier apparatus consists of a small split cylinder of spring brass or other suitable
metal. It is 30 mm in diameter and 30 mm high.

On either side of the split are attached two indicator arms 165 mm long with pointed ends.

Cement is mixed with 0.78 times the water needed for standard consistency (0.78 P) in a
standard manner and filled into the mould.

The mould is covered by glass plates both on top and bottom.

The whole assembly is immersed in water and a temperature of 27oC - 32oC and kept there
for 24 hours.

After this period of time, the distance between the indicator points are measured.

The mould is then submerged again in water.

The water is heated and brought to boiling point in about 25 30 minutes and is kept
boiling for 3 hours.

The mould is then removed from the water, allowed to cool and the distance between the
indicators is again measured.

The difference between these two measurements represents the expansion of cement.

This must not exceed 10 mm for OPC. If it exceeds, then the cement is unsound.

QUALITY OF MIXING WATER

Purpose of water
Water serves the following purposes in cement or concrete:
1. To wet the surface of aggregates to develop adhesion because the cement pastes adheres
quickly and satisfactory to the wet surface of the aggregates than to a dry surface.
2. To prepare a plastic mixture of the various ingredients and to impart workability to
concrete to facilitate placing in the desired position.

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3. Water is also needed for the hydration of the cementing materials to set and harden during
the period of curing.
Besides its quantity, the quality of mixing water used in concrete has important effects on fresh
concrete properties, such as setting time and workability; it also has important effects on the
strength and durability of hardened concrete.
Potable water as mixing water:

The common specifications regarding quality of mixing water is water should be fit for drinking.
Such water should have inorganic solid less than 1000 ppm (parts per million). This content
leads to a solid quantity of 0.05% of mass of cement and w/c (water / cement) ratio is 0.5,
resulting in small effect on strength.

But some water which are not potable may be used in making concrete with any significant
effect.

Dark colour or bad smell water may be used if they do not possess deleterious substances.

The PH of water to even 9 is allowed if it not tastes brackish.

Quality Parameters

Maximum Limit (PPM)

Chlorides

500

SO3

1000

Alkali Carbonates and Bicarbonates

1000

Turbidity

2000

Determination of Suitability of Mixing Water:

A simple way of determining the suitability of such water is to compare the setting time of
cement and the strength of mortar cubes using the water in question with the corresponding
results obtained using known suitable or distilled water.

About 10% tolerance is generally allowed.

Such tests are recommended when water for which no service record is available containing
dissolved solids in excess of 2000 ppm or, in excess of 1000 ppm.

When unusual solids are present a test is also advisable.